What are the blood types? Characteristics of people with rare blood types

Types of blood groups:

There are 4 blood groups: OI, AII, BIII, ABIV. Group characteristics of human blood are constant sign, are inherited, arise in prenatal period and do not change during life or under the influence of disease.

It was found that the agglutination reaction occurs when antigens of one blood group (they are called agglutinogens), which are found in red blood cells - erythrocytes, stick together with antibodies of another group (they are called agglutinins) that are found in plasma - the liquid part of the blood. The division of blood according to the AB0 system into four groups is based on the fact that the blood may or may not contain antigens (agglutinogens) A and B, as well as antibodies (agglutinins) α (alpha or anti-A) and β (beta or anti-B) .

First blood group - 0 (I)

Group I - does not contain agglutinogens (antigens), but contains agglutinins (antibodies) α and β. It is designated 0 (I). Since this group does not contain foreign particles (antigens), it can be transfused to all people. A person with this blood type is a universal donor.

It is believed that this is the most ancient blood group or group of “hunters”, which arose 60,000 - 40,000 BC, during the era of Neanderthals and Cro-Magnons, who only knew how to gather food and hunt. People with the first blood group have leadership qualities.

Second blood group A β (II)

Group II contains agglutinogen (antigen) A and agglutinin β (antibodies to agglutinogen B). Therefore, it can be transfused only to those groups that do not contain antigen B - these are groups I and II.

This group appeared later than the first, between 25,000 and 15,000 BC, when man began to master agriculture. There are especially many people with the second blood group in Europe. It is believed that people with this blood type are also prone to leadership, but are more flexible in communicating with others than people with the first blood group.

Third blood group Bα (III)

Group III contains agglutinogen (antigen) B and agglutinin α (antibodies to agglutinogen A). Therefore, it can be transfused only to those groups that do not contain antigen A - this is I and Group III.

The third group appeared around 15,000 BC, when humans began to populate the colder regions to the north. This blood group first appeared in the Mongoloid race. Over time, the group's carriers began to move to the European continent. And today there are a lot of people with such blood in Asia and Eastern Europe. People with this blood type are usually patient and very efficient.

Fourth blood group AB0 (IV)

Blood group IV contains agglutinogens (antigens) A and B, but contains agglutinins (antibodies). Therefore, it can only be transfused to those who have the same, fourth blood group. But, since there are no antibodies in the blood of such people that can stick together with antibodies introduced from outside, they can be transfused with blood of any group. People with blood group IV are universal recipients.

The fourth group is the newest of the four groups human blood. It appeared less than 1000 years ago as a result of the mixing of Indo-Europeans, carriers of group I, and Mongoloids, carriers of group III. It is rare.

Blood type There are no OI agglutinogens, both agglutinins are present, the serological formula of this group is OI; blood of group AN contains agglutinogen A and agglutinin beta, serological formula - AII; blood of group VS contains agglutinogen B and agglutinin alpha, serological formula - BIII; blood of the ABIV group contains agglutinogens A and B, there are no agglutinins, the serological formula is ABIV.

Under agglutination we mean the sticking of red blood cells and their destruction. “Agglutination (late Latin word aglutinatio - gluing) - gluing and precipitation of corpuscular particles - bacteria, erythrocytes, platelets, tissue cells, corpuscular chemically active particles with antigens or antibodies adsorbed on them, suspended in an electrolyte environment"

Blood group(phenotype) is inherited according to the laws of genetics and is determined by a set of genes (genotype) obtained with the maternal and paternal chromosome. A person can only have those blood antigens that his parents have. Inheritance of blood groups according to the ABO system is determined by three genes - A, B and O. Each chromosome can have only one gene, so the child receives only two genes from the parents (one from the mother, the other from the father), which cause the appearance of two genes in red blood cells ABO system antigens. In Fig. Figure 2 shows a diagram of the inheritance of blood groups according to the ABO system.

Blood antigens appear in the 2-3rd month of intrauterine life and are well defined by the birth of the child. Natural antibodies are detected from the 3rd month after birth and reach their maximum titer by 5-10 years.

Blood group inheritance scheme according to the ABO system

It may seem strange that blood type can determine how well the body absorbs certain foods, however, medicine confirms the fact that there are diseases that are most often found in people of a certain blood type.

The blood group nutrition method was developed by the American doctor Peter D'Adamo. According to his theory, the digestibility of food and the effectiveness of its use by the body are directly related to genetic characteristics a person with his blood type. For normal functioning of the immune and digestive systems, a person needs to eat foods that match his blood type. In other words, those products that are ancient times his ancestors ate. Excluding substances incompatible with blood from the diet reduces slagging in the body and improves the functioning of internal organs.

Types of activities depending on blood types

The results of the study of blood groups thus stand among other evidence of “consanguinity” and once again confirm the thesis about the common origin of the human race.

Various groups appeared in humans as a result of mutations. Mutation is a spontaneous change in hereditary material that decisively affects the ability of a living being to survive. Man as a whole is the result of countless mutations. The fact that man still exists shows that at all times he has been able to adapt to environment and give offspring. The formation of blood groups also occurred in the form of mutations and natural selection.

The emergence of racial differences is associated with advances in production achieved during the Middle and New Stone Ages (Mesolithic and Neolithic); these successes made possible the widespread territorial settlement of people across various climatic zones. Various climatic conditions thus influenced various groups people, changing them directly or indirectly and influencing a person’s ability to work. Social labor acquired more and more weight in comparison with natural conditions, and each race was formed in a limited area, under the specific influence of natural and social conditions. Thus, the interweaving of the relative strengths and weaknesses of the development of material culture of that time revealed the emergence of racial differences between people in conditions when the environment dominated the person.

Since the Stone Age, further advances in manufacturing have freed humans to a certain extent from the direct influence of the environment. They mixed and roamed together. That's why modern conditions lives often no longer have any connection with the various racial constitutions of human groups. In addition, adaptation to environmental conditions, discussed above, was indirect in many respects. The direct consequences of adaptation to the environment led to further modifications, which were both morphologically and physiologically related to the first. The cause of the emergence of racial characteristics should, therefore, be sought only indirectly in external environment or in human activity in the production process.

Blood type I (0) - hunter

Evolution of digestive systems and immune defense organism lasted several tens of thousands of years. About 40,000 years ago, at the beginning of the Upper Paleolithic, Neanderthals gave way to fossil types modern man. The most common of these was the Cro-Magnon (from the name of the Cro-Magnon grotto in the Dordogne, Southern France), distinguished by pronounced Caucasian features. As a matter of fact, in the Upper Paleolithic era, all three modern large races arose: Caucasoid, Negroid and Mongoloid. According to the theory of the Pole Ludwik Hirszfeld, fossil people of all three races had the same blood type - 0 (I), and all other blood groups were separated through mutation from the “first blood” of our primitive ancestors. Cro-Magnons perfected the collective methods of hunting mammoths and cave bears, known to their Neanderthal predecessors. Over time, man became the smartest and most dangerous predator in nature. The main source of energy for Cro-Magnon hunters was meat, that is animal protein. The digestive tract of the Cro-Magnon man was in the best possible way adapted to digest huge amounts of meat - that’s why modern humans have type 0 acidity gastric juice slightly higher than in people with other blood groups. Cro-Magnons had a strong and resilient immune system, which allowed them to easily cope with almost any infection. While the average lifespan of Neanderthals averaged twenty-one years, Cro-Magnons lived significantly longer. In the harsh conditions of primitive life, only the strongest and most active individuals could and did survive. In each of the blood groups, it is encoded at the gene level vital information about the lifestyle of our ancestors, including muscular activity and, for example, type of nutrition. This is why modern carriers of blood type 0 (I) (currently up to 40% of the world's population belong to type 0) prefer to engage in aggressive and extreme sports!

Blood type II (A) - agrarian (farmer)

Towards the end ice age The Paleolithic era was replaced by the Mesolithic. The so-called “Middle Stone Age” lasted from the 14th-12th to the 6th-5th millennia BC. Population growth and the inevitable extermination of large animals led to the fact that hunting could no longer feed people. Another crisis in history human civilization contributed to the development of agriculture and the transition to permanent settlement. Global changes in lifestyle and, as a consequence, type of nutrition entailed the further evolution of the digestive and immune systems. And again the fittest survived. In conditions of overcrowding and living in an agricultural community, only those whose immune apparatus was able to cope with infections characteristic of a communal lifestyle could survive. Along with further restructuring digestive tract, when the main source of energy became not animal, but plant protein, all this led to the emergence of the “agrarian-vegetarian” blood group A (II). The great migration of Indo-European peoples to Europe led to the fact that currently Western Europe Type A people predominate. Unlike aggressive “hunters,” those with blood type A (II) are more adapted to survive in densely populated regions. Over time, the A gene became, if not a sign of a typical city dweller, then a guarantee of survival during epidemics of plague and cholera, which at one time wiped out half of Europe (according to the latest research by European immunologists, after medieval pandemics it was mainly A-type people who survived). The ability and need to coexist with others like oneself, less aggressiveness, greater contact, that is, everything that we call socio-psychological stability of the individual, is inherent in the owners of blood group A (II), again at the gene level. This is why A-type people overwhelmingly prefer to engage in intellectual species sports, and when choosing one of the styles of martial arts, they will give preference not to karate, but, say, aikido.

Blood type III(B) - barbarian (nomad)

It is believed that the ancestral home of the group B gene is in the foothills of the Western Himalayas in what is now India and Pakistan. The migration of agricultural and pastoral tribes from East Africa and the expansion of warlike Mongoloid nomads to the north and northeast of Europe led to the widespread spread and penetration of the B gene into many, primarily Eastern European, populations. The domestication of the horse and the invention of the cart made the nomads especially mobile, and the colossal population size, even at that time, allowed them to dominate the vast steppes of Eurasia from Mongolia and the Urals to present-day East Germany for many millennia. The method of production cultivated for centuries, mainly cattle breeding, predetermined a special evolution not only digestive system(unlike 0- and A-types, milk and dairy products are considered no less important for B-type people than meat products), but also psychology. Harsh climatic conditions left a special imprint on the Asian character. Patience, determination and equanimity are considered almost the main virtues in the East until today. Apparently, this can explain the outstanding success of Asians in some moderate-intensity sports that require the development of special endurance, for example, badminton or table tennis.

Blood type IV (AB) - mixed (modern)

Blood group AB (IV) arose as a result of the mixing of Indo-Europeans - owners of the A gene and barbarian nomads - carriers of the B gene. To date, only 6% of Europeans have been registered with blood group AB, which is considered the youngest in the ABO system. Geochemical analysis of bone remains from various burials in the area modern Europe convincingly proves: back in the 8th-9th centuries AD, mass mixing of groups A and B did not occur, and the first any serious contacts between representatives of the above-mentioned groups took place during the period of mass migration from the East to Central Europe and dates back to the X-XI centuries. The unique blood group AB (IV) lies in the fact that its carriers have inherited the immunological resistance of both groups. AB type is extremely resistant to various types of autoimmune and allergic diseases However, some hematologists and immunologists believe that mixed marriage increases the predisposition of AB-type people to a number of oncological diseases(if parents are A-B types, then the probability of having a child with AB blood group is approximately 25%). A mixed blood type is also characterized by a mixed type of diet, with the “barbarian” component requiring meat, and the “agrarian” roots and low acidity requiring vegetarian dishes! The reaction to stress of the AB type is similar to that demonstrated by those with blood type A, so their sports preferences, in principle, coincide, that is, they usually achieve the greatest success in intellectual and meditative sports, as well as in swimming and mountaineering and cycling.

If you are interested in the relationship between blood groups and body characteristics, we recommend that you read the article.

Functions. Blood groups are genetically inherited characteristics that do not change during life under natural conditions. A blood group is a specific combination of surface antigens of erythrocytes (agglutinogens) of the ABO system. Definition group affiliation widely used in clinical practice during transfusion of blood and its components, in gynecology and obstetrics during planning and management of pregnancy. The AB0 blood group system is the main system that determines the compatibility and incompatibility of transfused blood, because its constituent antigens are the most immunogenic. A feature of the AB0 system is that in the plasma of non-immune people there are natural antibodies to an antigen that is absent on red blood cells. The AB0 blood group system consists of two group erythrocyte agglutinogens (A and B) and two corresponding antibodies - plasma agglutinins alpha (anti-A) and beta (anti-B). Various combinations antigens and antibodies form 4 blood groups:

• Group 0(I) - there are no group agglutinogens on red blood cells, alpha and beta agglutinins are present in the plasma.
• Group A (II) - red blood cells contain only agglutinogen A, agglutinin beta is present in the plasma;
• Group B (III) - red blood cells contain only agglutinogen B, plasma contains agglutinin alpha;
• Group AB (IV) - antigens A and B are present on red blood cells, plasma does not contain agglutinins.

Determination of blood groups is carried out by identifying specific antigens and antibodies (double method, or cross reaction).

Blood incompatibility is observed if the red blood cells of one blood carry agglutinogens (A or B), and the plasma of another blood contains the corresponding agglutinins (alpha or beta), and an agglutination reaction occurs.

Transfusion of red blood cells, plasma and especially whole blood from a donor to a recipient must be strictly observed in group compatibility. To avoid incompatibility between the blood of the donor and the recipient, it is necessary laboratory methods accurately determine their blood types. It is best to transfuse blood, red blood cells and plasma of the same group as determined for the recipient. In emergency cases, group 0 red blood cells (but not whole blood!) can be transfused into recipients with other blood groups; Group A red blood cells can be transfused into recipients with blood group A and AB, and red blood cells from a group B donor can be transfused into group B and AB recipients.

Blood group compatibility cards (agglutination is indicated by a + sign):

Donor blood	Recipient's blood

Donor's red blood cells	Recipient's blood

Group agglutinogens are found in the stroma and membrane of erythrocytes. Antigens of the ABO system are detected not only on red blood cells, but also on cells of other tissues or can even be dissolved in saliva and other body fluids. They develop on early stages intrauterine development, and in the newborn are already present in significant quantities. The blood of newborn children has age-related characteristics - characteristic group agglutinins may not yet be present in the plasma, which begin to be produced later (constantly detected after 10 months) and the determination of the blood group in newborns in this case is carried out only by the presence of antigens of the ABO system.

In addition to situations involving the need for blood transfusion, determination of blood type, Rh factor, and the presence of alloimmune anti-erythrocyte antibodies should be carried out during planning or during pregnancy to identify the likelihood of an immunological conflict between mother and child, which can lead to hemolytic disease of the newborn.

Hemolytic disease of the newborn

Hemolytic jaundice of newborns, caused by an immunological conflict between mother and fetus due to incompatibility of erythrocyte antigens. The disease is caused by incompatibility of the fetus and mother for D-Rhesus or ABO antigens, less often there is incompatibility for other Rhesus (C, E, c, d, e) or M-, M-, Kell-, Duffy-, Kidd- antigens. Any of these antigens (usually D-Rh antigen), penetrating into the blood of a Rh-negative mother, causes the formation of specific antibodies in her body. The latter enter the fetal blood through the placenta, where they destroy the corresponding antigen-containing red blood cells. Predispose to the development of hemolytic disease of the newborn by impaired placental permeability, repeated pregnancies and blood transfusions to a woman without taking into account the Rh factor, etc. When early manifestation diseases immunological conflict may be the cause premature birth or miscarriages.

There are varieties (weak variants) of antigen A (to a greater extent) and less frequently of antigen B. As for antigen A, there are options: “strong” A1 (more than 80%), weak A2 (less than 20%), and even weaker ones (A3 , A4, Ah - rarely). This theoretical concept is important for blood transfusion and can cause accidents when assigning donor A2 (II) to group 0 (I) or donor A2B (IV) to group B (III), since the weak form of antigen A sometimes causes errors in the determination blood groups of the ABO system. Correct definition weak variants of antigen A may require repeated testing with specific reagents.

Decrease or complete absence natural agglutinins alpha and beta are sometimes noted in immunodeficiency states:

• neoplasms and blood diseases - Hodgkin's disease, multiple myeloma, chronic lymphatic leukemia;
• congenital hypo- and agammaglobulinemia;
• in children early age and in the elderly;
• immunosuppressive therapy;
• severe infections.

Difficulties in determining the blood group due to suppression of the hemagglutination reaction also arise after the introduction of plasma substitutes, blood transfusion, transplantation, septicemia, etc.

Inheritance of blood groups

The patterns of inheritance of blood groups are based on the following concepts. There are three possible variants (alleles) at the ABO gene locus - 0, A and B, which are expressed in an autosomal codominant manner. This means that individuals who have inherited genes A and B express the products of both of these genes, resulting in the AB (IV) phenotype. Phenotype A (II) can be present in a person who has inherited from parents either two genes A, or genes A and 0. Accordingly, phenotype B (III) - when inheriting either two genes B, or B and 0. Phenotype 0 (I) appears when inheritance of two genes 0. Thus, if both parents have blood group II (genotypes AA or A0), one of their children may have the first group (genotype 00). If one of the parents has blood type A(II) with a possible genotype AA and A0, and the other has B(III) with a possible genotype BB or B0, children can have blood groups 0(I), A(II), B(III) ) or AB (!V).

• Hemolytic disease of newborns (detection of incompatibility between the blood of mother and fetus according to the AB0 system);
• Preoperative preparation;
• Pregnancy (preparation and follow-up of pregnant women with negative Rh factor)

Preparation for the study: not required

If necessary (detection of the A2 subtype), additional testing is carried out using specific reagents.

Execution time: 1 day

Research result:

• 0 (I) - first group,
• A (II) - second group,
• B (III) - third group,
• AB (IV) - fourth blood group.

When subtypes (weak variants) of group antigens are identified, the result is given with an appropriate comment, for example, “a weakened variant A2 has been identified, individual selection of blood is required.”

Rh factor Rh

The main surface erythrocyte antigen of the Rh system, by which a person’s Rh status is assessed.

Functions. Rh antigen is one of the erythrocyte antigens of the Rh system, located on the surface of erythrocytes. There are 5 main antigens in the Rh system. The main (most immunogenic) antigen is Rh (D), which is usually referred to as the Rh factor. The red blood cells of approximately 85% of people carry this protein, so they are classified as Rh positive (positive). 15% of people do not have it and are Rh negative (Rh negative). The presence of the Rh factor does not depend on group membership according to the AB0 system, does not change throughout life, and does not depend on external reasons. It appears in the early stages of intrauterine development, and is already found in a significant amount in the newborn. Determination of Rh blood is used in general clinical practice during transfusion of blood and its components, as well as in gynecology and obstetrics when planning and managing pregnancy.

Incompatibility of blood according to the Rh factor (Rh conflict) during blood transfusion is observed if the donor's red blood cells carry Rh agglutinogen, and the recipient is Rh negative. In this case, the Rh-negative recipient begins to produce antibodies directed against the Rh antigen, leading to the destruction of red blood cells. Transfusions of red blood cells, plasma, and especially whole blood from a donor to a recipient must strictly observe compatibility not only by blood type, but also by Rh factor. The presence and titer of antibodies to the Rh factor and other alloimmune antibodies already present in the blood can be determined by specifying the “anti-Rh (titer)” test.

Determination of blood type, Rh factor, and the presence of alloimmune anti-erythrocyte antibodies should be carried out when planning or during pregnancy to identify the likelihood of an immunological conflict between mother and child, which can lead to hemolytic disease of the newborn. The occurrence of Rh conflict and the development of hemolytic disease of newborns is possible if the pregnant woman is Rh negative and the fetus is Rh positive. If the mother is Rh + and the fetus is Rh negative, there is no danger of hemolytic disease for the fetus.

Hemolytic disease of the fetus and newborns - hemolytic jaundice newborns, caused by an immunological conflict between mother and fetus due to incompatibility of erythrocyte antigens. The disease can be caused by incompatibility of the fetus and mother for D-Rhesus or ABO antigens, less often there is incompatibility for other Rhesus (C, E, c, d, e) or M-, N-, Kell-, Duffy-, Kidd antigens (according to statistics, 98% of cases of hemolytic disease of newborns are associated with D - Rh antigen). Any of these antigens, penetrating the blood of a Rh-negative mother, causes the formation of specific antibodies in her body. The latter enter the fetal blood through the placenta, where they destroy the corresponding antigen-containing red blood cells. Predisposition to the development of hemolytic disease of newborns is impaired placental permeability, repeated pregnancies and blood transfusions to a woman without taking into account the Rh factor, etc. With early manifestations of the disease, an immunological conflict can cause premature birth or repeated miscarriages.

There is currently a possibility medical prevention development of Rh conflict and hemolytic disease of newborns. All Rh-negative women during pregnancy should be under medical supervision. It is also necessary to monitor the level of Rh antibodies over time.

There is a small category of Rh-positive individuals who are able to form anti-Rh antibodies. These are individuals whose red blood cells are characterized by significantly reduced expression of the normal Rh antigen on the membrane (“weak” D, Dweak) or expression of an altered Rh antigen (partial D, Dpartial). In laboratory practice, these weak variants of the D antigen are combined into the Du group, the frequency of which is about 1%.

Recipients containing Du antigen should be classified as Rh-negative and should only receive transfusions Rh negative blood, since normal D antigen can trigger an immune response in such individuals. Donors with the Du antigen qualify as Rh-positive donors, since transfusion of their blood can cause an immune response in Rh-negative recipients, and in the case of previous sensitization to the D antigen, severe transfusion reactions.

Inheritance of the Rh blood factor.

The laws of inheritance are based on the following concepts. The gene encoding the Rh factor D (Rh) is dominant, the allelic gene d is recessive (Rh-positive people can have the DD or Dd genotype, Rh-negative people can only have the dd genotype). A person receives 1 gene from each parent - D or d, and thus has 3 genotype options - DD, Dd or dd. In the first two cases (DD and Dd), a blood test for Rh factor will give positive result. Only with the dd genotype will a person have Rh negative blood.

Let's consider some variants of the combination of genes that determine the presence of the Rh factor in parents and children

• 1) The father is Rh positive (homozygote, genotype DD), the mother is Rh negative (genotype dd). In this case, all children will be Rh positive (100% probability).
• 2) The father is Rh positive (heterozygote, genotype Dd), the mother is Rh negative (genotype dd). In this case, the probability of having a child with negative or positive Rh is the same and equal to 50%.
• 3) The father and mother are heterozygotes for this gene (Dd), both are Rh positive. In this case, it is possible (with a probability of about 25%) to give birth to a child with negative Rh.

Indications for the purpose of analysis:

• Determination of transfusion compatibility;
• Hemolytic disease of newborns (detection of incompatibility between the blood of mother and fetus according to the Rh factor);
• Preoperative preparation;
• Pregnancy (prevention of Rh conflict).

Preparation for the study: not required.

Material for research: whole blood (with EDTA)

Determination method: Filtration of blood samples through a gel impregnated with monoclonal reagents - agglutination + gel filtration (cards, crossover method).

Execution time: 1 day

Interpretation of results:

The result is given in the form:
Rh + positive Rh - negative
When weak subtypes of antigen D (Du) are detected, a comment is issued: “a weak Rh antigen (Du) has been detected, it is recommended to transfuse Rh-negative blood if necessary.”

Anti-Rh (alloimmune antibodies to the Rh factor and other erythrocyte antigens)

Antibodies to the clinically most important erythrocyte antigens, primarily the Rh factor, indicating the body's sensitization to these antigens.

Functions. Rh antibodies belong to the so-called alloimmune antibodies. Alloimmune anti-erythrocyte antibodies (to the Rh factor or other erythrocyte antigens) appear in the blood when special conditions- after transfusion of immunologically incompatible donated blood or during pregnancy, when fetal red blood cells carrying paternal antigens that are immunologically foreign to the mother penetrate the placenta into the woman’s blood. Non-immune Rh-negative people do not have antibodies to the Rh factor. In the Rh system, there are 5 main antigens, the main (most immunogenic) is antigen D (Rh), which is usually referred to as the Rh factor. In addition to the Rh system antigens, there are a number of clinically important erythrocyte antigens to which sensitization may occur, causing complications during blood transfusion. The method of screening blood for the presence of alloimmune anti-erythrocyte antibodies, used in INVITRO, allows, in addition to antibodies to the Rh factor RH1(D), to detect alloimmune antibodies to other erythrocyte antigens in the test serum.

The gene encoding the Rh factor D (Rh) is dominant, the allelic gene d is recessive (Rh-positive people can have the DD or Dd genotype, Rh-negative people can only have the dd genotype). During pregnancy of a Rh-negative woman with a Rh-positive fetus, the development of an immunological conflict between mother and fetus due to the Rh factor is possible. Rh conflict can lead to miscarriage or the development of hemolytic disease of the fetus and newborns. Therefore, determination of blood type, Rh factor, as well as the presence of alloimmune anti-erythrocyte antibodies should be carried out when planning or during pregnancy to identify the likelihood of an immunological conflict between mother and child. The occurrence of Rh conflict and the development of hemolytic disease of newborns is possible if the pregnant woman is Rh negative and the fetus is Rh positive. If the mother has a positive Rh antigen and the fetus is negative, a conflict regarding the Rh factor does not develop. The incidence of Rh incompatibility is 1 case per 200-250 births.

Hemolytic disease of the fetus and newborns is hemolytic jaundice of newborns, caused by an immunological conflict between mother and fetus due to incompatibility of erythrocyte antigens. The disease is caused by incompatibility of the fetus and mother for D-Rhesus or ABO (group) antigens, less often there is incompatibility for other Rhesus (C, E, c, d, e) or M-, M-, Kell-, Duffy- , Kidd antigens. Any of these antigens (usually D-Rh antigen), penetrating into the blood of a Rh-negative mother, causes the formation of specific antibodies in her body. The penetration of antigens into the maternal bloodstream is facilitated by infectious factors that increase the permeability of the placenta, minor injuries, hemorrhages and other damage to the placenta. The latter enter the fetal blood through the placenta, where they destroy the corresponding antigen-containing red blood cells. Predisposition to the development of hemolytic disease of newborns is impaired placental permeability, repeated pregnancies and blood transfusions to a woman without taking into account the Rh factor, etc. With early manifestations of the disease, an immunological conflict can cause premature birth or miscarriages.

During the first pregnancy with an Rh-positive fetus, a pregnant woman with Rh "-" has a 10-15% risk of developing an Rh conflict. The first meeting of the mother's body with a foreign antigen occurs, the accumulation of antibodies occurs gradually, starting from approximately 7-8 weeks of pregnancy. The risk of incompatibility increases with each subsequent pregnancy with an Rh-positive fetus, regardless of how it ended ( induced abortion, miscarriage or childbirth, surgery ectopic pregnancy), with bleeding during the first pregnancy, with manual separation placenta, as well as if childbirth is carried out by caesarean section or accompanied by significant blood loss. during transfusion Rh positive blood(if they were carried out even in childhood). If a subsequent pregnancy develops with an Rh-negative fetus, incompatibility does not develop.

All pregnant women with Rh "-" are placed on special registration in antenatal clinic and carry out dynamic monitoring of the level of Rh antibodies. For the first time, an antibody test must be taken from the 8th to the 20th week of pregnancy, and then periodically check the antibody titer: once a month until the 30th week of pregnancy, twice a month until the 36th week and once a week until the 36th week. Termination of pregnancy at less than 6-7 weeks may not lead to the formation of Rh antibodies in the mother. In this case, during a subsequent pregnancy, if the fetus has positive Rh factor, the probability of developing immunological incompatibility will again be 10-15%.

Testing for alloimmune anti-erythrocyte antibodies is also important in general preoperative preparation, especially for people who have previously received blood transfusions.

Indications for the purpose of analysis:

• Pregnancy (prevention of Rh conflict);
• Monitoring of pregnant women with negative Rh factor;
• Miscarriage;
• Hemolytic disease of newborns;
• Preparation for blood transfusion.

Preparation for the study: not required.
Material for research: whole blood (with EDTA)

Determination method: agglutination + gel filtration method (cards). Incubation of standard typed erythrocytes with the test serum and filtration by centrifugation of the mixture through a gel impregnated with a polyspecific antiglobilin reagent. Agglutinated red blood cells are detected on the surface of the gel or in its thickness.

The method uses suspensions of erythrocytes from group 0(1) donors, typed according to erythrocyte antigens RH1(D), RH2(C), RH8(Cw), RH3(E), RH4(c), RH5(e), KEL1( K), KEL2(k), FY1(Fy a) FY2(Fy b), JK (Jk a), JK2(Jk b), LU1 (Lu a), LU2 (LU b), LE1 (LE a), LE2 (LE b), MNS1(M), MNS2 (N), MNS3 (S), MNS4(s), P1 (P).

Execution time: 1 day

When alloimmune anti-erythrocyte antibodies are detected, their semi-quantitative determination is carried out.
The result is given in titers (the maximum dilution of the serum at which a positive result is still detected).

Units of measurement and conversion factors: U/ml

Reference values: negative.

Positive result: Sensitization to Rh antigen or other erythrocyte antigens.

According to scientists, this is the main blood group from which all the others were formed. It does not contain antigens A and B. Since ancient times, doctors have believed that this group is ideal for transfusions because it does not contain antigens that provoke an immune response. But research has refuted it perfect compatibility. Still, the immune response is quite rare, so it is taken if they cannot find blood from other groups for transfusion.

The most universal blood– This is the first group with negative Rh. Positive often causes rejection, but is suitable for owners of other groups with a positive Rh factor.

A person with the first blood group cannot be transfused with other blood groups, because they contain one or two antigens that provoke an immune response.

According to scientists, the first blood group belonged to hunters and its representatives have strong character, high level of immune protection. Such people should eat more protein found in meat. This will be a good prevention for diseases characteristic of carriers of this group. They are often susceptible to disease gastrointestinal tract(gastritis, colitis, ulcer).

People in this group are sociable and energetic. In eastern countries, when selecting personnel or choosing a couple, they are often guided by the selection of a person by blood type in order to avoid conflicts in the long term.

Blood type is inherited or occurs as a result of mixing the blood of parents. It does not change throughout life's journey. The only case of blood type change occurred in Australia during liver transplantation. The Rh factor has changed there.

The first blood group with a negative Rh factor is considered the second rarest in the world. Therefore, transfusion stations often store this type of blood in reserve in refrigerators for emergency transfusions.

Rh compatibility problems.

There is a special erythrocyte gene in human blood. It is present in the blood substance with a positive Rh factor or absent with a negative Rh factor.

When parents with a negative first blood group incest, the baby gets Rh negative. If the mother or father has a negative Rh factor, and the second parent is the owner of a positive Rh factor, then the child can receive both negative and positive Rh factor. The probability of the first and second cases is 50/50.

The Rh factor is important for a good pregnancy and the health of the baby. This is also important in cases of blood transfusion for a patient with this blood type.

Implications for pregnancy

For carrying a baby and the health of the child, compatibility with the Rh factor of the fetus is important. This is due to the father's genetics. If the mother is Rh positive, then the Rh factor of the fetus is unimportant.

If the mother is Rh negative and the child is Rh positive, this often causes negative consequences, conflict between the fetus and the mother’s body.

The maternal body will try to eliminate the foreign protein with the help of an immune response, both during the first pregnancy and during the rest.

This may result in miscarriage with placenta rejection. If this does not happen, the child may become severely anemic, be infected with jaundice, or be born with liver pathology.
To avoid this, pregnant women are advised to undergo a blood test for Rh and blood groups. In the event of a conflict between the fetus and the mother, globulin is administered, which neutralizes the effect of maternal antibodies and allows the baby to develop without problems. Pregnancy after treatment with globulin, as a rule, is carried to term without problems.

Character traits

People with the first blood group are assertive and purposeful. They have a developed instinct of self-preservation. If protein levels drop in the blood, this negatively affects the functioning of the body and the immune system deteriorates.

Such a person is characterized by increased determination and rational decision-making.

The character is quite sharp, not prone to mental disorders resistant to neuroses and stressful situations. Such a person quickly regains strength.

Along with the advantages, a person with the first blood group has a number of disadvantages:

• Overambitiousness
• Jealousy
• Not accepting criticism

In society such a person is faithful comrade and a reliable business partner. He is very responsive to praise and loves admiration. Compatibility is achieved by almost any person, regardless of blood type.

In a love relationship, it is important for a man that a woman can bow before him and submit. And for women in this group, a partner with a stronger character is important. It is important that her man is physically strong and has passion and charisma.

What should you be wary of?

Representatives of this blood group are predisposed to diseases of the gastrointestinal tract. Often this inflammatory processes in the stomach or intestines, ulcers. There may also be joint diseases inflammatory in nature eg arthritis.

Infants often develop purulent-septic infections. They are often accompanied by disruption thyroid gland, allergies. People may experience bleeding disorders.

Nutritional Features

The best food for representatives of this group of people is protein, because these people love grueling sports. To confirm active position they need in life balanced diet. Otherwise, they begin to get sick, they develop inflammatory processes and begin to have problems with metabolism. They quickly gain excess weight if they eat improperly.

For these people, it is very important to eat properly, in accordance with their blood type. Although such people quickly adapt to any diet, it is worth remembering that their body does not digest carbohydrates well. With excessive consumption of carbohydrates, this threatens diabetes, tissue edema, and provokes heart and vascular diseases. A decrease in metabolism contributes to rapid weight gain. And also, due to the wrong menu, they quickly develop allergies, psychoses, and may develop alcoholism or drug addiction. Bleeding disorders associated with metabolic disorders can cause bleeding, which can lead to strokes.

Representatives of blood group 1, as a rule, high acidity stomach. They can even eat insufficiently cooked meat, but if there is a deficiency of protein, then this threatens peptic ulcers and gastritis. It is important to combine proper diet With active species sports that cause adrenaline surges in the blood. This could be running, wrestling, swimming, dancing, extreme sports.

Healthy foods for blood group 1

They improve protective forces body, are quickly absorbed.

You can drink green tea or juice from the above fruits.

Negatively acting products

There are a number of foods that have a bad effect on the health of representatives of this blood group. These are dairy products. It is better to remove them from the diet altogether, sometimes allowing yourself to eat low-fat cottage cheese, sour cream, kefir.

It is not recommended to eat grains and cereals. This applies to wheat grain, oatmeal, and corn grains. You should not eat lentils, raw and dried peas, beans, beans (green and beans). Need to eat less vegetable oils, especially corn or cotton.

A person with type 1 blood should exclude from the diet all sweet baked goods, cornmeal cakes, and bread made from any grains. It is not recommended to eat pistachios. You should not eat peanuts, either fresh or fried. Do not eat poppy seeds.
Vegetables from the nightshade family are also prohibited. These are potatoes and eggplants. Avoid eating cauliflower and Brussels sprouts. The same recommendation applies to red forks, corn on the cob and avocados.

You should not eat fruits with sour taste, for example, tangerines, lemons, oranges. Eating apples and melons is not recommended. Worth giving up sweet soda, juices from oranges and apples, applesauce.

It is recommended to remove tea, caffeinated drinks, coffee and any alcohol from your diet. No need to get carried away with spicy marinades, preserves, tomato paste and ketchup. Do not add to food during cooking nutmeg, vinegar, pepper (peas, powder, allspice).

Neutral products

You can supplement the menu with neutral products that have little effect on the body, but help make the diet more varied.

The red cell membrane includes proteins and carbohydrates in varying quantities (glycopeptides), which are called antigens. The characteristics of the blood depend on them. The most common is the first positive blood group.

Characteristics of the first blood group

1 blood group is ancient. Its owners have strong willful qualities. There are no antigens in the blood that contribute to an immune response. Owners of this group have only positive characterization. But they are characterized by excessive fussiness. Such people tend to do several things at once, which can cause nervous exhaustion.

This negatively affects one’s health, so a person must work on self-control. Carriers of this biotype are responsive. They always come to the rescue and empathize. Such people are characterized by the presence of pronounced organizational abilities.

Blood transfusion compatibility chart

The first blood group with positive Rh is not rare - it is found in approximately 40 percent of the population. Such blood is characterized by the presence of beta and alpha agglutinins. There are no antigens in it. Compatibility is at high level. It is suitable for almost all people. In this case, one feature must be taken into account. Experts believe that transfusion can be performed in groups I, II, III, IV, which have the Rh factor Rh “+”:

Rhesus conflict

Whether antigens are present or absent in red blood cells has no effect on the human body. This factor is important in determining who is eligible for blood transfusion. It is also necessary to determine compatibility during pregnancy, which will identify or exclude the presence of Rh conflict.

When planning a pregnancy

According to the studies conducted, it was found that parents with different groups children are born with different combinations. If a woman and a man have the first group, then they will have children with the same indicators. The Rh factor designation is sufficient important aspect. It is impossible to give an unambiguous forecast regarding conflict when both parents have a positive factor or their discrepancy. If a man has the second group, and a woman has the first, then the child can become the owner of any of them in a percentage ratio of 50:50. The same situation is observed when combining the first and third, first and fourth groups.

The absence of antigens in parents is the reason for the baby to obtain a negative Rh factor. If only the mother is negative, the child may have a positive Rh factor (like the father). If there is no mixing of blood, the danger to the unborn baby will be negligible. This is typical for the first pregnancy. During childbirth, the blood of the mother and baby comes into contact, and the woman’s body begins to produce antibodies. With a second pregnancy, a conflict will begin, the mother’s immune system will attack the baby’s blood. This threatens the life of the fetus.

Important! In the event of a powerful immune attack by the mother's body, the child is diagnosed with oxygen starvation due to the destruction of red blood cells and the development of hemolytic disease. To avoid spontaneous abortion, it is recommended to take timely measures. If the baby remains alive, then he will most likely be diagnosed with hemolytic disease, which may have icteric, edematous or anemic forms.

To avoid problems, a woman needs to be under medical supervision. Universal method therapy is to prevent the destruction of red blood cells. Before the production of antibodies begins, the patient is given immunoglobulin injections twice during pregnancy. After the process of antibody production begins, administration of the drug is prohibited. In this case, the doctor prescribes maintenance therapy and adheres to wait-and-see tactics. If the case is particularly severe, intrauterine blood transfusion under ultrasound control and early delivery are recommended.

Nutrition

In order for the human body in the first group to be healthy, it needs to be provided with proper nutrition. The diet consists of a predominance of protein products, which have a positive effect on the characteristics of the group. This is why it is recommended to consume various types meat and fish. In the absence meat products in a person’s diet there is a constant feeling of hunger. This causes nervousness and irritability, as well as insomnia and constant bad mood. When choosing meat products, you must ensure that they contain minimum quantity fat It is necessary to give preference to veal, beef, lamb, and turkey.

Owners of the first group can eat seafood. Experts recommend combining them with meat during menstruation. This will help improve the woman’s mood and well-being. Men and women should prepare dishes from fresh herring, cod, hake, mackerel, river pike, trout, and salmon. It is better to avoid salted and smoked fish.

A person’s diet should consist of vegetables and non-acidic fruits:

• bell pepper;
• Jerusalem artichoke;
• Swiss chard;
• spinach;
• chicory;
• hot pepper.

For drinks, it is recommended to give preference to infusions made with mint, ginger or rose hips. Thanks to these drinks, stabilization of body weight is ensured. At this group It is recommended to exclude excessive amounts from the diet fatty foods and products that contain carbohydrates in large quantities. This is explained by the tendency of people to be overweight, especially if there is a hereditary predisposition.

Patients are not recommended to use soy, peanut and corn oil. Fermented milk and milk-containing products should also be avoided. The consumption of peanuts, pistachios and lentils should be kept to a minimum.

Important! Diet food does not involve strict restrictions. A person should minimize the consumption of flour products. Potatoes and heavy grains should also be consumed in limited quantities.

The first group is written as I "+" and is common, it is widely used in donation. In some cases, a woman with this blood may experience an Rh conflict with her child. This requires emergency medical intervention, which will eliminate the development of complications. To ensure normal well-being and health, owners of this group should adhere to proper nutrition.

Just a century ago, people did not yet have such a detailed understanding of the composition bloodstream and even more so, how many blood groups exist, which anyone interested can now obtain. The discovery of all blood groups belongs to Nobel laureate Austrian scientist Karl Landsteiner and his colleague in the research laboratory. Blood group as a concept has been used since 1900. Let's figure out what blood groups exist and their characteristics.

Classification according to the AB0 system

What is blood type? Each individual has about 300 different antigenic elements in the plasma membrane of red blood cells. Agglutinogenic particles on molecular level in their structure, they are encoded through certain forms of the same gene (allele) in the same chromosomal regions (loci).

How are blood types different? Any blood flow group is determined by specific erythrocyte antigen systems controlled by established loci. And the category of blood substance will depend on which allelic genes (indicated by letters) are located in identical chromosomal regions.

The exact number of loci and alleles currently does not yet have accurate data.

What are the blood types? About 50 types of antigens have been reliably established, but these types are the most common allelic genes, like A and B. Therefore, they are used to designate plasma groups. Features of the type of blood substance are determined by the combination of antigenic properties of the bloodstream, that is, inherited and transmitted gene sets with blood. Each blood type designation corresponds to the antigenic qualities of the red blood cells contained in the cell membrane.

The main classification of blood groups according to the AB0 system:

The types of blood groups differ not only by category, there is also such a thing as the Rh factor. Serological diagnosis and designation of blood group and Rh factor are always done simultaneously. Because for blood transfusion, for example, both the group of the blood substance and its Rh factor are vitally important. And if a blood group tends to have a letter expression, then Rh indicators have always been designated by mathematical symbols such as (+) and (−), which means positive or negative Rh factor.

Compatibility of blood groups and Rh factor

Rhesus compatibility and blood flow groups are given great importance during transfusion and pregnancy planning, in order to avoid conflicts of the erythrocyte mass. As for blood transfusion, especially in emergency situations, this procedure can give the victim life. This is only possible if all blood components match perfectly. At the slightest discrepancy in group or rhesus, red blood cells may stick together, which usually entails hemolytic anemia or kidney failure.

Under such circumstances, the recipient may suffer state of shock, which often ends in death.

In order to eliminate the critical consequences of blood transfusion, immediately before blood infusion, doctors conduct a biological compatibility test. To do this, a small amount of whole blood or washed red blood cells is infused into the recipient and his well-being is analyzed. If there are no symptoms indicating aversion to blood mass, then blood can be infused in the full required volume.

Signs of blood fluid rejection ( blood transfusion shock) serve:

• chills with a pronounced feeling of cold;
• blue discoloration of the skin and mucous membranes;
• increase in temperature;
• the appearance of seizures;
• heaviness when breathing, shortness of breath;
• overexcited state;
• decreased blood pressure;
• pain in lumbar region, in the chest and abdomen, as well as in the muscles.

The most characteristic symptoms that are possible when a sample of an inappropriate blood substance is infused are given. Intravascular administration of a blood substance is carried out under the constant supervision of medical personnel, who, at the first signs of shock, must begin resuscitation actions in relation to the recipient. Blood transfusion requires high professionalism, so it is carried out strictly in a hospital setting. How blood fluid levels affect compatibility is clearly shown in the table of blood groups and Rh factors.

Blood groups table:

The diagram shown in the table is hypothetical. In practice, doctors prefer classical blood transfusion - this is a complete match of the blood fluid of the donor and recipient. And only if absolutely necessary medical staff decides to transfuse acceptable blood.

Methods for determining blood categories

Diagnostics to calculate blood groups is carried out after obtaining venous or blood material from the patient. To establish the Rh factor, you will need blood from a vein, which is combined with two serums (positive and negative).

The presence of one or another Rh factor in a patient is indicated by a sample where there is no agglutination (sticking together of red blood cells).

To determine the blood mass group, the following methods are used:

1. Express diagnostics is used in emergency cases; an answer can be obtained within three minutes. It is carried out using plastic cards with dried reagents applied to the bottom. Shows group and rhesus at the same time.
2. Double cross-reaction is used to clarify a questionable test result. The result is assessed after mixing the patient's serum with red blood cell material. The information is available for interpretation after 5 minutes.
3. Colcloning with this diagnostic method natural serums are replaced by artificial zoliclones (anti-A and -B).
4. Standard bloodstream categorization is performed by combining a few drops of the patient's blood with serum samples with four instances of known antigenic phenotypes. The result is available within five minutes.

If agglutination is absent in all four samples, then this sign indicates that this is the first group. And in contrast to this, when erythrocytes stick together in all samples, this fact indicates the fourth group. With regards to the second and third categories of blood, each of them can be judged in the absence of agglutination in the biological sample of serum of the determined group.

Distinctive properties of the four blood groups

The characteristics of blood groups allow us to judge not only the state of the body, physiological characteristics and food preferences. In addition to all the above information, thanks to a person’s blood groups, it is easy to obtain psychological portrait. Surprisingly, people have long noticed, and scientists have scientifically proven that categories of blood fluid can affect the personal qualities of their owners. So, let's look at the description of blood groups and their characteristics.

First group biological environment man belongs to the very origins of civilization and is the most numerous. It is generally accepted that initially all inhabitants of the Earth had blood flow group 1, free from the agglutinogenic properties of erythrocytes. The most ancient ancestors survived by hunting - this circumstance left its mark on their personality traits.

Psychological type of people with the “hunting” blood category:

• Determination.
• Leadership qualities.
• Self-confidence.

TO negative aspects personality traits include fussiness, jealousy, and excessive ambition. It is quite natural that it was the strong-willed qualities of character and the powerful instinct of self-preservation that contributed to the survival of the ancestors and, thereby, the preservation of the race to this day. To feel great, representatives of the first blood type require a predominance of proteins in the diet and a balanced amount of fats and carbohydrates.

The formation of the second group of biological fluid began to occur approximately several tens of millennia after the first. The composition of blood began to undergo changes due to the gradual transition of many communities to plant species food grown in the process of agriculture. Active cultivation of the land for the cultivation of various cereals, fruit and berry plants led to the fact that people began to settle in communities. The way of life in society and joint employment affected both the changes in the components of the circulatory system and the personality of individuals.

Personality traits of people with “agricultural” blood type:

• Conscientiousness and hard work.
• Discipline, reliability, forethought.
• Kindness, sociability and diplomacy.
• Calm disposition and patient attitude towards others.
• Organizational talent.
• Quick adaptation to a new environment.
• Perseverance in achieving goals.

Among such valuable qualities, there were also negative character traits, which we will designate as excessive caution and tension. But this does not obscure the overall favorable impression of how humanity has been affected by dietary diversity and changes in lifestyle. Special attention Owners of the second bloodstream group should pay attention to the ability to relax. As for nutrition, they prefer food with a predominance of vegetables, fruits and grains.

White meat is allowed; it is better to choose easily digestible proteins for nutrition.

The third group began to form as a result of the wave-like resettlement of residents of African areas in Europe, America, and Asia. Features of an unusual climate, other food products, the development of livestock farming and other factors caused changes in the circulatory system. For people of this blood type, in addition to meat, dairy products from livestock are also useful. As well as grains, legumes, vegetables, fruits and berries.

The third group of the bloodstream says about its owner that he:

• An outstanding individualist.
• Patient and balanced.
• Flexible in partnerships.
• Strong-willed and optimistic.
• Slightly crazy and unpredictable.
• Capable of original image thoughts.
• Creative personality with a developed imagination.

Among so many useful personal qualities, only the independence of the “nomadic herders” and their reluctance to obey the established foundations differ unfavorably. Although this has almost no effect on their relationships in society. Because these people, distinguished by their sociability, will easily find an approach to any person.

The peculiarities of human blood have left their mark on representatives of the earthly race with the rarest group of blood substance - the fourth.

The extraordinary individuality of the owners of the rare fourth blood category:

• Creative perception of the surrounding world.
• A passion for everything beautiful.
• Pronounced intuitive abilities.
• Altruists by nature, prone to compassion.
• Exquisite taste.

In general, carriers of the fourth blood type are distinguished by their balance, sensitivity and innate sense of tact. But sometimes they tend to be harsh in their statements, which can create an unfavorable impression. Fine mental organization and lack of assertiveness often force one to hesitate in making a decision. The list of permitted products is very diverse, including animal products and plant origin. It is interesting to note that many personality traits that people usually attribute to their merits turn out to be just characteristics of their blood type.