Eastern European countries in the late 20th early 21st century. Countries of Central and South-Eastern Europe in the late XX - early XXI century
Perestroika in the USSR caused similar processes in the countries of Eastern Europe. Meanwhile, the Soviet leadership by the end of the 80s. refused to preserve the regimes that existed in these countries, on the contrary, calling them to democratization. Leadership has changed in most of the ruling parties. But the attempts of the new leadership to carry out reforms, as in the Soviet Union, were unsuccessful. The economic situation worsened, the flight of the population to the West became widespread. Opposition forces formed, there were demonstrations and strikes everywhere. As a result of demonstrations in October-November 1989 in the GDR, the government resigned, and on November 9 the destruction of the Berlin Wall began. In 1990, the GDR and the FRG unified.
In most countries, the communists were removed from power. The ruling parties dissolved themselves or transformed into social democratic ones. Elections were held, in which the former oppositionists won. These events were called "velvet revolutions". However, not everywhere the revolutions were "velvet". In Romania, opponents of the head of state, Nicolae Ceausescu, staged an uprising in December 1989, as a result of which many people died. Ceausescu and his wife were killed. Dramatic events took place in Yugoslavia, where the elections in all the republics except Serbia and Montenegro were won by parties opposed to the communists. In 1991, Slovenia, Croatia and Macedonia declared independence. In Croatia, a war immediately broke out between Serbs and Croats, as the Serbs feared the persecution that took place during World War II by the Croatian Ustaše fascists. Initially, the Serbs created their own republics, but by 1995 they were captured by the Croats with the support of Western countries, and most Serbs were exterminated or expelled.
In 1992, Bosnia and Herzegovina declared independence. Serbia and Montenegro formed the Federal Republic of Yugoslavia (FRY).
In Bosnia and Herzegovina, an interethnic war broke out between Serbs, Croats and Muslims. On the side of the Bosnian Muslims and Croats, the armed forces of the NATO countries intervened. The war continued until the end of 1995, when the Serbs were forced to succumb to the pressure of superior NATO forces.
The state of Bosnia and Herzegovina is now divided into two parts: the Republika Srpska and the Muslim-Croat federation. The Serbs lost part of their lands.
In 1998 open conflict broke out between Albanians and Serbs in Kosovo, which was part of Serbia. The extermination and expulsion of Serbs by Albanian extremists forced the Yugoslav authorities to enter into an armed struggle against them. However, in 1999 NATO began bombing Yugoslavia. The Yugoslav army was forced to leave Kosovo, whose territory was occupied by NATO troops. Most of the Serbian population was destroyed and expelled from the region. On February 17, 2008, Kosovo, with the support of the West, unilaterally illegally declared independence.
After the overthrow of President Slobodan Milosevic in 2000 during the "color revolution", the disintegration of the FRY continued. In 2003, the confederal state of Serbia and Montenegro was formed. In 2006, Montenegro seceded, and two independent states emerged: Serbia and Montenegro.
The collapse of Czechoslovakia took place peacefully. After a referendum, it was divided in 1993 into the Czech Republic and Slovakia.
After political changes in all Eastern European countries, transformations began in the economy and other spheres of society. Everywhere they abandoned the planned economy, moving on to the restoration of market relations. Privatization was carried out, foreign capital received strong positions in the economy. The first transformations went down in history under the name "shock therapy", as they were associated with a fall in production, mass unemployment, inflation, etc. Particularly radical changes in this regard took place in Poland. Social stratification has intensified everywhere, crime and corruption have increased.
By the end of the 90s. the situation in most countries has stabilized somewhat. Inflation was overcome, economic growth began. The Czech Republic, Hungary, and Poland have achieved some success. Foreign investment played a big role in this. Gradually, traditional mutually beneficial ties with Russia and other post-Soviet states were also restored. But the global economic crisis that began in 2008 had devastating consequences for the economies of Eastern European countries.
In foreign policy, all countries of Eastern Europe are guided by the West, most of them at the beginning of the XXI century. joined NATO and the EU. The internal political situation in these countries is characterized by a change in power between right and left parties. However, their policies both within the country and in the international arena largely coincide.
The period under review was peaceful and stable for the countries of Western Europe and the United States compared to the first half of the century, which had several European wars and two world wars, two series of revolutionary events. The dominant development of this group of states in the second half of the XX century. considered to be a significant progress along the path of scientific and technological progress, the transition from industrial to post-industrial society. However, even in these decades, the countries of the Western world faced a number of complex problems, crises, upheavals - all that is called "challenges of the time." These were large-scale events and processes in various fields, such as the technological and information revolution, the collapse of colonial empires, the global economic crises of 1974-1975. and 1980-1982, social performances in the 60-70s. XX century, separatist movements, etc. All of them demanded some kind of restructuring of economic and social relations, the choice of ways for further development, compromises or toughening of political courses. In this regard, various political forces were replaced in power, mainly conservatives and liberals, who tried to strengthen their positions in a changing world.
The first post-war years in European countries became a time of acute struggle, primarily around issues of social structure, the political foundations of states. In a number of countries, for example in France, it was necessary to overcome the consequences of the occupation and the activities of collaborationist governments. And for Germany, Italy, it was about the complete elimination of the remnants of Nazism and fascism, the creation of new democratic states. Significant political battles unfolded around the elections to constituent assemblies, the development and adoption of new constitutions. In Italy, for example, the events associated with the choice of a monarchical or republican form of state went down in history as a "battle for the republic" (the country was proclaimed a republic as a result of a referendum on June 18, 1946).
It was then that the forces that most actively participated in the struggle for power and influence in society over the next decades declared themselves. On the left flank were the Social Democrats and the Communists. At the final stage of the war (especially after 1943, when the Comintern was dissolved), members of these parties collaborated in the resistance movement, later - in the first post-war governments (in France in 1944 a conciliation committee of communists and socialists was created, in Italy in 1946 . an agreement on unity of action was signed). Representatives of both left parties were part of the coalition governments in France in 1944-1947, in Italy in 1945-1947. But the fundamental differences between the communist and socialist parties persisted, moreover, in the postwar years, many social democratic parties excluded from their programs the task of establishing the dictatorship of the proletariat, adopted the concept of a social society, and, in essence, switched to liberal positions.
In the conservative camp since the mid-40s. the parties that combined the representation of the interests of large industrialists and financiers with the promotion of Christian values as enduring and uniting different social strata of ideological foundations became the most influential. These included the Christian Democratic Party (CDA) in Italy (founded in 1943), the People's Republican Movement (MPM) in France (founded in 1945), the Christian Democratic Union (since 1945 - CDU, with 1950 - CDU / CSU bloc) in Germany. These parties sought to gain broad support in society and emphasized adherence to the principles of democracy. Thus, the first program of the CDU (1947) included the slogans of "socialization" of a number of branches of the economy, "complicity" of workers in the management of enterprises, reflecting the spirit of the time. And in Italy, during a referendum in 1946, the majority of CDA members voted for a republic, not a monarchy. The confrontation between the right, conservative and left, socialist parties formed the main line in the political history of Western European countries in the second half of the 20th century. At the same time, one can notice how changes in the economic and social situation in certain years shifted the political pendulum either to the left or to the right.
After the end of the war, coalition governments were established in most Western European countries, in which representatives of the left forces - socialists and, in some cases, communists - played a decisive role. The main activities of these governments were the restoration of democratic freedoms, the cleansing of the state apparatus from members of the fascist movement, persons who collaborated with the invaders. The most significant step in the economic sphere was the nationalization of a number of sectors of the economy and enterprises.
In France, 5 largest banks, the coal industry, the Renault automobile plants (the owner of which collaborated with the occupation regime), and several aviation enterprises were nationalized. The share of the public sector in industrial output reached 20-25%. In the UK, where in power in 1945-1951. Laborites were in power, power plants, coal and gas industries, railways, transport, individual airlines, steel mills passed into state ownership. As a rule, these were important, but far from the most prosperous and profitable enterprises, on the contrary, they required significant capital investments. In addition, the former owners of the nationalized enterprises were paid significant compensation. Nevertheless, nationalization and state regulation were seen by social democratic leaders as the ultimate achievement on the road to a "social economy".
Constitutions adopted in Western European countries in the second half of the 40s. - in 1946 in France (the constitution of the Fourth Republic), in 1947 in Italy (entered into force on January 1, 1948), in 1949 in West Germany, became the most democratic constitutions in the history of these countries. Thus, in the French constitution of 1946, in addition to democratic rights, the rights to work, rest, social security, education, the rights of workers to participate in the management of enterprises, trade union and political activities, the right to strike “within the framework of the laws”, etc. were proclaimed.
In accordance with the provisions of the constitutions in many countries, social insurance systems were created, which included pensions, sickness and unemployment benefits, and assistance to large families. A 40-42-hour week was established, paid holidays were introduced. This was done largely under pressure from the working people. For example, in England in 1945, 50,000 dock workers went on strike to achieve a reduction in the working week to 40 hours and the introduction of two weeks of paid holidays.
The 1950s constituted a special period in the history of Western European countries. It was a time of rapid economic development (the growth of industrial production reached 5-6% per year). Post-war industry was created using new machines and technologies. A scientific and technological revolution began, one of the main manifestations of which was the automation of production. The qualifications of the workers who operated automatic lines and systems increased, and their wages also increased.
In the UK, the level of wages in the 50s. increased by an average of 5% per year with an increase in prices by 3% per year. in Germany during the 1950s. real wages doubled. True, in some countries, for example, in Italy, Austria, the figures were not so significant. In addition, governments periodically “froze” salaries (forbidden their increase). This caused protests and strikes by workers.
The economic recovery was especially noticeable in the Federal Republic of Germany and Italy. In the post-war years, the economy here was adjusted more difficult and slower than in other countries. Against this background, the situation in the 1950s regarded as an "economic miracle". It became possible thanks to the restructuring of industry on a new technological basis, the creation of new industries (petrochemistry, electronics, the production of synthetic fibers, etc.), and the industrialization of agrarian regions. American assistance under the Marshall plan served as a significant help. A favorable condition for the rise in production was that in the post-war years there was a great demand for various manufactured goods. On the other hand, there was a significant reserve of cheap labor (at the expense of immigrants, people from the village).
The economic recovery was accompanied by social stability. Under conditions of reduced unemployment, relative price stability, and rising wages, workers' protests were reduced to a minimum. Their growth began in the late 1950s, when some of the negative consequences of automation appeared - job cuts, etc.
The period of stable development coincided with the coming to power of the conservatives. Thus, in Germany, the name of K. Adenauer, who held the post of chancellor in 1949-1963, was associated with the revival of the German state, and L. Erhard was called the "father of the economic miracle." The Christian Democrats partly retained the façade of "social policy", they spoke of a welfare society, social guarantees for working people. But state intervention in the economy was curtailed. In Germany, the theory of the "social market economy" was established, focused on supporting private property and free competition. In England, the conservative governments of W. Churchill and then A. Eden carried out the re-privatization of some previously nationalized industries and enterprises (motor transport, steel mills, etc.). In many countries, with the coming to power of the conservatives, an offensive began on the political rights and freedoms proclaimed after the war, laws were passed in accordance with which citizens were persecuted for political reasons, and the Communist Party was banned in the FRG.
After a decade of stability in the life of the Western European states, a period of upheaval and change has begun, connected both with the problems of internal development and with the collapse of colonial empires.
So, in France by the end of the 50s. there was a crisis situation caused by the frequent change of governments of socialists and radicals, the collapse of the colonial empire (the loss of Indochina, Tunisia and Morocco, the war in Algeria), the deterioration of the situation of workers. In such a situation, the idea of "strong power", an active supporter of which was General Charles de Gaulle, received more and more support. In May 1958, the command of the French troops in Algiers refused to obey the government until Charles de Gaulle returned to it. The general declared that he was "ready to take over the power of the Republic" on condition that the 1946 constitution be repealed and emergency powers granted to him. In the fall of 1958, the constitution of the Fifth Republic was adopted, which provided the head of state with the broadest rights, and in December de Gaulle was elected president of France. Having established a "regime of personal power", he sought to resist attempts to weaken the state from within and without. But on the issue of colonies, being a realistic politician, he soon decided that it was better to carry out decolonization “from above”, while maintaining influence in the former possessions, than to wait for a shameful expulsion, for example, from Algeria, which fought for independence. De Gaulle's readiness to recognize the right of the Algerians to decide their own fate caused an anti-government military mutiny in 1960. All in 1962, Algeria gained independence.
In the 60s. in European countries, speeches by different segments of the population under different slogans have become more frequent. in France in 1961-1962. demonstrations and strikes were organized demanding an end to the rebellion of the ultra-colonialist forces opposed to the granting of independence to Algeria. In Italy, there were mass demonstrations against the activation of neo-fascists. The workers put forward both economic and political demands. The fight for higher wages included "white collars" - highly skilled workers, employees.
The high point of social action during this period was the events of May - June 1968 in France. Starting as a speech by Parisian students demanding the democratization of the higher education system, they soon developed into mass demonstrations and a general strike (the number of strikers in the country exceeded 10 million people). The workers of a number of automobile factories "Renault" occupied their enterprises. The government was forced to make concessions. The strikers achieved a 10-19% increase in wages, an increase in vacations, and the expansion of trade union rights. These events proved to be a serious test for the authorities. In April 1969, President de Gaulle put forward a bill on the reorganization of local self-government to a referendum, but the majority of those who voted rejected the bill. After that, Charles de Gaulle resigned. In June 1969, a representative of the Gaullist party, J. Pompidou, was elected the new president of the country.
The year 1968 was marked by an aggravation of the situation in Northern Ireland, where the civil rights movement became more active. Clashes between representatives of the Catholic population and the police escalated into an armed conflict, which included both Protestant and Catholic extremist groups. The government brought troops into Ulster. The crisis, sometimes aggravating, sometimes weakening, dragged on for three decades.
A wave of social action led to political change in most Western European countries. Many of them in the 60s. Social Democratic and Socialist parties came to power. In Germany, at the end of 1966, representatives of the Social Democratic Party of Germany (SPD) joined the coalition government with the CDU / CSU, and since 1969 they themselves formed the government in a bloc with the Free Democratic Party (SDP). In Austria in 1970-1971. For the first time in the history of the country, the Socialist Party came to power. In Italy, the basis of the post-war governments was the Christian Democratic Party (CDA), which entered into a coalition with the parties of the left, then with the right. In the 60s. its partners were the left - the social democrats and socialists. The leader of the Social Democrats, D. Saragat, was elected president of the country.
Despite the difference in situations in different countries, the policy of the Social Democrats had some common features. They considered their main, "never ending task" to be the creation of a "social society", the main values of which were proclaimed freedom, justice, solidarity. They considered themselves as representatives of the interests not only of workers, but also of other segments of the population (from the 70-80s, these parties began to rely on the so-called "new middle strata" - the scientific and technical intelligentsia, employees). In the economic sphere, the Social Democrats advocated a combination of different forms of ownership - private, state, etc. The key provision of their programs was the thesis of state regulation of the economy. The attitude towards the market was expressed by the motto: "Competition - as much as possible, planning - as much as necessary." Particular importance was attached to the "democratic participation" of the working people in solving questions of the organization of production, prices, and wages.
In Sweden, where the Social Democrats had been in power for several decades, the concept of "functional socialism" was formulated. It was assumed that the private owner should not be deprived of his property, but should be gradually involved in the performance of public functions through the redistribution of profits. The state in Sweden owned about 6% of production capacity, but the share of public consumption in the gross national product (GNP) in the early 70s. was about 30%.
Social-democratic and socialist governments allocated significant funds for education, health care, and social security. To reduce the unemployment rate, special programs for the training and retraining of the workforce were adopted. Progress in solving social problems has been one of the most significant achievements of social democratic governments. However, the negative consequences of their policy soon became apparent - excessive "overregulation", bureaucratization of public and economic management, overstrain of the state budget. A part of the population began to establish the psychology of social dependency, when people, not working, expected to receive in the form of social assistance as much as those who worked hard. These "costs" drew criticism from conservative forces.
An important aspect of the activities of the social democratic governments of the Western European states was the change in foreign policy. Particularly significant steps in this direction have been taken in the Federal Republic of Germany. The government that came to power in 1969, headed by Chancellor W. Brandt (SPD) and Vice-Chancellor and Minister of Foreign Affairs W. Scheel (FDP), made a fundamental turn in the “Ostpolitik”, concluding in 1970-1973. bilateral treaties with the USSR, Poland, Czechoslovakia, confirming the inviolability of the borders between the FRG and Poland, the FRG and the GDR. These treaties, as well as the quadripartite agreements on West Berlin, signed by representatives of the USSR, the USA, Great Britain and France in September 1971, created a real basis for expanding international contacts and mutual understanding in Europe.
In the mid 70s. Significant political changes have taken place in the states of Southwestern and Southern Europe.
In Portugal, as a result of the April Revolution of 1974, the authoritarian regime was overthrown. The political upheaval carried out by the Movement of the Armed Forces in the capital led to a change of power on the ground. The first post-revolutionary governments (1974-1975), which consisted of the leaders of the Movement of the Armed Forces and the Communists, focused on the tasks of defashization and the establishment of democratic orders, the decolonization of the African possessions of Portugal, the agrarian reform, the adoption of a new constitution of the country, improving the living conditions of workers. The nationalization of the largest enterprises and banks was carried out, workers' control was introduced. Later, the right-wing block Democratic Alliance (1979-1983) came to power, which tried to curtail the transformations that had begun earlier, and then the coalition government of the socialist and social democratic parties, headed by the leader of the socialists M. Soares (1983-1985).
In Greece, in 1974, the regime of "black colonels" was replaced by a civilian government, which consisted of representatives of the conservative bourgeoisie. It didn't make any major changes. In 1981 -1989. and since 1993, the Panhellenic Socialist Movement (PASOK) party was in power, a course of democratization of the political system and social reforms was pursued.
In Spain, after the death of F. Franco in 1975, King Juan Carlos I became the head of state. With his approval, the transition from an authoritarian regime to a democratic one began. The government headed by A. Suarez restored democratic freedoms and lifted the ban on the activities of political parties. In December 1978, a constitution was adopted proclaiming Spain a social and legal state. Since 1982, the Spanish Socialist Workers' Party has been in power, its leader F. Gonzalez headed the country's government. Particular attention was paid to measures to increase production and create jobs. In the first half of the 1980s. the government carried out a number of important social measures (reduction of the working week, increase in holidays, adoption of laws expanding the rights of workers in enterprises, etc.). The party aspired to social stability, achievement of the consent between different layers of the Spanish society. The result of the policy of the socialists, who were in power continuously until 1996, was the completion of the peaceful transition from dictatorship to a democratic society.
Crisis of 1974-1975 seriously complicated the economic and social situation in most Western European countries. Changes were needed, a restructuring of the economy. There were no resources for it under the existing economic and social policy, state regulation of the economy did not work. Conservatives tried to give an answer to the challenge of time. Their focus on a free market economy, private enterprise and initiative was well aligned with the objective need for extensive investment in production.
In the late 70s - early 80s. conservatives came to power in many Western countries. In 1979, the Conservative Party won the parliamentary elections in Great Britain, the government was headed by M. Thatcher (the party remained ruling until 1997) - In 1980, Republican R. Reagan was elected president of the United States, who also won the 1984 elections. In 1982 In Germany, a coalition of the CDU / CSU and the FDP came to power, G. Kohl took the post of chancellor. The long-term rule of the Social Democrats in the countries of Northern Europe was interrupted. They were defeated in elections in 1976 in Sweden and Denmark, in 1981 in Norway.
The figures who came to power during this period were not in vain called the new conservatives. They have shown that they can look ahead and are capable of change. They were distinguished by political flexibility and assertiveness, appeal to the general population. Thus, the British conservatives, led by M. Thatcher, came out in defense of the "true values of British society", which included diligence and thrift; neglect of lazy people; independence, self-reliance and striving for individual success; respect for laws, religion, the foundations of the family and society; contributing to the preservation and enhancement of the national greatness of Britain. The slogans of creating a "democracy of owners" were also used.
The main components of the neoconservatives' policy were the privatization of the public sector and the curtailment of state regulation of the economy; course towards a free market economy; cuts in social spending; reduction in income taxes (which contributed to the revitalization of entrepreneurial activity). Equalization and the principle of redistribution of profits were rejected in social policy. The first steps of the neoconservatives in the field of foreign policy led to a new round of the arms race, an aggravation of the international situation (a vivid manifestation of this was the war between Great Britain and Argentina over the Falkland Islands in 1983).
The encouragement of private entrepreneurship, the course towards the modernization of production contributed to the dynamic development of the economy, its restructuring in accordance with the needs of the unfolding information revolution. Thus, the conservatives proved that they are capable of transforming society. In Germany, the most important historical event was added to the achievements of this period - the unification of Germany in 1990, participation in which put G. Kohl among the most significant figures in German history. At the same time, during the years of the Conservatives' rule, protests by various groups of the population for social and civil rights did not stop (including the British miners' strike in 1984-1985, protests in the FRG against the deployment of American missiles, etc.).
In the late 90s. In many European countries, conservatives have been replaced by liberals. In 1997, the Labor government headed by E. Blair came to power in Great Britain, and in France, following the results of parliamentary elections, a government was formed from representatives of leftist parties. In 1998, the leader of the Social Democratic Party, G. Schroeder, became Chancellor of Germany. In 2005, he was replaced as chancellor by the representative of the CDU / CSU bloc A. Merkel, who headed the “grand coalition” government, consisting of representatives of Christian Democrats and Social Democrats. Even earlier in France, the left-wing government was replaced by a right-wing government. However, in the mid-10s. 21st century in Spain and Italy, right-wing governments, as a result of parliamentary elections, were forced to cede power to governments led by socialists.
The countries of this region have much in common in the ways of historical and socio-economic development, especially in the 20th century. After the end of the Second World War, they all began to carry out socialist transformations. The crisis of authoritarian-bureaucratic socialism led to the fact that at the turn of the 80-90s. New qualitative changes took place in the countries of this region, which had a great impact on the socio-economic and socio-political life of both these countries and the entire world community. The following factors were of greatest importance.
1. The collapse of the Soviet Union in 1991, the assertion of political independence first of the three former Baltic republics, and then the rest 12.
2. Massive, mostly peaceful (except where an armed uprising took place) people's democratic revolutions of 1989-1990, which entailed profound transformations in all spheres of life. These changes are a reflection of the global democratic trend. Their essence lies in the transition from totalitarianism to parliamentary pluralism (multi-party system), to civil society, to the rule of law. Anti-totalitarian revolutions in Eastern Europe have acquired an anti-communist orientation. This process also leads to profound transformations in the economy: a new type of economy is being formed, based on a real variety of forms of ownership, and the expansion of commodity-money relations. A new important aspect of the development of Eastern European countries at the present stage is their "return to Europe". It is expressed primarily in the beginning of the development of the integration ties of these countries with the European Union. The current stage in the life of Eastern countries is further complicated by the fact that the collapse of the totalitarian regime in them has revealed the true picture of interethnic conflicts that have accumulated in this region, and some of them have taken on acute forms: the position of the Muslim (Turkish) population in; begins to put forward demands for the annexation of Transcarpathia, transferred to the USSR in June 1945; Polish national minorities are striving to create autonomy in this country; position of a national minority in Yugoslavia, an acute conflict.
3. Termination of the activities of the Warsaw Treaty Organization and the Council for Mutual Economic Assistance, which seriously affected the political and economic situation in Europe.
5. The disintegration of Czechoslovakia into (with a capital in) and Slovakia (with a capital in Bratislava), which ended on January 1, 1993.
6. Changing the nature of the activities of the North Atlantic bloc (NATO) and its relations with the former socialist countries of Europe, which meant the end of the Cold War and the change in the international situation from confrontation to cooperation and mutual understanding, the democratization of international life.
7. The collapse of the SFRY, which, like the collapse of the Soviet Union, had deep socio-political roots, Yugoslavia as a single independent state was proclaimed on December 1, 1918, and until 1929 it was called the Kingdom of Serbs and Slovenes.
Although, and Vojvodina, which was previously part of the Austro-Hungarian Empire, were the most economically developed, the ruling circles of Serbia sought to occupy a dominant position in the country and advocated a centralized one. This led to the aggravation of Serbo-Croatian relations, to the active struggle of the political forces of Croatia for the independence of the state. The confrontation between Serbia and Croatia was especially large-scale during the Second World War, when Yugoslavia was occupied. At that time, a pro-fascist regime was established on the territory of Croatia, which pursued a policy of genocide against the population.
In 1946, after the liberation of the country, a new constitution was adopted, which actually consolidated the federal principle of the country's structure. However, in practice, Yugoslavia remained a unitary state, where the League of Communists had a monopoly on power, excluding any possibility of eliminating bureaucratic centralism. Meanwhile, there were profound differences in the level of economic development of the republics in the country: for example, in Slovenia, the gross national product per capita was 2.5 times higher than in Serbia, Slovenia provided almost 30% of Yugoslavia's exports, although the population here was 3 times less than in Serbia.
It was traditionally considered a stronghold of the federation, and other republics perceived it with hostility, as the ruling circles of Serbia seized leadership positions in the country. Being economically more developed, Slovenia and Croatia did not want to share their income with the poorer republics. This was regarded as a manifestation of national egoism, since it was believed that socialism is, first of all, a division of the common wealth. Therefore, it is obvious that the most important reason for the collapse of the SFRY was the general crisis of socialism. During the parliamentary elections in 1991, Serbia remained loyal to the socialist choice, while in Slovenia and Croatia, anti-communist forces came to power. The civil war that broke out then was only covered by "national clothes", in fact, it was the social incompatibility of various political groups within the federation.
On October 8, 1991, the parliaments of Slovenia and Croatia confirmed the full independence of these republics, and in January 1992, all EU member states recognized this independence. Declared state independence as well. Serbia and Montenegro united to form the Federal Republic of Yugoslavia, which declared itself the legal successor of the SFRY. The complete disintegration of Yugoslavia does not mean the liquidation of the Yugoslav crisis, which strongly affects the situation throughout Europe: the bloody ethnic conflict continues in Bosnia and Herzegovina; the center of tension remains the autonomous province of Kosovo within Serbia; difficult situation has developed around the independent Macedonia - a republic with a very complex population.
So, in recent years, new independent states have appeared in Eastern Europe. They are going through a complex and painful process of formation of national economies, entry into the world community, formation of relations with neighbors in the economic and European space.
Topic № 2.3 Countries of Central and Eastern Europe in the late 20th early 21st century.
Eastern Europe in the second half of the 20th century
Most of the countries of modern Eastern Europe - Poland, Czechoslovakia, Hungary - appeared on the political map of the world after the First World War. These were mainly agrarian and agrarian-industrial states, moreover, they had territorial claims against each other. In the interwar period, they became hostages of the relations between the great powers, a "bargaining chip" in their confrontation. Ultimately, they became dependent on Nazi Germany.
The subordinate, dependent nature of the position of the states of Eastern Europe did not change after the Second World War.
Eastern Europe in the orbit of influence of the USSR
After the defeat of fascism, coalition governments came to power in almost all Eastern European countries. They were represented by anti-fascist parties - communists, social democrats, liberals. The first transformations were of a general democratic nature and were aimed at eradicating the remnants of fascism, restoring the destroyed
economy war. Agrarian reforms were carried out, aimed at the elimination of landownership. Part of the land was transferred to the poorest peasants, part was transferred to the state, which created large farms.
With the aggravation of contradictions between the USSR, the USA and Great Britain and the beginning of the Cold War, polarization of political forces took place in the countries of Eastern Europe. In 1947-1948. all who did not share communist views were ousted from governments.
The transition of power to the communists took place peacefully, without a civil war. A number of circumstances contributed to this. On the territory of most Eastern European countries were Soviet troops. The authority of the communists, won by them during the years of the struggle against fascism, was quite high. They established close cooperation with other left parties, in a number of countries they managed to unite with the Social Democrats. The electoral blocs created by the communists received from 80 to 90% of the votes in the elections (including in Albania and Yugoslavia, on the territory of which there were no USSR troops). The anti-communist parties and their leaders had no opportunity to challenge the results of these elections. In 1947, the King of Romania, Mihai, abdicated, in 1948, the President of Czechoslovakia, Eduard Benes, was forced to resign. He was replaced by Klement Gottwald, leader of the Communist Party.
The pro-Soviet regimes in Eastern European countries were called "people's democratic". Many of them retained the remnants of a multi-party system. Political parties in Poland, Bulgaria, Czechoslovakia, East Germany, which recognized the leading role of the communists, were not dissolved, their representatives were given seats in parliaments and governments.
The Soviet path of development was taken as the basis for the transformation model. By the beginning of the 1950s. banks and most of the industry passed into the ownership of the state. Small business, and even then on an extremely limited scale, survived only in the service sector. Everywhere (except Poland and Yugoslavia) the socialization of agriculture was carried out. In those Eastern European countries where industry was poorly developed, the most important task was to carry out industrialization, primarily the development of energy, mining and heavy industry.
Using the experience of the USSR, a cultural revolution was carried out - illiteracy was eliminated, universal free secondary education was introduced, higher educational institutions were created. The system of social protection (medical, pension provision) was developed.
The USSR provided great assistance to the states of Eastern Europe with food, equipment for plants and factories. This has led to tangible economic successes. By 1950, the volume of GDP production in the countries of Eastern Europe, both in absolute terms and per capita, had doubled compared to 1938. By this time, most of the countries of Western Europe had only restored the pre-war level of development.
The dependence of the Eastern European countries on the USSR increased after the Information Bureau of the Communist and Workers' Parties (Informburo or Kominform) was created in 1947. It included the ruling parties of the countries of Eastern Europe, as well as the communist parties of France and Italy. They were managed centrally. In resolving any issues, the position of the USSR played a decisive role. I.V. Stalin was very negative about any manifestations of independence on the part of the ruling parties of the Eastern European countries. He was extremely dissatisfied with the intention of the leaders of Bulgaria and Yugoslavia - Georgy Dimitrov and Josip Broz Tito to conclude a Treaty of Friendship and Mutual Assistance. It was supposed to include a clause on counteracting "any aggression, no matter from which side it comes." Dimitrov and Tito came up with a plan to create a confederation of Eastern European countries. The Soviet leadership saw this as a threat to its influence on the countries liberated from fascism.
In response, the USSR severed relations with Yugoslavia. The Information Bureau called on the Yugoslav communists to overthrow the Tito regime. Transformations in Yugoslavia proceeded in the same way as in neighboring countries. The economy was controlled by the state, all power belonged to the communist party. Nevertheless, the regime of I. Tito, right up to the death of Stalin, was called fascist.
In 1948-1949. a wave of massacres swept through the countries of Eastern Europe over everyone who was suspected of sympathizing with the ideas of Tito. At the same time, as earlier in the USSR, representatives of independent-minded intelligentsia, communists, who did not please their leaders in any way, were classified as “enemies of the people”. In Bulgaria, after the death of G. Dimitrov, a hostile attitude towards Yugoslavia also took root. Any dissent was eradicated in the socialist countries.
In the Soviet orbit of influence. In the first post-war years, thanks to the support of the USSR, the communists established their undivided power in almost all countries of Eastern Europe. The communist parties of the CSEE countries proclaimed an official course towards building the foundations of socialism. The Soviet model of socio-economic and political development was taken as a model: the priority of the state in the economy, accelerated industrialization, collectivization, the virtual elimination of private property, the dictatorship of the communist parties, the forcible introduction of Marxist ideology, anti-religious propaganda, etc. 1949 Council for Mutual Economic Assistance(CMEA) and in 1955. military-political Warsaw Pact organizations(OVD) the formation of the socialist camp was finally completed.
Crises and upheavals. Despite relative economic progress, many people in Eastern Europe were dissatisfied with the policies of the communist government. Mass demonstrations of workers swept GDR (1953), strikes and riots took place in Poland (1956).
IN late October 1956. Hungary found itself on the brink of civil war: armed clashes began between workers and law enforcement forces, and cases of reprisals against communists became more frequent. Nagy(Prime Minister of Hungary) announced the government's intention to withdraw from the Warsaw Pact and turn Hungary into a neutral state. Under these conditions, the leadership of the USSR decided on quick and immediate action. Soviet armored units were brought into Budapest to "restore order". These events are called budapest autumn».
IN 1968 liberal reforms in Czechoslovakia were initiated by the first secretary of the Central Committee of the Communist Party A. Dubcek. In an attempt to weaken party-state control over all spheres of life, he called for the construction of "socialism with a human face." The leaders of the ruling party and the state essentially raised the question of the rejection of socialism. The ATS countries, led by the USSR, sent their troops to Prague. Dubcek was removed from his post, and the new leadership of the Communist Party of Czechoslovakia severely suppressed the activities of the ideological opposition. The events of 1968 were called " prague spring».
Independent course I. Broz Tito. Of all the countries of the socialist camp, Yugoslavia was practically the only one that was not subject to Soviet influence. I. Broz Tito established communist rule in Yugoslavia, but pursued a course independent of Moscow. He refused to join the WTS and declared neutrality in the Cold War. The so-called Yugoslav model of socialism developed in the country, which included self-management in production and elements of a market economy. There was more ideological freedom in Yugoslavia than in other countries of the socialist camp. At the same time, an unconditional monopoly on power was maintained by one party - the Union of Communists of Yugoslavia.
Poland's fight for democracy. Perhaps the most problematic ally of the USSR was Poland. Like the Hungarians and Czechs, the Poles also sought greater independence. After the unrest and strikes of 1956, the Polish government carried out some reforms. But dissatisfaction still persisted. The leading force of the Polish opposition was the Roman Catholic Church. In 1980, a new wave of workers' protests swept across Poland. Gdansk became the center of the strike movement. Here, with the active participation of Catholic figures and representatives of opposition groups, an intersectoral trade union organization "Solidarity" was created. The new trade union has become an influential political force. Solidarity launched a broad anti-communist agitation and demanded political changes. The authorities declared a state of emergency, banned the activities of Solidarity and arrested its leaders. The Polish leadership, headed by W. Jaruzelski, temporarily stabilized the situation.
"Velvet Revolutions". Started in the USSR in the late 1980s. perestroika, associated with the new leader of the USSR, MS Gorbachev, served as an impetus for the latest series of reforms in Eastern European countries, in which the political initiative passed into the hands of opposition, anti-communist parties and movements.
IN 1989 Solidarity was legalized in Poland and free parliamentary elections were held for the first time in 50 years. A year later, the leader of Solidarity won the presidential election. L. Walesa. The new leadership began the difficult transition to a market economy. Mass strikes and demonstrations in the fall of 1989 led to the removal from power of the communist governments in the GDR, Czechoslovakia, Bulgaria, and Romania. The Berlin Wall was destroyed and in 1990 the reunification of the German people took place. The collapse of the socialist state in Hungary ended with democratic elections in the spring of 1990. In Romania, mass demonstrations escalated into armed clashes with casualties. N. Ceausescu, who refused to make concessions, was removed from power and shot without trial or investigation. The rapid change of power and the bloodless nature of events in the former socialist states (with the exception of Romania) gave reason to call them " velvet revolutions».
Elimination of communist regimes in the countries of Central and South-Eastern Europe in 1989-1991. led to the collapse of the socialist system, the restoration of capitalism in the Eastern European states and a change in the balance of power on a global scale. The Department of Internal Affairs and the CMEA ceased to exist.
