Monarchs of Europe. Who now reckons with the monarchs of Europe?
The British royal family may be the most famous, but they are far from the only ones. In fact, there are 43 countries where a monarchy exists. Yes, 43 different countries ruled by 28 royal families (some under the rule of a single monarch).
Today we have compiled a gallery of royal families around the world. What are you waiting for? Put on your fake crown, make your tea, and start reading!
United Kingdom: Queen Elizabeth II
Image Source: Getty/Samir HusseinLong live the queen! Queen Elizabeth II became the longest-reigning monarch in the United Kingdom, dating back to 1952. In addition, the Queen is the monarch of the Commonwealth of 15 countries - Canada, Australia, New Zealand, Jamaica, Barbados, Bahamas, Grenada, Papua New Guinea, Solomon Islands, Tuvalu, St. Lucia, St. Vincent and the Grenadines, Antigua and Barbuda , Belize, Saint Kitts and Nevis.
The monarch in the UK is the head of state, but the ability to create laws still lies with the elected parliament.
Since they are the most prominent royal family, you may already know that Queen Elizabeth II has four children with her husband Prince Philip, 8 grandchildren and six great-grandchildren.
Saudi Arabia: King Salman
The head of Saudi Arabia is King Salman bin Abdulaziz Al Saud. Since Saudi Arabia is an absolute monarchy, Salman is not only the country's monarch, but also the prime minister. Salman became king in 2013 at the age of 79, after his half-brother King Abdullah (who was 90) died. According to washington post Although Saudi Arabia is currently governed by a hereditary king, all future kings will be chosen by a committee of Saudi princes founded in 2006.
Kuwait: Emir Sheikh Sabah IJ Al-Ahmad Al-Sabah
Image Source: Getty/Pool Sabah Ahmed AS-Sabah has been involved in politics in Kuwait for many years. He was prime minister in 2003 and became emir (or king) of the country in 2006. Although Sabah has ruled the country for over a decade, he was not actually next in line to the throne. He took this position because the heir was unable to fulfill the oath due to health problems. He is currently the head of the royal family and commander of the Kuwaiti Armed Forces. Sabah has four children and is now 88 years old.
Liechtenstein: Prince Hans-Adam II
Image Source: Getty/Sean Gallup As the eldest son of Prince Joseph II and Princess Gina, Prince Hans-Adam II inherited the throne of Liechtenstein upon his father's death in 1989. Surprisingly, Prince Hans-Adam, the first prince of Liechtenstein, actually grew up in Liechtenstein, and he is the country's 15th ruler.
The prince is married to Countess Marie Kinski of Wcinitz and Tettau, and the couple has four children, three sons and one daughter. Their eldest, hereditary Prince Alois, had already been named as his father's successor when he died.
Although Prince Hans-Adam rules a small country, he is the richest prince in Europe, according to Forbes, his fortune was estimated at $3.5 billion in 2011.
Qatar: Emir Tamim bin Hamad Al Thani
Sheikh Tamim Bin Hamad Al Thani was named emir of Qatar in 2013 after his father abdicated the throne after an 18-year reign.
The Al Thani family is part of a dynasty of rulers in Qatar that has ruled since 1825, and many other family members hold key positions in the country's government, facilitating Tamim's role as emir.
United Arab Emirates: President Sheikh Khalifa Bin Zayed Al Nahyan, Emir of Abu Dhabi
Image source: Getty/WPA Pool The United Arab Emirates is made up of seven districts, each ruled by a hereditary monarch known as an emir. The Emir of Abu Dhabi is the President of the Federation, and therefore the monarch to whom the other districts submit. The current Emir of Abu Dhabi (and President of the United Arab Emirates) is Khalifa Bin Zayed Al Nahyan, who took office in 2004 after the death of his father. He has eight children, meaning the throne (and presidency) should remain in the family for many years to come.
Netherlands: King Willem-Alexander
In 2013, King Willem-Alexander (left) succeeded his mother, Queen Beatrix, as monarch of the Netherlands when she decided to abdicate the throne. Because Holland has a bicameral parliament, it does not govern directly, but it has the power of the President of the Council of State.
King Willem-Alexander is married to Queen Maxima and they have three children, Princess Catharina-Amalia, Princess Alexia and Princess Ariana.
According to Dutch news, the royal family costs taxpayers around 40 million euros a year, not including security, making the Dutch monarchy one of the most expensive in Europe.
Swaziland: King Mswati III
Image Source: Getty/Brendan SMIALOWSKI Swaziland may not be a big country, but King Mswati III has a lot of power. Mswati took the throne at the age of 18 (in 1983) after the death of his father. As King of Swaziland, he appoints Parliament, although some of its members are elected by popular vote. Mswati, now 49, is known for having many wives: he married his 14th in September 2017, according to Africa News.
The king reportedly divorced three wives during his time as monarch and has more than 30 children.
Brunei: Sultan Sir Muda Hassanal Bolkiah Muizzadin Waddaula
Image Source: Getty/Suhaimi Abdullah The Sultan of Brunei is known as Hassanal Bolkiah - even though his name is much longer than that. He took over the small country in 1967 and has been monarch and head of government ever since. In 2016, Hassanal Bolkiah is considered the richest monarch in the world, and he has a large, expensive car collection to prove it. According to the publication, His Majesty earns almost $100 per second from oil revenues (and other investments), which amounts to approximately $2 billion a year, for a total net worth of about $20 billion.
The Sultan has 13 children (from many different wives) to share this wealth.
Sweden: King Carl XVI Gustaf
Image source: Getty/Patrick Van Cutwijk King Carl XVI Gustaf ascended to the throne in 1973, when he was only 27 years old. His reign was chronicled in 2010 when a book was released which claimed the king had an affair with a Swedish-Nigerian singer and was involved in an underground hot tub nightclub in the 1990s.
Despite the scandal, the king still remains the head of Sweden and has been married to Queen Silvia (since 1976). Together they have three children. The eldest is Crown Princess Victoria, who will take the throne when her father decides to retire or, more likely, when he dies. The king also has two other children - Princess Madeleine and Prince Carl Philip.
Crown Princess Victoria has two children of her own - Princess Estelle (5) and Prince Oscar (1) with her husband Prince Daniel Westling.
Oman: Sultan Qaboos Bin Said
Image Source: Getty / – In 1970, Sultan Qaboos bin Said came to power after overthrowing his father, who was known as a “recluse.” Sultan Qaboos is the longest reigning Arab leader, and yet, after a failed marriage, he has no direct heirs, which is very interesting. Despite his bachelor status, Sultan Qaboos is a true father of his country, he improved the economy and the standard of living of the people throughout his reign.
He rarely appears in public these days, but he still holds all the important titles in the Omani government, being Foreign Minister, Defense Minister, Finance Minister and Chairman of the Central Bank.
Bahrain: King Hamad bin Isa Al Khalifa
Image source: Getty/MANDEL NGAN King Hamad Bin Isa Al Khalifa was named Emir of Bahrain in 1999 when his father, Isa Bin Salman Al Khalifa, died. In 2002, Hamad declared himself monarch, becoming the first king of Bahrain in the country's history. His family, however, has ruled the country since 1783 and has always had a lot of power.
King Hamad has 12 children from several wives.
Vatican: Pope Francis
Image Source: Getty/Franco Origlia We know what you're thinking: this is the Pope, he's a religious leader and the head of the Roman Catholic Church. And you'll be right. But Pope Francis is also considered the monarch of the Vatican, which is a European city-state.
The Vatican City State is an absolute monarchy, and the Pope is its head (king, technically). He has full legislative, executive and judicial powers. When a pope dies and no other is named, the country is governed by a college of cardinals who ultimately name the next single pope/king/ruler.
Jordan: King Abdullah II
Jordan has been ruled by King Abdullah II since 1999, when he ascended the throne after the death of his father, King Hussein. King Abdullah is married to Queen Rania of Jordan, and their eldest child (one of four), a son named Hussein, the Crown Prince of Jordan, is set to take the throne when his father leaves him.
King Abdullah and his relatives claim to be direct descendants of the Prophet Muhammad, making him the 41st descendant of the founder of the Islamic faith.
Morocco: King Mohammed VI
Image source: Getty/Christophe Morin/IP3 In 1999, King Mohammed VI ascended the throne after the death of his father King Hassan II. Mohammed is married to Princess Lalla Salma and they have two children - son Crown Prince Moulay Hassan and daughter Princess Lalla Khadija. Mohammed's official title is “His Majesty King Mohammed the sixth, Commander of the Faithful, may God grant him Victory.”
Monaco: Prince Albert II
Image Source: Getty/Pascal Le Segretain Prince Albert II has ruled Monaco since 2005. He is the son of Prince Rainier III and Princess Grace (actress Grace Kelly). He married Charlene Wittstock and had two children with her - twins Princess Gabriella Teresa Marie and Prince Jacques Honore Rainier. Prince Albert has two more children with two other women.
Monaco is a sovereign principality, but it also has an elected legislature. Prince Albert, however, appoints the Minister of State and has some political power.
Thailand: King Maha Vajiralongkorn
Image source: Getty/AFP At the age of 64, King Maha Vajiralongkorn Bodindradebayavarangkun (don't break your tongue!) became the 10th monarch of the Chakri dynasty. He is also known as Rama X. King Vajiralongkorn became the ruler of Thailand after his father, King Bhumibol Adulyadej, died in 2016, according to the BBC. He was the longest reigning monarch in the world. He ruled the country for seven decades, starting in 1946 and ending in 2016. Even Queen Elizabeth II did not surpass him. But she is still of sound mind and quite healthy.
Tonga: King Tupou VI
Image Source: Getty/Edwina Pickles/Fairfax Media The King of Tonga was not the son of his predecessor. Tupou VI was the brother of the late King George Tupou V, who had no legal heirs when he died in 2012. King Tupou VI is actually married to Nanasipau Tukuaho and has three children, so his legacy will continue.
Norway: King Harald V
Image source: Getty/Patrick Van Cutwijk King Harald V is the third child of King Olaf V and Queen Martha, but he ascended to the throne when his father died in 1991 because he was the sole heir. Although he had two older sisters, they, according to the Norwegian Constitution of 1814, could not be heirs due to their gender. It was not until 1990 (at one time Harald V had already been named as successor) that the constitution was changed to make the eldest child, regardless of gender, next in line to the throne.
Since King Harald V and his wife, Queen Sonja, had children of their own before the constitutional change took effect, their eldest daughter Princess Märtha, who was born in 1971, cannot be the next monarch. Instead, her younger brother, Crown Prince Haakon, born in 1973, is next in line, followed by his firstborn, who is a girl (yay!). Prince Haakon has three children (one adopted), two boys and one girl, with his wife Princess Mette-Marit.
The best thing about the Norwegian royal family is that it is rooted in love. Back in the 60s, the current king refused to marry a princess and married the daughter of a clothing merchant - a commoner. According to Norway's official website, the current king and queen dated secretly for nine years before they were allowed to marry, and the rest is history!
Bhutan: King Jigme Khesar Namgyel Wangchuk
Image Source: Getty/RAVENDRAN In Bhutan, King Jigme Khesar Namgyel Wangchuck is known as Druk Gyalpo, which means “Dragon King,” which is pretty cool. He was officially crowned in 2008 after taking over most royal duties in 2006 when his father abdicated the throne. King Jigma was only 26 years old when he came to power, but his father was only 16 years old when he became king, so young blood is something of a trend in the Bhutanese royal family.
King Jigme Father made Bhutan a constitutional monarchy, and today's king has followed in his footsteps, maintaining peace and being loved by the people of his country.
The king, however, caused quite a stir when he married a commoner in 2011. But after he officially tied the knot with Jetsun Pema, the people finally approved. Together, the happy couple has one son, Jigme Namgyel Wangchuck, who was born in February 2016 and is now heir to the throne.
Lesotho: King Letsie III
Image Source: Getty/Chris Jackson King Letsie III has been in power formally since 1996 (and informally since 1990). Although he has no political power and is an official of the country of Lesotho, he is described as a “living symbol of national unity.”
Belgium: King Philippe
Image source: Getty/Patrick Van Cutwijk King Philippe ascended to the Belgian throne in July 2013 following the abdication of his father, King Albert II. The King is married to Queen Matilda (they married in 1999) and they have four children: Princess Elizabeth, Prince Gabriel, Prince Emmanuel and Princess Eleanor.
In 1991, the Constitution was changed to allow a woman to ascend the throne, meaning that the heir to the Belgian monarchy is the eldest daughter, Princess Elisabeth.
Malaysia: Muhammad V
Image Source: Getty/MANAN VATSYAYANA In 2016, Sultan Muhammad V became the 15th king and was given the title Yang di Pertuan Agong, which means “He who became Lord.”
Muhammad's predecessor, Sultan Abdul Halim mu'adzam Shah, is king twice. Once in the 1970s and again from 2011 to 2016. The Sultan's reign will likely last five years, which is the norm for any Malaysian king (who is always part of an elected monarchy system), and his role is largely ceremonial.
Spain: King Felipe VI
Image Source: Getty/Carlos Alvarez In 2014, King Juan Carlos surprised his country by abdicating the throne after 39 years of service. He named his son Felipe the new King of Spain, and in less than three weeks Felipe VI became monarch and head of the Spanish army.
King Juan Carlos is currently married to Queen Letizia, and together they have two daughters: Leonor, Princess of Asturias, who is heir to the throne (11 years old) and her younger sister, Princess Sofia (now 10 years old).
Cambodia: King Norodom Sihamoni
Image source: Getty/AFP Cambodia is one of many countries with a ceremonial king. King Norodom Sihamoni took over the role in 2004 after the Royal Throne Council of Thailand chose him (as is the custom with any new king).
He's probably an unconventional choice because he was a professional dancer who lived most of his life in France, but he won the case.
Luxembourg: Grand Duke Henri
Image Source: Getty/Max Mumby/Indigo In the 1800s, the King of the Netherlands established the Grand Duchy of Luxembourg, and in 1839 the people gained their independence. In 1890, Luxembourg became a grand duchy and as such their monarchy is headed by a duke rather than a king.
Since then, direct descendants of the first Duke Adolphus have ruled Luxembourg. The last ruler is Grand Duke Henri, who ascended the throne in 2000, and since he has five children, the legacy will continue after him. A Grand Duchy may have a sovereign, but its power is in the hands of the nation. Grand Duke Henri follows the rule “The Sovereign reigns, but does not rule.”
Japan: Emperor Akihito
Image Source: Getty/Minh HOANG The Yamato Dynasty of Japan dates back to 660 and its current ruler is Emperor Akihito. He has reigned since 1989 and will be the first Japanese ruler in two centuries to be allowed to abdicate in December 2018 (on his 85th birthday).
Akihito will pass the throne to his eldest son, Crown Prince Naruhito.
Denmark: Queen Margrethe II
Modern European monarchies are perhaps one of the most discussed topics regarding Europe. Some are happy about the preserved traditions of governance and, accordingly, stand strongly for monarchies in the EU, while others are very dissatisfied and call the reigning families a sham and nothing else. And the latter are right in many ways: the royals have forgotten about their responsibilities.
Alexander Zakatov: Monarch - like a conductor
There are still debates in society about the position of the so-called reigning royalty of Europe. Some argue that the European monarchs of our time do not have any real power, being decorative figures and embodying only a symbol of national traditions and past greatness; others believe that monarchs are sent down from above for good purposes.
Quantity or quality?
There are more than 230 states in the world. Of these, only 41 countries have a monarchical form of government. Today, the monarchy is a very flexible and diverse system, ranging from the tribal form operating in Arab states to the monarchical version of the democratic countries of Europe. Europe ranks second in the world in terms of the number of monarchical states. There are 12 monarchies located here. The monarchy is presented here in a limited form - in countries that are considered leaders in the EU (Great Britain, the Netherlands, Belgium, Luxembourg, etc.), as well as an absolute form of government - in small states: Monaco, Liechtenstein, the Vatican. The quality of life in these countries is different. The influence of monarchs on the governance of the country also varies.
Monarchy: good or evil?
Monarchy is not only a form of government, it is a set of certain ideas of state, spiritual and social order. Monarchy is characterized by the principles of unity of command, hereditary power and the primacy of the moral principle. In Orthodoxy, the monarch was perceived as a person sent by God to serve his people. To this we can add that the monarchy is a universal form of organization of a nation, which, in fact, can coexist with most modern socio-economic and socio-political models. But for decades, liberals and socialists have been systematically pursuing the idea that the monarchy is an outdated and outdated form of government, which should be replaced by a republican, more perfect form.
Various considerations have been put forward to support this. Firstly, many countries in the world have already abandoned the monarchy or are maintaining it out of inertia. Monarchs in such countries are only a “beautiful tradition”, without playing any significant role in the domestic and foreign policies of their states. Secondly, proof of the “regressiveness” of the monarchy is the fact that after its fall there were no attempts to return to it. These theories have many adherents. But it cannot be said unequivocally that monarchy is evil, since many European monarchies occupy leading positions in the world.
The moral component of modern monarchs
Some experts, discussing the benefits and harms of the monarchy, cite England, Spain, Sweden and Norway as examples. These countries have retained the normal monarchical regime, and the monarchs in them are not only symbolic figures, but actually govern the state. Proponents of the idea that monarchs in these countries have real authority refer to the basic laws of states, according to which monarchs have serious powers of power. So, for example, the Queen of Great Britain appoints the government, has the right to dissolve parliament, and not a single bill that was passed by parliament is considered valid without the signature of the monarch. Their opponents respond by saying that all these provisions are nothing more than a formality, since power in reality lies in the hands of the party oligarchy. Monarchs must bring high morality to the people and be authorities in society.
Do modern monarchs of Western Europe meet the requirements of the moral ideal? In most cases, the answer to this question (excluding Luxembourg and Liechtenstein) is a resounding no. Moreover, monarchies not only do not correspond to the moral values in the minds of the people, but even condone the propaganda of lack of spirituality. In these monarchical states, sodomy and debauchery flourish, the nation is degenerating, the authority of the Church has reached its lowest level.
So, for example, in the UK, gay pride parades have been held through the streets of London for 35 years, often with the support of the government. Three years ago, about half a million people took part in the London gay pride parade, and approximately 800 thousand Londoners followed the action. Traditionally, organized columns of employees from various British ministries, rescue services and trade unions participate in the parade.
This support from official structures is the best indicator of British attitudes towards homosexuals. Gay politicians themselves today openly declare their gay orientation: Ben Bradshaw, Minister of Culture, Sports and Media; Chris Bryant, Deputy Minister of Foreign Affairs; Nick Herbert, shadow minister for the environment. The Anglican Church is not in a better position either. Its halls are actively rented out, not only for wedding events, but also for language courses, various sports competitions or interest clubs.
Another distinctive feature is that no monarchy in Europe is absolute, which once again emphasizes the high level of European democracy. However, the Vatican is, from a legal point of view, an absolute monarchy. This is the most microscopic (territory - 0.44 sq. km, population - about 1000 people) state in Western Europe, with a huge history and an interesting form of government. The head of state is the Pope, who is elected to his position by the College of Cardinals for life. The Pope has full legislative, executive and judicial power. Under him (under the Pope) there is a legislative body (the same College of Cardinals). The most interesting thing is that the Vatican practically has its own Constitution, or more precisely, the Constitutional Acts of the Vatican City State of June 7, 1929.
Based on the above facts, it turns out that due to the presence of all three levers of power by the Pope, the Vatican monarchy is absolute; the fact of a state church makes it theocratic, and the presence of constitutional acts makes it semi-constitutional. That is, in the Vatican there is an absolute theocratic semi-constitutional monarchy.
But when listing these facts, it should be borne in mind that the presence of statehood in a country like the Vatican is just a tribute to the medieval traditions of Europe.
In our time, there is a problem “rich North - poor South”, the same trend can be noticed to one degree or another in monarchies, that is the further south the monarchy is, the more absolute it is. So from the northern monarchies one can cite the example of Sweden. This is a Northern European monarchy, which is even more limited than the English monarchy. The monarch in Sweden, according to the Constitution of 1974, has virtually no powers other than ceremonial ones: to open a meeting of parliament, to congratulate the population of the country on the New Year, etc. Those. the monarch in Sweden is just a symbol of the state on a par with the flag and anthem and nothing more, and according to European principles it is a tribute to tradition. Those. The Swedish monarchy can be called super-parliamentary.
Of the southern monarchies, Brunei can be cited as an example. An Asian state with the beginnings of parliamentarism and constitutionality. In 1984, when Brunei gained its independence, power passed into the hands of the Sultan. In this country there are no clearly defined bodies of legislative and executive power. Only Constitutional Councils, which are a kind of advisory body under the monarch, can act as legislative bodies.
Power in Brunei is concentrated in the hands of one autocratic monarch. Although at the moment Brunei resembles Russia at the beginning of the 20th century, because... The growth of the Brunei liberation movement is now visible.
That is, the Brunei monarchy is essentially absolute with insignificant rudiments of parliamentarism and democracy.
monarchy despotism muslim
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| No. | Region | A country | Form of government |
| E V R O P A | Great Britain (United Kingdom of Great Britain and Northern Ireland) | KM | |
| Spain (Kingdom of Spain) | KM | ||
| Belgium (Kingdom of Belgium) | KM | ||
| Netherlands (Kingdom of the Netherlands) | KM | ||
| Monaco (Principality of Monaco) | KM | ||
| Liechtenstein (Principality of Liechtenstein) | KM | ||
| Sweden (Kingdom of Sweden) | KM | ||
| Norway (Kingdom of Norway) | KM | ||
| Denmark (Kingdom of Denmark) | KM | ||
| Luxembourg (Grand Duchy of Luxembourg) | KM | ||
| Andorra (Principality of Andorra) | KM | ||
| Vatican | ATM | ||
| A Z I Z | Brunei (Brunei Darussalam) | ATM | |
| Saudi Arabia (Kingdom of Saudi Arabia) | ATM | ||
| Qatar (State of Qatar) | AM | ||
| Oman (Sultanate of Oman) | AM | ||
| Kuwait (State of Kuwait) | KM | ||
| Bahrain (State of Bahrain) | KM | ||
| United Arab Emirates (UAE) | KM | ||
| Bhutan (Kingdom of Bhutan) | KM | ||
| Cambodia (Kingdom of Cambodia) | KM | ||
| Thailand (Kingdom of Thailand) | KM | ||
| Malaysia (Federation of Malaysia) | KM | ||
| Japan | KM | ||
| Jordan (Hashemite Kingdom of Jordan) | KM | ||
| AFRICA | Morocco (Kingdom of Morocco) | KM | |
| Swaziland (Kingdom of Swaziland) | KM | ||
| Lesotho (Kingdom of Lesotho) | KM | ||
| Oceania | Tonga (Kingdom of Tonga) | KM |
Note: KM is a constitutional monarchy;
AM – absolute monarchy;
ATM is an absolute theocratic monarchy.
Republican form of government originated in antiquity, but became most widespread during the periods of modern and recent history. In 1991, there were 127 republics in the world, but after the collapse of the USSR and Yugoslavia, their total number exceeded 140.
Under a republican system, legislative power usually belongs to parliament, and executive power to the government. At the same time, a distinction is made between presidential, parliamentary and mixed republics.
Presidential republic characterized by the significant role of the president in the system of government bodies, combining in his hands the powers of the head of state and head of government. It is also called a dualistic republic, thereby emphasizing the fact that strong executive power is concentrated in the hands of the president, and legislative power in the hands of parliament.
Distinctive features of this form of government:
· extra-parliamentary method of electing the president (either by the population - Brazil, France, or by the electoral college - USA),
· extra-parliamentary method of forming a government, that is, it is formed by the president. The president is both formally and legally the head of the government (there is no post of prime minister, as, for example, in the USA), or he appoints the head of government. The government is responsible only to the president, and not to parliament, since only the president can dismiss him,
· in general, with this form of government, the president has much greater powers compared to a parliamentary republic (he is the head of the executive branch, approves laws by signing, has the right to dismiss the government), but in a presidential republic the president, as a rule, is deprived of the right to dissolve parliament , and parliament is deprived of the right to express no confidence in the government, but can remove the president (impeachment procedure).
The United States of America is a classic presidential republic. The US Constitution is based on the principle of separation of powers. According to this constitution, legislative power belongs to Congress, executive power to the President, and judicial power to the Supreme Court. The president, elected by an electoral college, forms a government of persons belonging to his party.
Presidential republics are common in Latin American countries. This form of government is also found in some countries in Asia and Africa. True, sometimes in these countries the power of the head of state actually goes beyond the constitutional framework, and, in particular, Latin American presidential republics were characterized by researchers as super-presidential.
Parliamentary (parliamentary) republic characterized by the proclamation of the principle of the supremacy of parliament, to which the government bears full responsibility for its activities.
In such a republic, the government is formed through parliamentary means from among the deputies of the parties that have a majority of votes in parliament. It remains in power as long as it has the support of a parliamentary majority. This form of government exists in countries with developed, largely self-regulating economies (Italy, Turkey, Germany, Greece, Israel). Elections in this system of democracy are usually held according to party lists, that is, voters vote not for a candidate, but for a party.
The main function of parliament, in addition to legislation, is control over the government. In addition, the parliament has important financial powers, since it develops and adopts the state budget, determines the paths of the country's socio-economic development, and resolves the main issues of the state's domestic, foreign and defense policy.
The head of state in such republics, as a rule, is elected by parliament or a specially formed broader board, which, along with members of parliament, includes representatives of the constituent entities of the federation or representative regional bodies of self-government. This is the main type of parliamentary control over the executive branch.
In Italy, for example, the president of the republic is elected by members of both chambers at their joint meeting, but three representatives from each region, elected by regional councils, participate in the elections. In the Federal Republic of Germany, the President is elected by the Federal Assembly, consisting of members of the Bundestag and the same number of persons elected by the Landtags of the states on the basis of proportional representation. In parliamentary republics, elections can also be general, for example, in Austria, where the president is elected by the population for a term of 6 years.
Under this form of government they talk about a “weak” president. However, the head of state has fairly broad powers. He promulgates laws, issues decrees, has the right to dissolve parliament, formally appoints the head of government (only the head of the party that won the elections), is the commander-in-chief of the armed forces, and has the right to grant amnesty to convicts.
The President, being the head of state, is not the head of the executive branch, that is, the government. The prime minister is formally appointed by the president, but can only be the head of the faction with a parliamentary majority, and not necessarily the head of the winning party. It should be noted that the government is competent to govern the state only when it enjoys the confidence of parliament.
Mixed Republic(also called a semi-presidential, semi-parliamentary, presidential-parliamentary republic) is a form of government that cannot be considered a type of either a presidential or a parliamentary republic. Among the modern ones, the fifth republic in France (after 1962), Portugal, Armenia, Lithuania, Ukraine and Slovakia are mixed.
A special form of government - socialist republic (which arose in the 20th century in a number of countries as a result of the victory of socialist revolutions). Its varieties: Soviet republic and people's democratic republic (former USSR, countries of Eastern Europe before 1991, as well as China, Vietnam, North Korea, Cuba, which remain socialist republics today).
The republican form of government can be considered the most progressive and democratic. It was chosen not only by economically developed states, but also by most Latin American countries, which freed themselves from colonial dependence in the last century, and almost all former colonies in Asia, which gained independence in the middle of this century, as well as African states, most of which achieved independence only in the 60-70s of the XX century. and even later.
At the same time, it must be borne in mind that such a progressive form of government does not at all unify the republics. They differ quite significantly from each other in political, social and other respects.
It should be noted that there is a unique form of government - interstate associations: Commonwealth, led by Great Britain (Commonwealth) And Commonwealth of Independent States(CIS, which includes Russia).
Legally, the British Commonwealth of Nations was formalized back in 1931. Then it included Great Britain and its dominions - Canada, Australia, New Zealand, the Union of South Africa, Newfoundland and Ireland. After the Second World War and the collapse of the British colonial empire, the Commonwealth included the vast majority of Britain's former possessions - about 50 countries with a total territory of more than 30 million km 2 and a population of over 1.2 billion people located in all parts of the world.
Members of the Commonwealth have the unconditional right to unilaterally withdraw from it whenever they wish. It was used by Myanmar (Burma), Ireland, and Pakistan. All states included in the Commonwealth have full sovereignty in their internal and external affairs.
In Commonwealth states that have a republican form of government, the Queen of Great Britain is proclaimed "the head of the Commonwealth... symbol of the free association of its independent member states." Some members of the Commonwealth - Canada, the Commonwealth of Australia (Australia), New Zealand, Papua New Guinea, Tuvalu, Mauritius, Jamaica and some others - are officially referred to as “states within the Commonwealth”. Supreme power in these countries formally continues to belong to the British monarch, who is represented in them by the Governor-General, appointed on the recommendation of the government of the given state. The highest body of the Commonwealth is the Conference of Heads of Government.
In 1991, simultaneously with the signing of the Belovezhsky Accords on the dissolution of the USSR, it was decided to create Commonwealth of Independent States(Russia, Ukraine, Belarus). Subsequently, all the former republics of the USSR, except the three Baltic states, joined the CIS. Goals: to promote the integration of the CIS member countries in the economic, political and humanitarian fields, to maintain and develop contacts and cooperation between the peoples and state institutions of the Commonwealth countries. The CIS is an open organization for other countries to join. Over the years, subregional associations have emerged within the CIS: the Central Asian Economic Community (Kazakhstan, Uzbekistan, Kyrgyzstan, Tajikistan, with Russia, Georgia, Turkey and Ukraine accepted as observers) and GUUAM (Georgia, Ukraine, Uzbekistan, Azerbaijan, Moldova). In 1996, the Customs Union was created, uniting the economic space of Russia, Belarus, Kazakhstan, Kyrgyzstan (later Tajikistan joined them. In October 2000, the Eurasian Economic Community (EurAsEC) was formed on the basis of the customs union. They continue to form among the member countries CIS and military-political associations (for example, the Collective Security Treaty) In September 2008, after the conflict in South Ossetia, Georgia announced its desire to leave the commonwealth.
Form of government(administrative-territorial structure of states) is an important element of the political map of the world. It is directly related to the nature of the political system and the form of government, reflects the national-ethnic (in some cases also religious) composition of the population, and the historical and geographical features of the formation of the country.
There are two main forms of administrative-territorial structure - unitary and federal.
Unitary state - is a single integral state entity, consisting of administrative-territorial units that are subordinate to the central authorities and do not possess signs of state sovereignty. In a unitary state, there is usually a single legislative and executive power, a single system of government bodies, and a single constitution. There are an overwhelming majority of such states in the world.
Federation - a form of organization in which several state entities, legally possessing a certain political independence, form one union state.
Characteristic features of the federation:
The territory of the federation consists of the territories of its individual subjects (for example, states - in Australia, Brazil, Mexico, Venezuela, India, USA; provinces - in Argentina, Canada; cantons - in Switzerland; lands - in Germany and Austria; republics, as well as other administrative entities (autonomous okrugs, territories, regions - in Russia);
Federal subjects are usually given the right to adopt their own constitutions;
The competence between the federation and its subjects is delimited by the union constitution;
Each subject of the federation has its own legal and judicial systems;
In most federations there is a single union citizenship, as well as the citizenship of the union units;
A federation usually has unified armed forces and a federal budget.
In a number of federations, the union parliament has a chamber representing the interests of members of the federation.
However, in many modern federal states the role of general federal bodies is so great that they can essentially be considered unitary rather than federal states. Thus, the constitutions of such federations as Argentina, Canada, the USA, Germany, Switzerland do not recognize the right of members of the federation to leave it.
Federations are built on territorial (USA, Canada, Australia, etc.) and national characteristics (Russia, India, Nigeria, etc.), which largely determine the nature, content and structure of government.
Confederation - it is a temporary legal union of sovereign states created to ensure their common interests (members of the confederation retain their sovereign rights in both internal and external affairs). Confederate states are short-lived: they either disintegrate or turn into federations (examples: the Swiss Union, Austria-Hungary, as well as the USA, where a federation of states was formed from a confederation established in 1781, enshrined in the US Constitution of 1787).
Most states in the world are unitary. Today only 24 states are federations (Table 4).
