Eastern Europe late 20th early 21st century. Countries of Eastern Europe at the end of the 20th - beginning of the 21st centuries
Further, the interaction of peoples, as an integral factor, has increased many times over. A new world order based on the unity of rights and responsibilities is being formed. In this case, you should pay attention to the following.
- The development of science, technology and technology has reached a new level.
- There has been a transition of production to a new type, the socio-political results of which are the property of not only one country.
- Global economic ties have deepened.
- Global connections have emerged, covering the main spheres of life of peoples and states.
All this led to an updated picture of Society.
Globalization
The modern world gives the impression of being pluralistic, which sharply distinguishes it from the world order of the Cold War period. In the modern multipolar world, there are several main centers of international politics: Europe, China, the Asia-Pacific region (APR), South Asia (India), Latin America (Brazil) and the USA.
Western Europe
After many years of Europe being in the shadow of the United States, its powerful rise began. At the turn of the XX-XXI centuries. The countries of the European Union, whose population is approximately 350 million people, produce goods and services worth just over $5.5 trillion per year, that is, more than the United States (just under $5.5 trillion, 270 million people). These achievements became the basis for the revival of Europe as a special political and spiritual force, the formation of a new European community. This gave the Europeans a reason to reconsider their positions in relation to the United States: to move from a “little brother - older brother” type of relationship to an equal partnership.
Eastern Europe
Russia
In addition to Europe, the Asia-Pacific region has a huge influence on the fate of the modern world. The dynamically developing Asia-Pacific region covers a triangle from the Russian Far East and Korea in the northeast to Australia in the south and Pakistan in the west. Approximately half of humanity lives in this triangle and there are such dynamic countries as Japan, China, Australia, New Zealand, South Korea, Malaysia, and Singapore.
If in 1960 the total GNP of the countries of this region reached 7.8% of world GNP, then by 1982 it doubled, and by the beginning of the 21st century. amounted to about 20% of the world's gross national product (that is, approximately equal to the share of the EU or the USA). The Asia-Pacific region has become one of the main centers of global economic power, which raises the question of expanding its political influence. The rise in Southeast Asia was largely associated with the policy of protectionism and the protection of the national economy.
China
In the Asia-Pacific region, the incredibly dynamic growth of China attracts attention: in fact, the GNP of the so-called “greater China”, which includes China itself, Taiwan, and Singapore, exceeds that of Japan and is practically approaching the GNP of the United States.
The influence of the Chinese is not limited to “Greater China”; it partly extends to the countries of the Chinese diaspora in Asia; in the countries of Southeast Asia they constitute the most dynamic element. For example, by the end of the 20th century. The Chinese made up 1% of the Philippine population, but controlled 35% of sales of local firms. In Indonesia, the Chinese accounted for 2-3% of the total population, but about 70% of local private capital was concentrated in their hands. The entire East Asian economy outside of Japan and Korea is essentially the Chinese economy. An agreement between China and the countries of Southeast Asia on the creation of a common economic zone recently came into force.
Near East
In Latin America, liberal economic policies in the 1980-1990s. led to economic growth. At the same time, the subsequent use of strict liberal recipes for modernization, which did not provide for sufficient social guarantees when carrying out market reforms, increased social instability and contributed to relative stagnation and growth in the external debt of Latin American countries.
It is the reaction to this stagnation that explains the fact that in Venezuela in 1999 the “Bolivarians” led by Colonel Hugo Chavez won the elections. In the same year, a constitution was adopted in a referendum, which guaranteed the population a large number of social rights, including the right to work and rest, free education and medical care. Since January 2000, the country has acquired a new name - the Bolivarian Republic of Venezuela. Along with the traditional branches of government, two more have been formed here - electoral and civil. Hugo Chavez, using the support of a significant part of the population, chose a strict anti-American course.
1990 - The German Democratic Republic and the Federal Republic of Germany, separated since 1949, united.
1991 - The world's largest federation, the USSR, collapsed.
1992 - Socialist Federal Republic of Yugoslavia collapsed; The Federal Republic of Yugoslavia was formed consisting of Serbia and Montenegro, Croatia, Slovenia, Macedonia*, Bosnia and Herzegovina).
1993 - independent states were formed: the Czech Republic and the Slovak Republic, formerly part of the Czechoslovakia federation;
2002 - The Federal Republic of Yugoslavia became known as “Serbia and Montenegro” (the republics were to have a single defense and foreign policy, but separate economies, currency and customs systems).
2006 - based on the results of a referendum, the independence of Montenegro was declared.
21. Political and geographical characteristics of Western Europe.
22. Political and geographical characteristics of Europe.
Northern Europe includes the Scandinavian countries, Finland, and the Baltic countries. Sweden and Norway are called Scandinavian countries. Taking into account the general historical and cultural features of development, Denmark and Iceland are also included in the Nordic countries. The Baltic countries include Estonia, Lithuania, and Latvia. Northern Europe occupies an area of 1,433 thousand km2, which is 16.8% of the area of Europe - the third place among the economic and geographical macro-regions of Europe, after Eastern and Southern Europe. Large countries in area are Sweden (449.9 thousand km2), Finland (338.1 km2) and Norway (323.9 thousand km2), which occupy more than three quarters of the territory of the macroregion. Small countries include Denmark (43.1 thousand km2), as well as the Baltic countries: Estonia - 45.2, Latvia - 64.6 and Lithuania - 65.3 thousand km2. Iceland has the smallest area of all the countries in the first group and is almost twice the area of any individual small country. The territory of Northern Europe consists of two subregions: Phenoscandia and Baltic. The first subregion included states such as Finland, a group of Scandinavian countries - Sweden, Norway, Denmark, Iceland, along with the islands of the North Atlantic and the Arctic Ocean. In particular, Denmark includes the Faroe Islands and the island of Greenland, which enjoys internal autonomy, and Norway belongs to the Spitsbergen archipelago. Most northern countries are brought together by similar languages and are characterized by historical development features and natural geographical integrity. The second subregion (the Baltic countries) includes Estonia, Lithuania, Latvia, which, due to their geographical location, have always been northern. However, in reality they could be attributed to the Northern macroregion only in the new geopolitical situation that emerged in the early 90s of the 20th century, that is, after the collapse of the USSR. The economic and geographical position of Northern Europe is characterized by the following features: firstly, an advantageous position regarding the intersection of important air and sea routes from Europe to North America, as well as the convenience of access for the countries of the region to the international waters of the World Ocean, and secondly, the proximity of the location to highly developed countries Western Europe (Germany, Holland, Belgium, Great Britain, France), thirdly, the neighborhood on the southern borders with the countries of Central-Eastern Europe, in particular Poland, in which market relations are successfully developing, fourthly, the land neighborhood with the Russian Federation, economic whose contacts will contribute to the formation of promising markets for products; fifthly, the presence of territories located outside the Arctic Circle (35% of the area of Norway, 38% of Sweden, 47% of Finland). Natural conditions and resources. The Scandinavian Mountains clearly stand out in the topography of Northern Europe. They were formed as a result of the uplift of Caledonian structures, which in subsequent geological epochs, as a result of weathering and recent tectonic movements, turned into a relatively level surface, which in Norway is called Feld. The Scandinavian mountains are characterized by significant modern glaciation, which covers an area of almost 5 thousand km2. The snow line in the southern part of the mountains is at an altitude of 1200 m, and in the north it can drop to 400 m. In the eastern direction, the mountains gradually decrease, turning into the crystalline Norland plateau with a height of 400-600 m. In the Scandinavian mountains, altitudinal zoning appears. The upper border of the forest (taiga) in the south passes at an altitude of 800-900 m above sea level, decreasing in the north to 400 and even 300 m. Above the forest border there is a transition zone 200-300 m wide, which is higher (700-900 m. ) turns into a mountain tundra zone. In the southern part of the Scandinavian Peninsula, the crystalline rocks of the Baltic Shield gradually disappear under the strata of marine sediments, forming the Central Swedish Hilly Lowland, which, with the rise of the crystalline base, develops into the low Spoland Plateau. The Baltic crystalline shield is sinking eastward. On the territory of Finland it rises somewhat, forming a hilly plain (Lake Plateau), which north of 64 ° N. gradually rises and in the extreme north-west, where the spurs of the Scandinavian mountains enter, reaches its greatest heights (Mount Hamty, 1328) . The formation of the relief of Finland was influenced by Quaternary glacial deposits, which overlaid ancient crystalline rocks. They form moraine ridges, boulders of various sizes and shapes, which alternate with a large number of lakes and swampy depressions. In terms of climatic conditions, the Northern Lands are the harshest part of Europe. Most of its territory is exposed to oceanic masses of temperate latitudes. The climate of remote areas (islands) is arctic, subarctic, and marine. There is practically no summer in the Spitsbergen archipelago (Norway), and the average July temperatures range from... +3 ° to... -5 °. Iceland, the furthest from mainland Europe, has slightly better temperature conditions. Thanks to one of the branches of the North Atlantic Current, it passes off the southern coast of the island, here in July the temperatures are ... +7 ° ... +12 °, and in January - from ... -3 ° to ... +2 °. It is much colder in the center and north of the island. There is a lot of precipitation in Iceland. On average, their number exceeds 1000 mm per year. Most of them fall in the fall. There are practically no forests in Iceland, but tundra vegetation predominates, in particular moss and aspen thickets. Meadow vegetation grows near warm geysers. In general, the natural conditions of Iceland are unsuitable for the development of agriculture, in particular farming. Only 1% of its territory, mainly meadows, is used for agricultural purposes. All other countries of Fennoscandia and the Baltics are characterized by better climatic conditions, especially the western outskirts and southern part of the Scandinavian Peninsula, which are under the direct influence of Atlantic air masses. In the easterly direction, warm oceanic air is gradually transformed. Therefore, the climate here is much harsher. For example, average January temperatures on the northern part of the west coast vary from... -4 ° to 0 °, and in the south from 0 to... +2 °. In the interior regions of Fenoscandia, winters are very long and can last up to seven months, accompanied by polar night and low temperatures. Average January temperatures here are... -16°. During the penetration of Arctic air masses, the temperature can drop to... - 50°. Fenoscandia is characterized by cool, and in the north, short summers. In the northern regions, the average July temperature does not exceed ... +10- ... +120, and in the south (Stockholm, Helsinki) - ... +16- ... + 170. Frosts can last until June and appear in August . Despite this cool summer, most mid-latitude crops ripen. This is achieved by continuing the growing season of plants during the long polar summer. Therefore, the southern regions of the country of Fennoscandia are suitable for the development of agriculture. Precipitation is distributed very unevenly. Most of them fall in the form of rain on the western coast of the Scandinavian Peninsula - in the territory facing the moisture-saturated Atlantic air masses. The central and eastern regions of Fenoscandia receive significantly less moisture - about 1000 mm, and the northeastern ones - only 500 mm. The amount of precipitation is also distributed unevenly across the seasons. The southern part of the west coast receives most of its moisture in the winter months in the form of rain. Maximum precipitation in the eastern regions occurs at the beginning of summer. In winter, precipitation predominates in the form of snow. In the mountainous regions and the northwest, snow remains for up to seven months, and in the high mountains it remains forever, thus fueling modern glaciation. Denmark's natural conditions are somewhat different from its northern neighbors. Being located in the middle part of the Central European Plain, it is more reminiscent of the Atlantic countries of Western Europe, where a mild, humid climate prevails. Maximum precipitation in the form of rain occurs in winter. There is almost no frost here. The average temperature in January is about 0°. Only occasionally, when arctic air breaks through, can there be low temperatures and snowfall. The average July temperature is ... + 16 °. The countries of the Baltic subregion have a maritime climate with a transitional to moderate continental climate. Summer is cool (average July temperature is ... +16 ... +17 °), winter is mild and relatively warm. The climate of Lithuania is the most continental. The amount of precipitation per year varies between 700-800 mm. Most of them fall in the second half of summer, when harvesting and fodder preparation are completed. In general, the climate and flat terrain of Estonia, Lithuania and Latvia are conducive to human economic activity. The Nordic countries are unequally endowed with mineral resources. Most of them are in the eastern part of Fenoscandia, the foundation of which is made up of crystalline rocks of igneous origin, a striking manifestation of which is the Baltic Shield. Deposits of iron, titanium-magnesium and copper-pyrite ores are concentrated here. This is confirmed by the deposits of ferrous ores in Northern Sweden - Kirunavare, Lussavare, Gellivare. The rocks of these deposits occur from the surface to a depth of 200 m. Apatite is a valuable by-product component of these iron ore deposits. Titanium magnetite ores occupy vast areas in Finland, Sweden, and Norway, although such deposits are not distinguished by significant reserves of raw materials. Until recently, it was believed that the Northern lands were poor in fuel and energy resources. Only in the early 60s of the 20th century, when oil and gas were discovered in the bottom sediments of the North Sea, did experts talk about significant deposits. It was found that the volumes of oil and gas in the basin of this water area significantly exceed all known reserves of this raw material in Europe. By international agreements, the North Sea basin was divided between the states located along its shores. Among the northern countries, the Norwegian sector of the sea turned out to be the most promising for oil. It accounted for more than one-fifth of oil reserves. Denmark has also joined the list of oil-producing countries using the oil and gas region of the North Sea. Among other types of fuel in the Nordic countries, Estonian oil shale, Spitsbergen coal, and Finnish peat are of industrial importance. The northern territories are well supplied with water resources. The Scandinavian mountains, in particular their western part, stand out for their greatest concentration. In terms of total river flow resources, Norway (376 km3) and Sweden (194 km3) are ahead, occupying the first two places in Europe. Hydropower resources are important for the Nordic countries. Norway and Sweden are best provided with hydropower resources, where heavy rainfall and mountainous terrain ensure the formation of strong and uniform water flow, and this creates good preconditions for the construction of hydroelectric power stations. Land resources, especially in the Scandinavian Peninsula, are insignificant. In Sweden and Finland they account for up to 10% of agricultural land. In Norway - only 3%. The share of unproductive and inconvenient land for development in Norway is 70% of the total area, in Sweden - 42%, and even in lowland Finland - almost one third of the country's territory. The situation is completely different in Denmark and the Baltic countries. Arable land in the first one occupies 60% of the total territory. In Estonia - 40%, in Latvia - 60 and in Lithuania - 70%. The soils in the Northern macroregion of Europe, especially in Fenoscandia, are podzolic, waterlogged and unproductive. Some lands, especially the tundra landscapes of Norway and Iceland, where moss-lichen vegetation predominates, are used for extensive reindeer grazing. One of the greatest wealth of the Nordic countries is forest resources, that is, “green gold”. Sweden and Finland stand out in terms of forest area and gross timber reserves, ranking first and second in Europe, respectively, according to these indicators. Forest cover in these countries is high. In Finland it is almost 66%, in Sweden - more than 59% (1995). Among other countries of the Northern macroregion, Latvia stands out for its high forest cover (46.8%). Northern Europe has a variety of recreational resources: medium-high mountains, glaciers, fjords of Norway, skerries of Finland, picturesque lakes, waterfalls, deep rivers, active volcanoes and geysers of Iceland, architectural ensembles of many cities and other historical and cultural monuments. their high attractiveness contributes to the development of tourism and other forms of recreation. Population. Northern Europe differs from other macroregions both in population size and in basic demographic indicators. The northern lands are among the least populated areas. More than 31.6 million people live here, which is 4.8% of the total population of Europe (1999). The population density is low (22.0 people per 1 km2). The smallest number of inhabitants per unit area is found in Iceland (2.9 people per 1 km2) and Norway (13.6 people per 1 km2). Finland and Sweden are also sparsely populated (with the exception of the southern coastal regions of Sweden, Norway, and Finland). Among the Nordic countries, Denmark is the most densely populated (123 people per 1 km2). The Baltic countries are characterized by an average population density - from 31 to 57 people per 1 km2). The population growth rate of Northern Europe is very low. If in the 70s of the XX century. Since the population grew by 0.4% per year, mainly due to natural growth, in the early 90s its growth was reduced to zero. Second half of the last decade of the 20th century. characterized by negative population growth (-0.3%). The Baltic countries had a decisive influence on this situation. In fact, Latvia, Estonia, and Lithuania have entered the stage of depopulation. As a result, the population in Europe's northern macroregion is projected to show little growth in the coming decades. The countries of Fennoscandia, except Sweden, are characterized by positive but low natural population growth, with the exception of Iceland, where natural growth remained at 9 people per 1000 inhabitants. This tense demographic situation is explained, first of all, by low birth rates. The trend towards a decrease in the birth rate in European countries appeared back in the 60s and in the early 90s of the last century it was only 13 people per 1000 inhabitants in Europe, which is half the world average. In the second half of the 90s, this trend continued, and the gap even increased somewhat. On average, in the Nordic countries there are 1.7 children per woman, in Lithuania - 1.4, in Estonia - 1.2, and in Latvia - only 1.1 children. Accordingly, the infant mortality rate is the highest here: in Latvia - 15%, Estonia - 10 and Lithuania - 9%, while in the macroregion this figure is 6%, and the European average is 8 deaths per thousand births (1999). The mortality rate of the entire population in Northern European countries is also quite differentiated. For the Baltic countries it was 14%, being three points higher than the European average, for the Fennoscandia subregion it was 1 ‰ less, amounting to 10 people per thousand inhabitants. In the world at that time, the mortality rate was 9%, i.e. 2 ‰ below the European average and 2.5 ‰ below the macroregional average. The reasons for this phenomenon should be sought not in the standard of living or in the existing social protection that has developed in the Nordic countries, but in the increase in population losses associated with occupational diseases, work-related injuries, various types of accidents, as well as with the aging of the population. Life expectancy in the Nordic countries is high - almost 74 years for men and over 79 years for women.
Perestroika in the USSR caused similar processes in Eastern European countries. Meanwhile, the Soviet leadership by the end of the 80s. refused to preserve the regimes that existed in these countries, on the contrary, calling on them to democratize. The leadership of most ruling parties has changed. But the new leadership's attempts to carry out reforms, as in the Soviet Union, were unsuccessful. The economic situation worsened, and population flight to the West became widespread. Opposition forces formed, demonstrations and strikes took place everywhere. As a result of the demonstrations of October-November 1989 in the GDR, the government resigned, and on November 9 the destruction of the Berlin Wall began. In 1990, the unification of the GDR and the Federal Republic of Germany took place.
In most countries, communists were removed from power. The ruling parties dissolved themselves or transformed into social democratic ones. Elections were held in which former oppositionists won. These events were called “velvet revolutions”. However, revolutions were not “velvet” everywhere. In Romania, opponents of head of state Nicolae Ceausescu staged an uprising in December 1989, resulting in the deaths of many people. Ceausescu and his wife were killed. Dramatic events took place in Yugoslavia, where parties opposed to the communists won elections in all republics except Serbia and Montenegro. In 1991, Slovenia, Croatia and Macedonia declared independence. In Croatia, war immediately broke out between Serbs and Croats, as the Serbs feared the persecution that took place during World War II at the hands of the Croatian Ustasha fascists. Initially, the Serbs created their own republics, but by 1995 they were captured by the Croats with the support of Western countries, and most Serbs were exterminated or expelled.
In 1992, Bosnia and Herzegovina declared independence. Serbia and Montenegro formed the Federal Republic of Yugoslavia (FRY).
An ethnic war broke out in Bosnia and Herzegovina between Serbs, Croats and Muslims. The armed forces of NATO countries intervened on the side of the Bosnian Muslims and Croats. The war continued until the end of 1995, when the Serbs were forced to succumb to pressure from superior NATO forces.
The state of Bosnia and Herzegovina is now divided into two parts: the Republika Srpska and the Muslim-Croat federation. The Serbs lost part of their lands.
In 1998, open conflict broke out between Albanians and Serbs in Kosovo, which was part of Serbia. The extermination and expulsion of the Serbs by Albanian extremists forced the Yugoslav authorities to enter into an armed struggle against them. However, in 1999, NATO began bombing Yugoslavia. The Yugoslav army was forced to leave Kosovo, whose territory was occupied by NATO troops. Most of the Serbian population was destroyed and expelled from the region. On February 17, 2008, Kosovo, with Western support, unilaterally and illegally declared independence.
After the overthrow of President Slobodan Milosevic in 2000 during the “color revolution”, disintegration continued in the FRY. In 2003, the confederal state of Serbia and Montenegro was formed. In 2006, Montenegro separated and two independent states emerged: Serbia and Montenegro.
The collapse of Czechoslovakia occurred peacefully. After a referendum, it split in 1993 into the Czech Republic and Slovakia.
After political changes, transformations began in all Eastern European countries in the economy and other spheres of social life. Everywhere they abandoned the planned economy, moving to the restoration of market relations. Privatization was carried out, and foreign capital gained a strong position in the economy. The first transformations went down in history as “shock therapy”, as they were associated with a drop in production, mass unemployment, inflation, etc. Particularly radical changes in this regard took place in Poland. Social stratification has increased everywhere, crime and corruption have increased.
By the end of the 90s. The situation in most countries has stabilized somewhat. Inflation was overcome and economic growth began. The Czech Republic, Hungary, and Poland have achieved some success. Foreign investment played a big role in this. Traditional mutually beneficial ties with Russia and other post-Soviet states were gradually restored. But the global economic crisis that began in 2008 had devastating consequences for the economies of Eastern European countries.
In foreign policy, all countries of Eastern Europe are oriented towards the West, most of them at the beginning of the 21st century. joined NATO and the EU. The internal political situation in these countries is characterized by a change in power between right and left parties. However, their policies both within the country and in the international arena largely coincide.
§ 102. Countries of Eastern Europe in the second half of the twentieth century.
The beginning of the construction of socialism.
During the Second World War, the authority of leftist forces, primarily communists, increased significantly in the countries of Eastern Europe. In a number of states they led anti-fascist uprisings (Bulgaria, Romania), in others they led the partisan struggle. In 1945 - 1946 In all countries, new constitutions were adopted, monarchies were abolished, power passed to people's governments, large enterprises were nationalized and agrarian reforms were carried out. In the elections, the communists took strong positions in parliaments. They called for even more radical changes, which they opposed
bourgeois democratic parties. At the same time, the process of merging communists and social democrats with the dominance of the former unfolded everywhere.
The presence of Soviet troops in the countries of Eastern Europe provided powerful support to the communists. In the context of the outbreak of the Cold War, a bet was placed on accelerating transformations. This largely corresponded to the sentiments of the majority of the population, among whom the authority of the Soviet Union was great, and many saw the construction of socialism as a way to quickly overcome post-war difficulties and further create a just society. The USSR provided these states with enormous material assistance.
In the 1947 elections, the Communists won a majority of seats in the Polish Sejm. The Seimas elected a communist as president B. Beruta. In Czechoslovakia in February 1948, the communists, through multi-day mass rallies of workers, achieved the creation of a new government in which they played a leading role. Soon the President E. Benosh resigned, and the leader of the Communist Party was elected as the new president K. Gottwald.
By 1949, power was in the hands of communist parties in all countries of the region. In October 1949, the GDR was formed. In some countries, the multi-party system has been preserved, but in many ways it has become a formality.
CMEA and ATS.
With the formation of the countries of "people's democracy" the process of formation of the world socialist system began. Economic ties between the USSR and the people's democracies were carried out at the first stage in the form of a bilateral foreign trade agreement. At the same time, the USSR strictly controlled the activities of the governments of these countries.
Since 1947, this control has been exercised by the heir to the Comintern Cominform. began to play a great role in expanding and strengthening economic ties Council for Mutual Economic Assistance (CMEA), created in 1949. Its members were Bulgaria, Hungary, Poland, Romania, the USSR and Czechoslovakia, Albania later joined. The creation of CMEA was a definite response to the creation of NATO. The goals of CMEA were to unite and coordinate efforts in developing the economies of the member countries of the Commonwealth.
In the political field, the creation of the Warsaw Pact Organization (WTO) in 1955 was of great importance. Its creation was a response to the admission of Germany to NATO. In accordance with the terms of the treaty, its participants pledged, in the event of an armed attack on any of them, to provide immediate assistance to the attacked states by all means, including the use of armed force. A unified military command was created, joint military exercises were held, weapons and troop organization were unified.
Development of the countries of “people's democracy” in the 50s - 80s of the twentieth century.
By the mid-50s. xx century As a result of accelerated industrialization, significant economic potential has been created in the countries of Central and South-Eastern Europe. But the policy of preferential development of heavy industry with insignificant investments in agriculture and the production of consumer goods led to a decline in living standards.
Stalin's death (March 1953) raised hopes for political change. The leadership of the GDR in June 1953 proclaimed a “new course”, which provided for the strengthening of law and order and an increase in the production of consumer goods. But the simultaneous increase in workers’ production standards served as an impetus for the events of June 17, 1953, when demonstrations began in Berlin and other large cities, during which economic and political demands were put forward, including the holding of free elections. With the help of Soviet troops, the GDR police suppressed these protests, which the country's leadership assessed as an attempt at a “fascist putsch.” However, after these events, wider production of consumer goods began and prices decreased.
The decisions of the 20th Congress of the CPSU on the need to take into account the national characteristics of each country were formally approved by the leadership of all communist parties, but the new course was not implemented everywhere. In Poland and Hungary, the dogmatic policy of the leadership led to a sharp aggravation of socio-economic contradictions, which led to a crisis in the fall of 1956.
The protests of the population in Poland led to the rejection of forced collectivization and some democratization of the political system. In Hungary, a reformist wing arose within the Communist Party. On October 23, 1956, demonstrations began in support of reformist forces. Their leader I. Nagy headed the government. Rallies took place throughout the country, and reprisals against communists began. On November 4, Soviet troops began to restore order in Budapest. 2,700 Hungarians and 663 Soviet soldiers died in street fighting. After a "purge" carried out by Soviet intelligence services, power was transferred to I. Kadaru. In the 60-70s. XX century Kadar pursued a policy aimed at improving the standard of living of the population while preventing political change.
In the mid-60s. The situation in Czechoslovakia worsened. Economic difficulties coincided with calls from the intelligentsia to improve socialism and give it a “human face.” The party approved in 1968 a program of economic reforms and democratization of society. He led the country A.Duchek., proponent of change. The leadership of the CPSU and the Communist Party of Eastern European countries reacted sharply negatively to these changes.
Five members of the leadership of the Communist Party of Human Rights secretly sent a letter to Moscow with a request to intervene in the course of events and prevent the “threat of counter-revolution.” On the night of August 21, 1968, troops from Bulgaria, Hungary, the GDR, Poland and the USSR entered Czechoslovakia. Relying on the presence of Soviet troops, opponents of the reforms went on the offensive.
At the turn of the 70-80s. xx century crisis phenomena emerged in Poland, which had developed quite successfully in the previous period. The deteriorating situation of the population caused strikes. In their course, a trade union committee “Solidarity”, independent from the authorities, emerged, headed by L. Valensa. In 1981, Polish President General V. Jaruzelski introduced martial law, the leaders of Solidarity were subjected to house arrest. However, Solidarity structures began to operate underground.
Yugoslavia's special path.
In Yugoslavia, the communists who led the anti-fascist struggle in 1945 took power. Their Croatian leader became the president of the country And Broz Tito. Tito's desire for independence led in 1948 to a rupture in relations between Yugoslavia and the USSR. Tens of thousands of Moscow supporters were repressed. Stalin launched anti-Yugoslav propaganda, but did not intervene militarily.
Soviet-Yugoslav relations were normalized after Stalin's death, but Yugoslavia continued to follow its own path. At enterprises, management functions were carried out by labor collectives through elected workers' councils. Planning from the Center was transferred to the localities. The focus on market relations has led to an increase in the production of consumer goods. In agriculture, almost half of the farms were individual peasants.
The situation in Yugoslavia was complicated by its multinational composition and the uneven development of the republics that were part of it. General leadership was provided by the League of Communists of Yugoslavia (UCY). Tito has been the chairman of the UCJ since 1952. He also served as president (for life) and chairman of the Federation Council.
Changes in Eastern Europe At the EndxxV.
The policy of perestroika in the USSR caused similar processes in the countries of Eastern Europe. At the same time, the Soviet leadership by the end of the 80s of the twentieth century. abandoned the policy of preserving the existing regimes in these countries; on the contrary, it called on them to “democratize”. Most of the ruling parties there have had new leadership. But the attempts of this leadership to carry out reforms similar to the perestroika ones, as in the Soviet Union, were not crowned with success. The economic situation has worsened. The flight of the population to the West became widespread. Opposition movements to the authorities were formed. There were demonstrations and strikes everywhere. As a result of the demonstrations of October - November 1989 in the GDR, the government resigned, and on November 8 the destruction of the Berlin Wall began. In 1990, the unification of the GDR and the Federal Republic of Germany took place.
In most countries, communists were removed from power by popular demonstrations. The ruling parties dissolved themselves or transformed into social democratic ones. Soon elections were held, in which the former oppositionists won. These events were called "velvet revolutions". Only in Romania are opponents of the head of state N. Ceausescu organized an uprising in December 1989, during which many people died. Ceausescu and his wife were killed. In 1991, the regime changed in Albania.
Dramatic events took place in Yugoslavia, where parties opposed to the communists won elections in all republics except Serbia and Montenegro. Slovenia and Croatia declared independence in 1991. War between Serbs and Croats immediately broke out in Croatia, as the Serbs feared persecution that had taken place during World War II at the hands of Croatian Ustasha fascists. Later, Macedonia and Bosnia and Herzegovina declared independence. After this, Serbia and Montenegro formed the Federal Republic of Yugoslavia. In Bosnia and Herzegovina, conflict began between Serbs, Croats and Muslims. It lasted until 1997.
The collapse of Czechoslovakia took place differently. After a referendum, it peacefully split into the Czech Republic and Slovakia in 1993.
After political changes, transformations began in all Eastern European countries in the economy and other spheres of social life. Everywhere they abandoned the planned economy and the command-administrative management system, and the restoration of market relations began. Privatization was carried out, and foreign capital gained a strong position in the economy. The first transformations were called "shock therapy" since they were associated with a production crisis, mass unemployment, inflation, etc. Particularly radical changes in this regard took place in Poland. Social stratification has increased everywhere, crime and corruption have increased. The situation was particularly difficult in Albania, where in 1997 there was a popular uprising against the government.
However, by the end of the 90s. XX century The situation in most countries has stabilized. Inflation was overcome, then economic growth began. The greatest successes have been achieved in the Czech Republic, Hungary, and Poland. Foreign investment played a big role in this. Traditional mutually beneficial ties with Russia and other post-Soviet states were gradually restored. In foreign policy, all Eastern European countries are oriented towards the West; they have set a course for joining NATO and the EU. FOR
The internal political situation in these countries is characterized by a change in power between right and left parties. However, their policies both within the country and in the international arena largely coincide.
In the history of mankind, Europe has always been of great importance. The peoples of Europe founded powerful states that extended their power to all parts of the world. But the situation in the world was changing quickly. Already in 1900, the United States, which was at the beginning of the 19th century. backward agricultural country, moved to 1st place in the world in terms of industrial production development. This accelerated advancement of the United States to a dominant economic position was facilitated by the results of the First World War (1914 - 1918), and the Second World War (1939 - 1945) finally ensured the primacy of the United States, which, thanks to the rapid development of its economy, became a leading world power. Europe has long been considered the second “center” of the modern world, but this does not suit it. Journalists have characterized the recent active work of the leaders of the European Union very figuratively: “Europe craves independence.” We are talking about the creation of a United Europe, playing a dominant role in the world economy and politics. Its emergence may be the most important event of the 21st century.
European Union (European Union)– the largest regional association aimed at creating a political, monetary and economic union of European states with the aim of eliminating all obstacles to the free movement of goods, services, capital and people, as well as to form a common foreign and security policy. The European Union consists of 28 states. A single internal market has been created in the European Union, restrictions on the free movement of goods, capital, and labor between countries have been lifted, and a single currency system has been formed with a single governing monetary institution.
Main institutions of power of the European Union :
1. The European Commission is the executive body of the European Union, consisting of 25 members (including the President), who are appointed for five years by national governments, but are completely independent in the performance of their duties. The composition of the Commission is approved by the European Parliament. Each member of the Commission is responsible for a specific area of EU policy and heads the corresponding Directorate General;
2. The European Parliament is an assembly of 732 deputies directly elected by citizens of EU member states for a period of five years. The President of the European Parliament is elected for two and a half years. Members of the European Parliament study bills and approve the budget. They make joint decisions with the Council of Ministers on specific issues and supervise the work of the Councils of the EU and the European Commission. The European Parliament holds plenary sessions in Strasbourg (France) and Brussels (Belgium);
3. The Council of Ministers is the main decision-making body in the EU, which meets at the level of ministers of national governments, and its composition changes depending on the issues discussed: Council of Foreign Ministers, Council of Economic Ministers, etc. Within the Council, representatives of the governments of member states discuss EU legislation and adopt or reject them by voting;
4. The European Court is the highest judicial body of the EU, regulating disagreements between EU member states, between EU member states and the European Union itself, between EU institutions, between the EU and individuals or legal entities;
5. The Court of Auditors (Court of Auditors) is a body of the European Union created for the purpose of conducting an audit of the EU budget and its institutions;
6. European Ombudsman deals with complaints from European individuals and legal entities against EU institutions and agencies.
European Union (European Union, EU) was legally established by the Maastricht Treaty in 1993 based on the principles of the European Communities and has been continuously expanding since then. A united Europe must become an instrument of political centralization. The logic of EU enlargement is a political logic, i.e. the political consequences of enlargement are important for the EU. Many leaders of European countries today recognize that Europe needs to be transformed into a superpower that would be able to defend its interests on the world stage. The objective basis for the unification of European states is the process of globalization - the economic and political internationalization of the world. “The expansion of Europe is a necessity in a globalizing world,” said one of the leaders of the European Union, R. Prodi (Prime Minister of Italy (–, May–January); between his two premierships he was President of the European Commission (–)), “and, of course, it gives We have huge political advantages. The only way to confront the United States and a rapidly developing China, as well as increase our global influence, is to form a strong, united Europe.”
Currently, the European Union has already come close to transforming into a deeply integrated union of states with a common supranational system of governance, politics, defense, currency and a common economic and social space. To understand the reasons for the creation of such an association, it is necessary to take into account the changes taking place in world politics, the features of the historical past and modern international relations of European countries. The state of the natural, demographic and financial resources of these countries is also of decisive importance.
The integration process in the European Union is going in two directions – in breadth and depth.. Thus, already in 1973, Great Britain, Denmark and Ireland joined the European Economic Community, in 1981 - Greece, in 1986 - Spain and Portugal, in 1995 - Finland, Austria and Sweden, in May 2004. – Lithuania, Latvia, Estonia, Poland, Czech Republic, Hungary, Slovenia, Slovakia, Malta and Cyprus. Today the EU consists of 28 countries.
The development of in-depth integration can be traced using the example of changes in economic interaction between member countries of the European Union:
The first stage (1951 – 1952) is a kind of introduction;
The central event of the second stage (late 50s - early 70s of the XX century) was the creation of a free trade zone, then a customs union was created, a major achievement was the decision to pursue a common agricultural policy, which made it possible to establish market unity and a system of agricultural protection allied countries from competitors from other countries;
At the third stage (the first half of the 70s), currency relations became the sphere of regulation;
The fourth stage (from the mid-70s to the early 90s) is characterized by the creation of a homogeneous economic space based on the principles of the “four freedoms” (free circulation of goods, capital, services and labor);
At the fifth stage (from the beginning of the 90s of the 20th century to the present), the formation of an economic, monetary and political union began (the introduction of a single EU citizenship along with national citizenship, a single currency and banking system, etc.), a draft Constitution of the European Union was prepared, which must be approved in referendums of all EU member countries.
The creation of the European Union was due to a number of reasons, first of all, by the fact that it was in Western Europe after the end of the Second World War that the contradiction between the global nature of the modern economy and the narrow national-state boundaries of its functioning manifested itself most forcefully, which was expressed in the intensive regionalization and transnationalization of this particular region. In addition, until the beginning of the 90s of the XX century. The desire of Western European countries to unite was explained by the acute confrontation on the continent of two opposing social systems. An important political reason for integration was the desire of Western European countries to overcome the negative experience of two world wars and to eliminate the possibility of military confrontation on the continent in the future. In addition, the countries of Western Europe, to a greater extent and earlier than the countries of other regions, were prepared for close economic cooperation with each other. The high dependence of Western European countries on foreign markets, the similarity of their economic structures, territorial and sociocultural proximity - all this contributed to the development of integration trends. At the same time, the countries of Western Europe tried to compensate for the loss of rich colonial possessions by strengthening trade ties and other forms of interdependence. The convergence of the economies of European countries on the basis of connections between their companies and markets also had the goal of using the effect of integration to strengthen Europe’s position in competition with other centers of the world economy. At the same time, the most important thing was the desire of Western European countries to strengthen their positions in the world market in the face of the most powerful competitor - the United States of America. Certain natural factors, primarily territory, also contribute to strengthening the unity of the countries of the Western European region. When characterizing the geographical uniqueness of Europe, three main features are usually noted:
1) the relative compactness of the territory, which makes European countries close neighbors;
2) the coastal position of most European countries, which determines the predominance of a mild and humid maritime climate;
3) the presence of land and sea borders between European countries, which is favorable for the development of international cooperation.
Socio-economic characteristics of modern Europe.
Demographic situation in Europe it is very difficult. For the period 1913 – 2000. the population of Western Europe increased only 1.7 times, all developed countries - 2.4 times, and the population of the entire world during this time increased 4.0 times. Low fertility (1.74 children per woman of childbearing age in the UK; 1.66 in France; 1.26 in Germany) is leading to a decline in the population of Western Europe. In some countries (for example, Austria, Germany, Denmark) in some years there was even an absolute decline in population (mortality exceeded birth rate). Average annual population growth rates in Western European countries in 1991 – 2000. amounted to 0.4% (including in Austria – 0.0%). According to UN calculations, by the middle of the 21st century. the share of Europeans in the world will decrease from 12% (or even 20% in the second half of the 19th century) to 7%. The deterioration of the demographic situation in Europe is usually associated with the abandonment of the traditional way of life of the population. The growth of the spiritual and intellectual potential of various segments of the population, the widespread participation of women in social production and socio-economic processes lead to a conscious limitation of the birth rate (this is facilitated by the use of new birth control technologies and the legalization of abortion). Advances in medicine, improved living standards and other factors have led to a reduction in overall and child mortality, which means an increase in life expectancy and an increase in the average age of the population. Over the past 50 years, life expectancy has increased more than in the previous 5,000 years. According to rough estimates, in Great Britain, France and other countries before the industrial revolution of the 17th century. people over 65 years old accounted for 2–3% of the population, and now in Western European countries they are estimated at 14–15%. The evolution of family relations, which manifested itself in a number of countries already at the end of the 19th and beginning of the 20th centuries, had a great influence on European demographic resources. Europe became a pioneer in the development of a phenomenon that demographers called “marriage the European way” (later marriage, limiting the number of children, a high proportion of divorces, etc.). In the 80s - 90s of the XX century. In many European countries, the number of marriages entered into has decreased, and the average age of people getting married has increased. At the same time, the divorce rate (the number of divorces per 100 marriages concluded during a given year), for example, in France has tripled. To all these changes, which are sometimes called a family crisis,
In recent decades, Western European countries have seen huge changes in financial resources. This process, which is often called the financial revolution, has a great influence on the process of European unification. First of all, it is necessary to note the increasing role of financial activity in the life of leading European countries. The main reason for this is industrial and technological progress and the internationalization of the economy. The creation of computers and new means of communication stimulated the development of various financial institutions, which formed international securities markets in a short time. Huge fortunes grew from intermediary transactions with these securities. Whoever owns them (rentiers, speculators, entrepreneurs), financial interests clearly dominate their industrial interests. The enormous growth in the importance of finance is also associated with the expansion of trade and “financial engineering” of enterprises, in whose activities new tools have appeared that allow expanding operations with securities.
Major changes are taking place in the organization of financial markets. Traditionally, in Western Europe there was a dual structure, which included national markets, where transactions were carried out between local residents, and foreign markets as part of the national ones, where foreign or mixed financial institutions operated. Their common feature was the regulation of the activities of markets by the states on whose territory they were located, control, often strict, by authorized authorities. The development of financial globalization and the growth of international movements of stock values have led to the emergence of so-called pure international markets, i.e. markets completely free from government regulation. The name of European markets was assigned to them. Eurocurrency is any currency that is deposited in a bank outside the country of origin and is thus outside the jurisdiction and control of that country's currency authorities. The most important type of Eurobonds is Eurobonds. As the Eurobond market grows, international trade in securities of foreign borrowers takes on a multilateral character, thereby making national stock markets act as international ones. The second type of securities traded on European markets is Euroshares. They are issued outside the national stock markets and purchased using Eurocurrency, and therefore are not within the control of national markets.
Today, a huge role in the unification of Europe belongs to the single European currency - Euro. It is turning into a serious competitor to the dollar in the international arena, becoming the second world currency, serving trade relations between countries, international capital flows, and global financial markets. In European countries, the euro decisively defeated the dollar. It was possible to squeeze out the dollar in the markets of developing countries, including Latin America. EU leaders note that only with the introduction of the euro did Americans begin to seriously think about the reality of creating a United Europe. The role of the single European currency is determined by the overall economic and financial potential of the EU countries. If the euro appreciates, its international use will also increase.
The common economic structures of Western European countries are of great importance for the further development of unification processes in Europe. The “core” of European integration was the Federal Republic of Germany, France, Italy and the Benelux countries (Belgium, the Netherlands and Luxembourg, which signed the Economic Union Treaty in 1958). A certain unity of their socio-economic structure played a significant role in the formation and development of the European Union. The influence of this unity is still felt today, although with the increase in the number of Union members and candidates for the EU, the situation is changing and contradictions are growing.
For the countries of Western Europe, and especially those that form the “core” of the European Union, it has long been characteristic high degree of economic activity of the state. As a result of long historical development, a combination of factors such as significant development of state property has developed in them; high share of the state in total capital investments and R&D financing; large volume of government procurement, including military; public financing of social expenditures; wide scale of state regulation of the economy; state participation in the export of capital and in other forms of international economic relations.
Western European countries vary in the extent of state ownership. France is called the country of classical nationalization. Here the state has always played an important role in the economy, although the share of its participation has constantly changed. In general, the public sector today accounts for up to 20% of the country's national wealth. The French mixed economy system is a measured combination of the market and public sectors.
In Germany, a situation has historically developed where many economic facilities are fully or partially owned by the state. Unlike France, the Federal Republic of Germany has never carried out nationalization of individual industries. At various periods of its existence, the German state built or bought from private entrepreneurs railways and roads, radio stations, post offices, telegraphs and telephones, airfields, canals and port facilities, power plants, military facilities and a large number of industrial enterprises, mainly in the mining and heavy industries. industry. The state also owned significant land, cash, gold and foreign exchange reserves, and property abroad. Public economic assets are in the hands of the federal government, state governments and local authorities. Of all state property, two industry complexes play the largest role in the German economy: infrastructure facilities that provide conditions for expanded reproduction, as well as industrial and energy enterprises, most of which are united in state concerns. In recent decades, in Germany, as in other European countries, the entrepreneurial functions of the state have been decreasing. The transition to new forms of economic regulation is accompanied by a certain reduction in the public sector - through the sale of shares on stock markets. But even today the share of the public sector in the German economy is quite high. In addition, the Federal Republic of Germany is characterized by the partial privatization of state-owned enterprises, that is, their transformation into mixed companies. Similar processes are developing in Italy.
Many economists classify the UK as one of the countries of “Anglo-Saxon” capitalism, but, like other EU countries, it is characterized by the practice of public-private partnerships. In the 90s of the XX century. In the UK, such partnership projects were implemented for $40 billion (construction of the Channel Tunnel, laying of London Underground lines, etc.).
In Germany, France, Italy and other Western European countries, various forms of state regulation of the economy. For example, state budgets and expenditures on science have reached enormous proportions. The state acts as one of the main customers and consumers of goods and services, participates in foreign trade, and provides comprehensive assistance to the export of private capital. At present, a state system of economic programming has already taken shape (and is still taking shape elsewhere), which combines the current regulation of economic processes with the long-term coordination of economic development based on the preparation and implementation of national economic programs.
In Western Europe, socio-economic systems have social orientation. The state here performs the largest number of social functions. Thus, the “German economic model” made it possible to restore the country completely destroyed as a result of World War II, to become one of the world leaders at the end of the 20th century and to ensure the highest standard of living for the German population. Germany spends approximately 30% of its GDP on social needs. In France, the general level of development of the social system is one of the highest in the world. Various social benefits account for approximately a third of the nominal wage of an employee. Among France's achievements in the social sphere, an important place is given to family benefits (they were first introduced in 1939). Family benefits are paid to all citizens regardless of family income and whether the child was born within or out of wedlock.
Social security systems are also in place in other Western European countries. Italy stands out for its high level of pension provision. Belgium, the Netherlands and Sweden have relatively high living standards. According to the Human Development Index, Belgium and the Netherlands in 2002 ranked 7th–8th in the world. In Sweden, social policy is aimed at reducing unemployment (the average annual unemployment rate is 4%) and equalizing the level of income of the population. Taxes in the country account for 56.5% of national GDP. In Denmark, socially oriented capitalism with a market-state regulated economy has emerged. In Finland, 25% of the country's GDP is spent on social purposes. The state's social policy is aimed primarily at reducing unemployment (8.5% in 2002).
The most important pattern of economic development of Western Europe at the end of the 20th – beginning of the 21st centuries. - This transformation of the industrial economy into a post-industrial one, or the service economy (“new economy”). This process is objective in nature. It is based on the forward movement of productive forces, the results of which are concretized in the constant increase in labor productivity and other factors of production. The formation of a modern post-industrial model of the economy occurs due to a structural revolution, i.e. a fundamental redistribution between the primary (agricultural), secondary (industrial) and tertiary (services) sectors of the economy, as well as due to changes within each of the listed sectors: in all developed countries The service sector has become a leading component of the economy. The contribution of the service sector to economic growth began to exceed that of industry. Today, in the developed countries of the world, more than 60% of the total working population is concentrated in the service sector. Service sector enterprises provide a significant portion of global GDP - about 70%. If in the 70s of the XX century. Indicators of average annual growth rates of the totality of service sectors exceeded those of agriculture by approximately 2 times, and industry by 1.5 times; then at the end of the 20th century these rates increased by 2.5 and 3.5 times, respectively.
The main element of the post-industrial economic model can also be considered the information revolution, the essence of which is the enormous increase in informatization of the entire life of society. Information is becoming the most important type of resource used by people, therefore modern society is often called information society. Not only a high degree of correlation between indicators of economic growth and the level of development of information and communication technologies (ICT) was revealed, but also a tendency towards strengthening the role of ICT as a means of economic growth - even the conditions for this growth. Moreover, they talk about the formation of the information sector of the economy (it is called quaternary). Indicators of this process are the widespread computerization of the economy and everyday life, the globalization of communication systems and the very fact of the emergence of the information community.
The increasing role of services in all their diversity is closely related to the technical and technological revolution. The connection between them is two-way. On the one hand, the development of technology and advanced technologies serves as the material basis for the growth of the tertiary sector of the economy - the service sector. Without a radical increase in overall labor productivity, which is facilitated by the technical and technological revolution, such a situation where the cost of services exceeds the cost of an industrial product would simply be impossible. But on the other hand, the growth of the service sector itself is a powerful means of further increasing labor productivity and increasing the efficiency of the economy. As a result, costs for all elements of production are reduced, the qualifications of the workforce are increased, which helps to improve the quality of products and increase the volume of production (for example, as a result of the development of healthcare, losses associated with employee illnesses are reduced). The service sector is becoming the leading force in the development of the modern economy. From now on it is the central sector of the economy. But at the same time, the service sector is closely connected with the industrial sector. Services become an integral part of the production process.
By the end of the 20th century. the combined effect of these and other reasons significantly changed the basic proportions of the economy, which meant the formation of a post-industrial economy. Its main features are:
Radical acceleration of technical progress, reduction of the role of material production, expressed, in particular, in a decrease in its share in the total social product,
Development of the service and information sector,
Changing motives and nature of human activity,
The emergence of a new type of resources involved in production
Significant modification of the entire social structure.
The formation of a “service economy” is a universal process characteristic of all countries, but it is realized in each of them as internal prerequisites are understood, which directly depends on the level of economic development of the state. In economically underdeveloped countries, economic activity today is reduced primarily to the production of “material” products. And the higher the level of economic development and labor productivity, the greater the role of labor activity in the structure of the economy, aimed at the production of intangible types of products, expressed in the form of services.
The most significant features of European development at the turn of the century include computerization and internetization of the economy, increasing the educational, scientific and technical potential of countries.
Let us dwell on the main areas of development of the post-industrial economy of Europe: the service sector (more than 65% of the working population of European countries is employed in it, service sector enterprises provide about 70% of the GDP of the European Union countries); trade (significant changes are taking place in the nature of modern trade, which in Western Europe are often even called a commercial revolution); communications (a set of industries designed to transmit and distribute various types of information has always been an important element of the life of society, but in modern conditions the role of communications is significantly increasing, the degree of development of communications is one of the important indicators of the maturity of the economy); transport (the creation of the European Union contributed to the further modernization of a number of transport sectors, strengthening intersectoral and international coordination of transport activities, improving the quality indicators of many transport enterprises in Western Europe; the EU transport sector employs more than 8 million people and produces more than 7% of total GDP).
Consequences of European integration.
Assessing the results of European integration at the present stage, we must first of all note its achievements. During the existence of the European Union, a developed integration mechanism has emerged, based on the principle of separation of legislative, executive and judicial functions. Among the important lessons of European integration is the development of an integration strategy for the European Union. A number of European countries have decided to limit their sovereignty and transfer part of their powers to the jurisdiction of supranational integration structures. The supremacy of EU laws was clearly demonstrated in relation to the underdeveloped states of Southern Europe - Greece, Spain and Portugal. Joining the common European market has become a powerful incentive for the development of the economies of these countries. And the achievements of Greece, Spain and Portugal stimulated the desire to join the EU among other relatively poor European countries.
The rapid development of integration processes contributed to radical changes in the structure of the European economy. The EU accounts for more than 90% of European countries' GDP. In terms of GDP (21%), United Europe is equal to the United States. Moreover, in some important indicators, EU countries have surpassed the US level. More American and European labor markets. At the beginning of the 21st century. the total number of workers in the European Union countries exceeded 160 million people (in the USA - 137 million people). Western European countries have a very developed banking system. At the same time, the European Union lags behind the United States in terms of post-industrialization. Thus, the clear lead in the development of new technologies belongs to the United States of America. EU countries also still lag significantly behind the United States in terms of the degree of computerization of the economy.
But the economic development of the EU countries is very uneven. Comparison of the development of the EU and the USA in the second half of the 20th century. shows, on the one hand, the convergence of their economic indicators, on the other, a growing tendency towards a certain weakening of the EU’s position in relation to the United States, which was rapidly developing in the 90s. One of the main obstacles to sustainable economic growth in the EU countries is the decline in labor resources, in particular the aging of the population and its decrease in size. Now there are 4 people of working age per pensioner in the EU, but in 2050, according to the forecast of the European Commission, there will be only 2 workers. Finally, the rise of the euro against the dollar has worsened the position of European companies in the American and other markets. As a result, the scale of the recession in the European economy has increased, and the improvement of the situation is associated with the solution of many complex problems:
- financial crisis (over the twenty years at the turn of the 20th – 21st centuries, 5 developed and 88 developing countries experienced a systemic financial crisis);
- stock crisis (decrease in stock price);
- crisis of the insurance system (a serious danger for the entire world economy is the growing difficulties in the insurance system of many countries, which allows us to speak of a crisis in this area as an integral part of the modern financial and economic crisis; in 2002 alone, the insurance business in Western Europe decreased by more than 50 %);
- banking crisis (across all countries of the world, an increase in the number of overdue loans was noted in hundreds of banks).
Initially, the “new economy” as a set of the latest information and telecommunication technologies was declared not subject to crises. However, since the beginning of the 21st century. They began to talk about the crisis of the “new economy”, and some analysts called it the main structural crisis of the modern world. Since the end of 2000, the overall economic growth of the United States and a number of Western European countries began to slow down sharply. The statistical picture of changes occurring in recent years indicates a slowdown in the growth rate of industrial production in the European Union countries and even in some cases a reduction in its volumes. The difference in economic dynamics in the “new” and “old” countries of the European Union is noteworthy. In all “new” countries in 2001–2002. there was an increase in industrial production. But its pace, as well as the relatively small volumes of the economies of these states, could not have a great impact on the general situation in Western Europe and, especially, the world economy. The main “culprit” for the deterioration of the overall economic situation is Germany, where the growth of industrial production has actually stopped. The decline in production began in 1996, but in 2003 the situation became particularly difficult.
Currently, there are serious contradictions in the development of the European Union. The split in the European Union is slowing down the process of integration of European countries. And this leads to projects of political reforms in the EU that were widely discussed during the development and approval of the European Constitution. The situation is complicated by the presence of a number of transatlantic contradictions. The economic power of the United States and its military-political superiority allow the American ruling circles to exert comprehensive pressure on both the “old” and “new” members of the European Union, trying to pursue their course, which is aimed at weakening European positions.
The unification of Europe is an integral part of the process of comprehensive globalization. The success of European integration has a positive impact on the formation of regional and transcontinental associations throughout the world.
