Feeling in the professional activity of a lawyer. Feeling and Perception
One sensation may not be similar to another, even if they belong to the same modality (sight, hearing, etc.). The individual characteristics of each sensation are determined by the concept of "properties of sensations".
Each sensation can be characterized in its properties. Properties of sensations can be not only specific to a given modality, but also common to all types of sensations. The main properties of sensations, the most commonly used:
- quality,
- intensity,
- duration,
- spatial localization,
- absolute threshold,
- relative threshold.
Quality of feeling
Characteristics of not only sensations, but in general all characteristics can be divided into qualitative and quantitative. For example, the title of a book or its author are qualitative characteristics; the weight of a book or its length are quantitative. The quality of sensation is a property that characterizes the basic information displayed by this sensation, which distinguishes it from other sensations. One can also say this: the quality of sensation is a property that cannot be measured with the help of numbers, compared with some kind of numerical scale.
For a visual sensation, the quality can be the color of the perceived object. For taste or smell, the chemical characteristic of an object: sweet or sour, bitter or salty, floral smell, almond smell, hydrogen sulfide smell, etc.
Sometimes the quality of sensation is understood as its modality (auditory sensation, visual or otherwise). This also makes sense, because often in a practical or theoretical sense one has to talk about sensations in general. For example, during the experiment, the psychologist can ask the subject general question: "Tell me about your feelings during ..." And then the modality will be one of the main properties of the described sensations.
Feeling intensity
Perhaps the main quantitative characteristic of sensation is its intensity. In fact, it is of great importance for us whether we listen to quiet music or loud, it is light in the room or we can hardly see our hands.
It is important to understand that the intensity of sensation depends on two factors, which can be described as objective and subjective:
- the strength of the acting stimulus (its physical characteristics),
- the functional state of the receptor, which is affected by this stimulus.
The more significant the physical parameters of the stimulus, the more intense the sensation. For example, the higher the amplitude of a sound wave, the louder the sound appears to us. And the higher the sensitivity of the receptor, the more intense the sensation. For example, being in a dark room after a long stay and going out into a moderately lit room, you can "go blind" from bright light.
Professional activity makes high demands on the sensory organization of law enforcement officers. Therefore, lawyers, especially prosecutors and investigators, need to be able to manage their feelings: to stimulate positive and strong-willed efforts to neutralize the impact on the psyche of negative feelings.
20. Perception: concept, features and types
Perception called the reflection in the mind of a person of objects and phenomena of the surrounding world with their direct impact on receptors in the form of integral images.
We perceive the game actions of football players who, in the fight for the ball, carry out the tactical combination they have conceived. The climber perceives objects and the spatial relationships between them when he looks at the mountain valley that has opened up to his eyes, sees trees and rocks nearby, a mountain river flowing a little further and distant peaks of mountains on the horizon. The student perceives the speech of the teacher giving a lecture. The athlete perceives his movements when he makes a high jump, hits the ball or strains his strength to be the first to reach the finish line.
These examples show that in the process of perception we get images of perceived things and phenomena of the surrounding world. Perceptual images are distinguished by the following features:
a) objectification. Perceiving some object (a tree, a book, etc.), we are aware of it not as our subjective mental experience, but as an objective object that exists outside of us.
b) integrity. Perception always has a holistic character: in the concrete images of objects obtained in the process of perception, external phenomena are reflected in their integrity, in the organic combination of their properties and qualities.
The image of perception is not a mechanical sum of parts or elements that make up the perceived object, but the image of the object itself in its entirety. From the very beginning, from the first moment of perception, we deal immediately, instantly with the image of a whole thing, and do not create it by summing up the elements. On the contrary, the dismemberment of the image into elements is a secondary process that complements and follows a holistic perception. First we see the house, and then we distinguish the floors and other parts of the building. First, we hear the melody in its entirety, and then we already highlight the chords and musical tones that make it up.
The holistic nature of perception is due to the innate ability of our brain to see in the perceived object that which makes up its peculiarity as a whole object, and then to single out the elements inherent in it. This ability has developed even in animals in the process of their adaptation to environmental conditions in which they have always encountered, and above all with objects and phenomena in their integrity and isolation. This ability was improved in a person in the process of labor: in order to work, a person had to deal with integral objects and tools of labor; but at the same time, labor forced a person to see in them their individual parts, in order to more effectively use these objects and tools in their own work. production activities; thus, the ability to differentiate individual parts and elements of a whole thing has developed and improved.
In many cases, the specific nature of the parts and elements of an integral object is not essential for its perception and can be easily replaced by others. specific features without losing the integrity of perception. Thus, we perceive a melody as integrally the same, despite the fact that it is played on different musical instruments or in different registers, which, as you know, completely changes the specific nature of its constituent elements. It is only necessary that during the performance, a certain ratio of the musical tones that make up the melody, which determines the integrity of the melody, be preserved. We always recognize any letter of the alphabet as such, despite a significant discrepancy in transcription. It is only necessary that, despite all these discrepancies, the ratio of parts that characterizes the integrity of the object should be preserved. For the letter A, these will be two inclined lines connected at an angle with a cross in the middle (Fig. 1).
in) mobility, lack of long-term fixation certain parts, impossibility for any long time to preserve the constancy of the image, which is constantly in motion, change. Since the process of perception always takes place in time, the image of the perceived object is characterized by mobility, variability; it is not a frozen, static image, but always changing in its characteristic features. For example, when perceiving a tree in the mind of a person at any given moment, one or the other part of the object is predominantly reflected: now, in the perception of a tree, its peculiar trunk stands out most clearly; in a second, in the same image of a tree, its crown will be more clearly reflected;
G) constancy. For all their mobility and variability, the images of the objects we perceive are distinguished by a certain constancy (constancy), despite the significant variability of the conditions in which the process of perception takes place. So, we always perceive a sheet of writing paper as white, although its color can take on various shades due to changing lighting conditions. The table is necessarily perceived by us as having a square or rectangular top, although at the moment we can see it from such an angle when it upper surface hidden from us, etc.;
e) meaningfulness. Perceptual images always have a clearly defined semantic meaning (“I see a tree, a sea, a person”, etc.). We always attribute the observed object or phenomenon to a certain group or class of objects, and do not display them in our perception as something isolated, not related to other phenomena. The meaningfulness of perception is achieved primarily by the fact that we immediately designate a specific image of the perceived phenomenon with words (most often with the help of inner speech). Due to this (since the word always generalizes) we see in the perceived object not an isolated object, but always a representative of a certain type or class of phenomena.
The process of perception is very complex. It includes:
1. Various sensations that together form a more or less complex complex. Without sensations there can be no perception. However, perception cannot be considered as a simple sum of sensations. The latter participate in the process of perception in a connected or interdependent form, since the properties of objects reflected in sensations are always mutually connected and conditioned.
2.Representations preserved from previous experience. We have seen many objects similar to the one we now perceive, we have seen them in different positions, from different angles, under different illumination, at different distances - the corresponding representations, emerging in memory, are included in the process of direct perception of this object. In this regard, the image of the perceived object becomes much richer in content than the direct stimuli acting at the moment on the senses. Visually, we see only the whiteness of the snow covering the field. But this visual perception is joined by ideas that have surfaced in memory about its temperature, density and plasticity, that is, ideas about those features of the snow that are not felt at the moment, but which were felt earlier when we took the snow in our hands, squeezed it in lump, etc.
3. Recognition of objects and phenomena. A characteristic feature of recognition is the assignment of the perceived object to an already known class of phenomena. When looking at the stadium, we note not only specific features of this stadium, but we recognize this building as a stadium, and not as a theater, noting in our perception those common features which are common to all stadiums.
Recognition is based on the connections formed and fixed in the process of previous experience between the type of an object and its purpose, including associations between individual properties and features of an object. Depending on the nature and degree of fixation of these connections, general and specific recognition are distinguished.
General recognition is based on very abstract and generalized connections: for the most part they have the character of subsuming the perceived object under a known genus or species. Often general recognition is characterized by vagueness and uncertainty, taking the form of a sense of familiarity.
Specific recognition characterized by a higher degree of certainty, it is based on very strong and extensive associations. For example, in our perception, we not only attributed this athlete to the number of skiers, but also recognized him as a certain personality, with all his individual characteristics.
As already noted, one of the content aspects of the personality is the substructure of mental forms of reflection, which includes mental, cognitive processes that have a pronounced individual character and, therefore, largely determine the personal characteristics of a person. These primarily include perceptual processes: sensations, perception, with the help of which a person receives signals from the surrounding world, reflects properties, distinguishes signs of things, feels the state of his own body. Let's consider them in more detail.
Feel. Sensations are the simplest form of mental reflection. Sensation is an elementary mental cognitive process of direct reflection individual properties objects and phenomena of the material world, as well as the state of one's own organism.
Cognitive, emotional and regulatory functions of the psyche are manifested in sensations. Feelings are always emotionally colored, since they are associated with the vital activity of the organism, signaling to a person about the nature and strength of the impacts. Sensations not only connect us with the outside world, are the main source of knowledge, but also act as the main condition for our mental development. For example, in artificially created conditions of sensory isolation, which deprives the subject of sensations, his mental life, consciousness are significantly disturbed, as a result of which hallucinations, obsessions and other mental disorders may appear.
Currently, there are a large number of different sensations, which are classified as follows:
sensations reflecting the properties of objects, environmental phenomena (exteroceptive) as a result of exposure to a stimulus are not
directly on the analyzer (contact) or at a distance from it (distant);
sensations fixing the state of internal organs (interoceptive);
sensations that reflect the position of our body (proprioceptive) and the nature of its movement (kinesthetic).
Contact exteroceptive sensations include, for example, taste, tactile sensations. Visual, auditory, olfactory are a kind of distant exteroceptive sensations.
Usually, in a "pure" form, individual sensations rarely appear, since stimuli act on several analyzers at once, causing a whole range of various sensations. An example of such complex sensations can be vibration, temperature, pain sensations.
According to the strength and duration of exposure, weak, medium and strong sensations are distinguished, by measuring which one can generally judge the sensitivity of certain analyzers to certain stimuli, which is most directly related to assessing the testimony of witnesses about what and how they heard, saw, etc. .d.
In order to correctly assess the testimony of witnesses, other participants in the criminal, civil process, it is necessary to know about the basic patterns, properties of sensations that affect the formation of testimony. These properties of sensations include the following.
Sensitivity of the analyzer Opa". This is the ability of the psyche to reflect the properties of objects, phenomena with greater or lesser accuracy. The sensitivity of the analyzer (visual, auditory, etc.) is determined by the minimum strength of the stimulus that a person distinguishes, as well as minimum difference between two stimuli capable of producing changes in sensation.
The minimum strength of the stimulus that can cause a sensation is called the lower absolute threshold of sensitivity, which characterizes the level of absolute sensitivity of the analyzer to the stimulus. There is an inverse relationship between the absolute sensitivity and the threshold value: the lower the sensation threshold, the higher the sensitivity.
Along with the lower there is an upper absolute threshold of sensitivity, determined by the maximum strength of the stimulus, when the sensation occurs adequately to the acting stimulus. A further increase in the strength of the stimulus causes a sensation of pain.
The lower and upper thresholds determine the sensitivity zone of the analyzer to the corresponding stimulus.
In addition, there is a threshold of sensitivity to discrimination (difference threshold), which is determined by the minimum value of the difference in strength (greater or lesser) of two stimuli. With an increase in the strength of the stimulus, the value of the discrimination threshold (difference threshold) increases.
In humans, these sensitivity thresholds (lower, upper, difference) are individual. Depending on age and other circumstances, they change. The severity of sensitivity increases with age, reaching a maximum by 20-30 years. Temporary deviations of sensitivity from the usual norm are influenced by factors such as time of day, extraneous stimuli, mental condition, fatigue, illness, pregnancy in a woman, etc. When evaluating the quality of sensations of the witness, the accused, it is also necessary to find out whether the subject was exposed to side stimuli (alcohol, narcotic or similar pharmacological substances), which increase or sharply blunt the sensitivity of the analyzers.
All this should be taken into account during interrogations, during investigative experiments conducted in order to test the quality of sensations. For example, by examining the vibrational sensitivity of a person suspected of feigning deafness, it is quite easy to convict him of a lie. It is enough to throw a small object on the floor behind the "sick" back to check his simulative behavior. A really sick person with impaired hearing with intact vibrational sensitivity will respond to this stimulus. The simulator, if he does not know about the developed vibrational sensation of the deaf, will not react to this stimulus. Of course, after such a preliminary test, the suspect should be sent for a forensic psychological or complex medical and psychological examination.
When analyzing testimonies based on sensations, it should be remembered that various distortions can be introduced into receptor activity by subthreshold stimuli, which, although they do not cause clear sensations due to their insignificant magnitude, nevertheless create, especially with repeated exposure, a focus of excitation in the cerebral cortex, capable of causing hallucinatory images, various associative connections with previously recorded sensations. Sometimes this is manifested by witnesses in the fact that the initial image, some kind of vague sensation, is subsequently transformed, as it were, into a real phenomenon. Moreover, such false images that have arisen, fuzzy sensations are so persistent that they begin to influence the formation of erroneous testimony. And the investigator (court) in such cases has to make considerable efforts to figure out what exactly corresponds to the truth and what is a conscientious delusion of the interrogated.
See: Kertes I. Tactics and psychological foundations of interrogation. M., 1965. S. 32.
Possible distortions in sensations can also be influenced by the so-called sensory effect, i.e. the background noise that happens periodically in every analyzer. This is a feeling by the sensory organ of oneself, regardless of whether any stimulus is acting on it at the moment or not. The value of the sensory effect increases when exposed to stimuli that have a small force, when it is difficult to distinguish spontaneous sensory excitation of the analyzer from the sensation of any weak signal. In such cases, a situation of perceptual uncertainty arises, which most often predisposes to making erroneous decisions, especially in extreme situations in the “man-machine” system that occur during incidents related to the operation of various technical devices, Vehicle.
Adaptation. This pattern is expressed in changes in the sensitivity of the analyzer under prolonged exposure to a stimulus in the form of a decrease or increase in the threshold of sensitivity. As a result of adaptation, the sensation may disappear completely, especially during prolonged action of the stimulus. Examples of this are: adaptation to smell olfactory analyzer in a person who has been working with odorous substances for a long time; auditory adaptation to constantly affecting noises, etc.
In some cases, as a result of adaptation, a dulling of sensations under the influence of a strong stimulus may occur, for example, a temporary decrease in sensitivity visual analyzer, after we get from a semi-dark room into conditions of bright illumination (light adaptation). These types of adaptation are called negative, as they lead to a decrease in the sensitivity of the analyzers. Adaptation to light and darkness has a negative effect, especially in dim lighting conditions. Under these conditions, the reaction time of motor vehicle drivers increases, the localization of moving objects worsens. Dark adaptation results in a delay in signal transmission from the darkened eye to the brain. The delay in signal transmission leads to the fact that a person sees the object as if with some delay, which sometimes contributes to emergency situations on roads with heavy oncoming traffic.
However, the manifestation of adaptation is not always negative. Often, the sensitivity of the analyzer as a result of adaptation can not only decrease, but also significantly increase. For example, this happens when a weak stimulus is applied to the visual analyzer in a semi-dark room (with resistance to dark adaptation) or to the auditory analyzer in conditions of complete silence, when our auditory analyzer begins to record rather weak sound stimuli (auditory adaptation). In other words, feel
the activity of the analyzers under the influence of weak stimuli increases, and under the influence of strong stimuli it decreases.
This pattern must be taken into account in investigative (judicial) practice when assessing witness testimony, when, for example, an entity seeking to mislead an investigator (court) falsely claims that he did not see any objects, because “it was dark”. In fact, taking into account the length of his stay in conditions of relative darkness and the appearance of dark adaptation in him, this may not be entirely true. It is known that a person who has fallen into a darkened room, after 3-5 minutes. begins to distinguish the light penetrating there, to see objects. After 20-30 minutes, he already orients himself quite well in the dark. Staying in absolute darkness increases the sensitivity of the visual analyzer to light in 40 minutes by 200 thousand times.
The degree of adaptation of our analyzers is different. High adaptability in olfactory, tactile analyzers. Gustatory, visual sensations adapt somewhat more slowly.
The interaction of sensations. In everyday life, our receptors are affected by a mass of stimuli, under the influence of which we constantly experience various sensations. As a result of the interaction of different sensations, the sensitivity of the analyzers changes: either increases or decreases. This mechanism of interaction of sensations can affect the completeness and objectivity of the testimony, the quality of the investigative experiment. For example, under conditions of exposure to very strong aircraft engine noise light sensitivity twilight vision can fall to 20% of its previous level. Also, visual sensitivity is significantly reduced when exposed to the olfactory receptor of an unpleasant odor. The latter circumstance should be borne in mind when examining the scene of the incident, a corpse with significant cadaveric changes during exhumation. In such cases, one has to apply extra effort to perform the entire amount of work at the proper level, take breaks more often.
The general pattern of such phenomena is that weak stimuli of one analyzer system increase the sensitivity of other analyzers during the interaction of sensations, while strong stimuli lower it. This phenomenon is called sensitization.
In addition, in the process of interaction of sensations under the influence of one stimulus, sensations of a different modality may appear, characteristic of another stimulus that is not currently affecting the analyzer. This phenomenon is called synesthesia. For example, some individuals under the influence of sound stimuli may experience vivid visual images, various taste sensations etc.
Famous domestic psychologist A.R. Luria described such an extraordinary sensitivity in a certain Sh. Walking with him from the institute, A.R. Luria asked Sh. if he would forget the way. “What are you,” replied Sh., “is it possible to forget? After all, this is the fence. It tastes so salty and so rough, and it has such a sharp and penetrating sound...”1.
In the interaction of sensations, a phenomenon called the contrast of sensations can take place. This occurs in those cases when the same stimulus is felt by the analyzer depending on the qualitative characteristics of another stimulus that acted on the same analyzer simultaneously or sequentially (for example, a consistent contrast of taste sensations). Sometimes contrasting phenomena lead to errors in sensations, and, consequently, in testimony.
successive images. Often, with prolonged exposure to the analyzer, the stimulus continues to be felt even after it has ceased its action. For some time, a person still “sees”, “hears” him, etc. These sensations in the form of sequential images are important in assessing decisions made in extreme conditions.
The pattern of our sensations in the form of successive visual images is used to create a cinematic effect, as if an image moving on the screen. The critical flicker frequency, when we stop noticing frame changes, corresponds to 30 flashes per second or more. In film projection, the frequency of flickering usually reaches 72 flashes per second, and we see objects in motion, not noticing successive projections. At a low frequency of flashes flickering, for example, 5-10 times per second, bright spots of light, motionless figures may appear, and this effect can be extremely distinct. Stimulation of the retina's visual receptor by bright flashes of light sometimes goes so far as to cause discomfort, leading to headache and nausea2.
Knowledge of this pattern can be useful, for example, when assessing the actions of a driver who has lost control of the car at night in conditions of intense oncoming traffic.
Spatial localization of the stimulus. Spatial reception is carried out with the help of distant analyzers that sense the signal at a distance. Usually several analyzers with contact receptors are involved in this process. In some cases, distortions are possible as a result of the interaction of sensations, especially under the influence of the analyzer of the leading modality.
‘ Liria A.R. A small book about a big memory. (Mnemonic mind). M., 1968. S. 24.
¦ Cm.: Gregory R.L. Decree. op. pp. 123-124.
The accuracy of the spatial localization of the stimulus can be largely influenced by the position of the body and head.
A certain disorganization in receptor activity, in the sensations of one's body, space, is introduced by unusual states, conditions of activity, for example, weightlessness. Here is how our first cosmonaut Yu.A. describes his feelings in this state. Gagarin, who in the first seconds of weightlessness, in his words, “felt that the plane turned over and was flying in such an inverted position ... During the entire period of weightlessness,” he recalls, “he experienced an unpleasant, difficult to characterize, previously unfamiliar feeling of unnaturalness and helplessness. .. It seemed to me that not only the situation on the plane had changed, but also something in myself. To get rid of this discomfort, I tried to write in weightlessness, reach out with my hands to various objects. He did all this without much difficulty. Nevertheless, the feeling of helplessness, insecurity did not go away and tormented me.
Each person has his own individual level of development of sensitivity, certain qualitative characteristics of the analyzer systems that make up the sensory organization of his personality. The type of the subject's nervous system has a significant impact on the functioning of the sense organs. People with a strong nervous system show greater endurance and stability than people with a weak nervous system, but the latter are endowed with greater sensitivity (B.M. Teplov, A.R. Luria). By changing the interests, attitudes of the subject with the help of auto-training, speech instructions that change the significance of the stimulus by giving it an important "signal" value, one can achieve an increase or decrease in the sensitivity of the analyzer, subordinate it to the goals and objectives of the activity.
Professional activity places high demands on the sensory organization of a lawyer. In his activity, the leading types of sensitivity are primarily visual, auditory, olfactory.
Painful organic sensations have a negative impact on the functioning of various analyzers, reduce the level of their sensitivity, which is reflected in the whole activity of a lawyer. An example is an excerpt from performance characteristics on one young investigator, in which it was noted that the observed “ increased attention to painful sensations, the suspiciousness developed on this basis in relation to one’s health negatively affects its official activity prevent him from enduring work-related physical and psychological overload.
Undoubtedly, professional activity makes high demands on the sensory organization of law enforcement officers. Therefore, lawyers, especially prosecutorial and investigative
military workers, it is necessary to be able to manage their feelings: to stimulate positive and strong-willed efforts to neutralize the impact on the psyche of negative sensations.
Perception. A more perfect form of reflection in comparison with sensations is perception.
Perception is a mental process of reflecting objects and phenomena in the totality of their properties and signs with the direct impact of these objects on the senses.
In the course of perception, a holistic image of various objects and phenomena arises in the human mind. Knowledge of the patterns of perception processes helps to better understand the mechanism for the formation of testimony, to identify the psychological origins of the errors of the investigator, the court and, on this basis, to make recommendations to improve the effectiveness of their law enforcement activities.
Depending on the leading role of one or another analyzer, the following types of perception can be named: visual, auditory, olfactory, gustatory, kinesthetic.
Based on the organization of perception processes, arbitrary (intentional) and involuntary perception are distinguished. As a rule, voluntary perception, also called observation, is most effective. A lawyer should develop in himself such a quality derived from this type of perception as observation.
The properties and patterns of perception include the following.
Objectivity, integrity, structural perception. In everyday life, a person is surrounded by a variety of phenomena, objects, endowed with various properties. Perceiving them, we study them as a whole. Such objective perception has a regulating effect on the cognitive activity of a person, on the development of his perceptual abilities.
The manifestation of this pattern of perceptual activity can be clearly seen when considering Fig. 4.1. Spots that are not connected by a contour create the image of a dog (see Fig. 4.1, a). Moreover, we distinguish spots on the body of a dog from similar spots on the background. And even in those cases when the spot is not an image of a specific object at all, our consciousness seeks to find in it a resemblance to some object, on-. divide it with some objectivity, as is the case, for example, when examining the shapeless spots of the G. Rorschach test (see Fig. 4.1, b), which reminds many subjects of a bat. Depending on the characteristics of perception, the personal experience of a person, a kind of enumeration of the signs of a spot often occurs subconsciously. Finally, leading signs stand out among them, and in the end, depending on our imagination, we conclude that the spot resembles some object, such as a butterfly, a bat, etc.
All this, perhaps, would look like just entertaining experiences, if in life, in more complex conditions of practical activity, the same patterns of perception did not manifest themselves. For example, an investigator, after examining a corpse with mortal injuries
head, must also examine the murder weapon seized from the suspect, identify on the seized object the main, leading signs that distinguish it as a murder weapon, with the help of which a craniocerebral injury of a strictly defined configuration was inflicted. And if the investigator sees completely different signs among the leading signs or does not notice the necessary ones at all, then the result of his search will be negative: no microtraces-overlays will be found on the crime weapon, i.e. those signs on the basis of which it is possible to prove the involvement of the suspected person in the committed crime. This seemingly simple truth, which clearly illustrates the perceptual origins of some of the investigator's professional mistakes, should not be forgotten. The well-known French psychologist J. Piaget drew attention to this pattern of perception, who wrote that “perception is carried out not by copying or precise measurement, but, as it were, likened to a selection process in which not all points or microsegments of a figure are imprinted, but only those on which the choice fell; in this case, the selected elements or trace elements, i.e. those that have been given preference will be overestimated in comparison with all the others.
Unlike sensations, as a result of perception, a holistic image of an object, a phenomenon, including such a complex one as a crime, is formed. Due to this pattern, a person usually, with a lack of information, seeks to fill in the missing elements of the perceived object himself, which sometimes leads to erroneous judgments. Therefore, when interrogating witnesses, it is necessary to find out not only what they, for example, saw or heard, but also on what their statements about certain properties of the object perceived by them are based.
Fress P., Piaget J. experimental psychology. Issue. VI. S. 21.
perception activity. Usually the process of selection, synthesis of the features of an object is selective, purposeful search. In this process, an active organizing principle operates, subordinating the entire course of cognition to itself. Penetrating into the phenomenon under study, we group its sensory properties in different ways, highlight the necessary connections. This gives a deliberate, active character to perception. The activity of perception is expressed in the participation of the effector (motor) components of the analyzers: the movement of the hand during touch, the movement of the pupils of the eyes, the movement of the body in space relative to the object of knowledge being studied. When perceiving familiar objects, the perceptual process can be curtailed to some extent.
Meaningfulness of perception. A person's perception is closely related to his thinking, since perceptual images often have different semantic meanings. We not only perceive, but at the same time we study the subject of knowledge, we try to find an explanation of its essence. “To consciously perceive an object means to mentally name it, i.e. attribute the perceived object to a certain group, class of objects, generalize it in a word.
The meaningful nature of the perceived images can be illustrated by graphic drawings, which usually depict the so-called ambiguous two-dimensional figures, creating a kind of “stereographic ambiguity” effect that gives the viewer the impression of volume, due to which a two-dimensional planar image turns into a three-dimensional object. For example, depending on how we comprehend the figure (Fig. 4.2), how we perceive it, we, at will, alternately see either a staircase going down, or a ledge cornice going up from right to left. And although in both cases the projection of the image on the retina of the eye remains unchanged, we alternately see two completely different three-dimensional objects that have a purely external contour similarity.
The active role of our thinking is well traced when considering the image of the figure in Fig. 4.3, known as the Necker cube (after the Icelandic scientist who first described the properties of this figure).
With a little effort of will, you can arbitrarily “turn” this cube in space, alternately changing the position of its near and far to the viewer
vertical planes. Rice. 4.2. Schroeder ladder
Petrovsky A.V. Introduction to psychology. S. 141.
Thanks to the active role of our thinking, which dictates what we need to see, we begin to selectively respond precisely to those visual stimuli, on the basis of which a certain objective image “necessary” for our consciousness is created, which differs from other perceptual images. Thus, a meaningful, selective perceptual process leads us to the fact that the image of perception passes into the image of consciousness (including, as often happens, into an erroneous image), under the influence of which we find ourselves in the future, unfortunately, even when Thanks to this, we make unfortunate mistakes and mistakes in cognitive activity.
The active role of thinking in the processes of perception gave rise to the famous English psychologist R.L. Gregory, who devoted many years to studying the laws of visual perception, figuratively called our visual analyzer the "reasonable eye", emphasizing the inseparable connection between visual perception and thinking and drawing attention to the regulation of perceptual activity by thought processes. “Perception,” he wrote, “is a kind of thinking. And in perception, as in any kind of thinking, there are enough of its ambiguities, paradoxes, distortions and uncertainties. They lead even the most intelligent eye by the nose, since they are the causes of errors (and signals of errors) in both the most concrete and the most abstract thinking.
Thanks to this mechanism of perception, a person often, without even realizing it, sees what he wants to see, and not what objectively is in reality. In a number of cases, this property of perception can explain many of the shortcomings of the search activity of the investigator during the inspection of the scene, when he “sees” far from everything that is necessary to establish the truth. This is confirmed by our analysis of cold cases related to murders. One of the reasons why some serious crimes go unsolved lies precisely in the lack of proper perceptual organization.
Gregory R.L. Intelligent eye. S. 68.
view, in the psychological unpreparedness of the investigator for such a multifaceted perception, which is the perception of the situation of the scene.
An essential aspect of the meaningfulness of perceptual activity is the verbalization of the perceived. “The process of perceiving an object is never carried out at an elementary level, it always includes the highest level of mental activity, in particular speech” .
Verbalization of what is seen sharpens the perception, helps to highlight the essential features and their relationships. There is perhaps no better way to see an object than to force yourself to reproduce it using various ways. At the same time, not only monologic internal or oral, but also written speech is of great importance. That is why the requirement of the legislator to record investigative actions, make molds and impressions of traces, draw plans and schemes has not only a forensic, but also a psychological basis.
Practice convincingly confirms that the mediocre quality of the protocol for the inspection of the scene, as a rule, indicates the superficial cognitive activity of the investigator. That is, already at the initial perceptual level, the prerequisites are often created for the subsequent emergence of very serious complications on business.
Organization of the field of perception. The organization of the field of perception is also essential in the perceptual side of cognitive activity, due to which the individual elements are combined into a single whole and as a result a holistic image of the object under study appears.
A person always strives to organize the field of perception in such a way as to see one or another image associated with his previous ideas, some objects familiar to him, with certain personal preferences, attitudes. Sometimes this leads to the re-creation of some kind of synthetic image, far from corresponding, especially in details, to the real object that is perceived.
The active mental organizing beginning of the perceptual process is especially easily revealed when looking at Fig. 4.4. With a little effort, one can arbitrarily group visual information in various ways, moving from one option to another, revealing, although the simplest, but different images: groupings of four squares, of nine, a cross of two rows of squares, dissecting the field vertically and horizontally, while that the projection of this alternation of squares on the retina does not change at all.
The tendency towards the mental organization of the visual field is the basis of the methodology developed in forensic science for using an identification set of drawings to obtain collective images.
forged portraits of wanted persons based on the testimony of witnesses using various fragments of a human face.
Apperception. This property is manifested in the special dependence of perception on the content of a person’s mental life, the characteristics of his personality, experience, knowledge, and interests. Throughout life, a person is constantly exposed to various
in (annoying
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objective, intellectual experience of determining (recognizing) the quantitative and qualitative characteristics of various stimuli, a kind of bank of perceptual hypotheses that allows him to quickly respond to the actions of various stimuli, promptly choosing from this, relatively speaking, the bank of the hypotheses that best of all corresponds to the qualitative characteristics of the next stimulus. With the enrichment of perceptual experience, the process of determining the nature of the stimulus and developing a response to it, followed by decision-making, becomes more and more curtailed. And the richer this experience, the more diverse the accumulated perceptual hypotheses, the faster the perception and recognition of the stimulus occurs.
The simplest clear example of the change in perceptual hypotheses in the process of perception is the alternation of visual images, when we consider, for example, graphic drawings with the so-called pictographic ambiguity (Fig. 4.5). In the first case, this is a well-known drawing by V.E. Hill's "My Wife and Mother-in-Law", which alternately sees either an elderly or a young woman; in the second picture - now the face of an Indian, then the figure of an Eskimo boy in winter clothes.
Perceptual hypotheses can take on a sensuous form, and then we see not so much the object as the perceptual hypothesis itself. Is it not this psychological phenomenon that explains those obvious mistakes when the investigator “sees” traces of not murder, but suicide at the scene, although in fact the material situation contradicts such a “vision”?
Especially quick answers and solutions come to familiar, familiar signals. But this is not always the case, especially when the subject contacts the new object for a short time. Let us recall how sometimes a witness slowly chooses from a group of persons presented to him for identification. In this situation, the perception of people and their comparison with the previously perceived image of the wanted person goes like
would be in several stages. The image of a previously perceived person imprinted in the mind, along with other images (hypotheses) in response to a new stimulus (presentation by the investigator of persons for identification), is not immediately confirmed.
We will return to this issue in the last section of the textbook when considering psychological characteristics conducting investigative actions.
Constancy of perception. This property consists in the ability of the perceptual system to perceive objects with a certain, close to real, constancy of their shape, size, color, etc., regardless of the conditions in which this occurs. For example, no matter from what angle we look at the plate, regardless of its projection on the retina in the form of a circle or an ellipse, it is still perceived as round. A white sheet of paper is perceived as white both in bright light and in low light conditions.
The constancy of perception is developed in the process of assimilation by a person of life, professional experience. It is a necessary condition for his life, having a feedback mechanism, with the help of which the perceptual system constantly adjusts to the desired object and the conditions of its perception. However, constancy is preserved only up to certain limits. With a sharp change in lighting, when the perceived object is exposed to a contrasting background color, the constancy can be violated, and this, in turn, can lead to individual errors in the testimony.
A state of emotional tension, such as affect, can have a destructive effect on constancy. Therefore, when interrogating a witness, it is advisable to find out not only the features of the object perceived by him, i.e. what he saw, heard, but also his state, as well as the conditions in which his perceptual activity proceeded,
and only after that should one evaluate his statements about the shape, size, color and other properties of this or that object.
Illusions. The distortion of the perceived objects is one of the most interesting problems that the investigator faces during the conduct of investigative actions, in the process of assessing the testimony of witnesses. Since the participants in the criminal process receive a significant amount of information with the help of a visual analyzer, visual illusions become most relevant.
The causes of illusions are both objective and subjective. The objective prerequisites for the appearance of illusions include: the lack of contrast between the object and the background, the effect of irradiation, leading to the fact that light objects look large compared to dark objects of the same size, etc. For example, a white square on a black background seems larger than the same square on a white background (Fig. 4.6, a). Circles of exactly the same diameter, framed by circles of different diameters, also seem different (Fig. 4.6.6). Parallel lines crossed by lines intersecting in the center are perceived as non-parallel (Fig. 4.6, c), etc.
Subjective reasons contributing to the appearance of illusions include adaptation of analyzers, fatigue of the receptor mechanism, etc.
If illusions arise under the influence of really affecting sensory stimuli, but erroneously deciphered by our analyzers, then these are hallucinations - the result of pathological disturbances in perceptual processes, leading to the fact that the appearance of images is not due at the moment to the impact of any objects on receptors.
The main questions of the topic
1. The role and significance of the processes of sensation and perception in the professional activity of a lawyer.
2. Memory, thinking, imagination. Accounting for their regularities in the production of criminal and civil processes.
3. Emotions, feelings, mental states (affect, anxiety, fear, stress etc.). Accounting and their legal assessment in criminal and civil proceedings.
1. With the help of the processes of sensation and perception, a person receives signals from the reality around him, reflects the properties, feels the state of his own organism.
Feelare always emotionally colored and they manifest cognitive, regulatory functions of the psyche. According to the classification, there are quite a lot of them: reflecting the external environment, the internal environment of the body, kinesthetic, etc. Usually there is a whole range of sensations, i.e. there is an impact on many analyzers.
A practicing lawyer must always adequately assess the testimony of witnesses, his clients and other participants in the civil (criminal) process, and for this he needs to know the basic patterns and properties of sensations. These include: the sensitivity of the analyzer (visual, auditory, etc.) and its characteristics - the lower threshold and the upper threshold of sensitivity, as well as the difference threshold (minimum the magnitude of the difference between the strength of two stimuli).
The lawyer must take into account that:
· thresholds of sensitivity in people are individual;
· deviations of sensitivity from the usual norm occur due to a number of factors - exposure to age-related, mental stimuli (noise, light, illness, drugs, alcohol), and this is necessary take into account when working with clients, witnesses, during psychological-investigative experiments;
· in the analysis of testimonies based on feelings, it is necessary to distinguish between truth and error.
An important property of sensation is adaptation. As a result of adaptation, the sensation either disappears (to smell, to noise), or becomes dull temporarily (light adaptation). This is a negative adjustment. Positive adaptation - this is when a weak stimulus acts for a long time and a person is able to pick up the weakest signals.
Feeling has the property sensitization. Weak stimuli of one analyzer system increase the sensitivity of other analyzers during the interaction of sensations, and strong stimuli lower it.
Another property is synesthesia. This means that, for example, under the influencesound stimuli, visual images may occur, etc.
Summarizing the above, we can say that each person hasyour individual level of development of sensitivity. In the professional activities of a lawyer, the most important are visual, auditory sensations, and smell. Justice workers should be able to manage their feelings - to stimulate positive feelings.
Perception- this is a mental process of reflecting objects and phenomena, when a holistic image arises in the human mind. It is the knowledge of the laws of perception that helps the lawyer in his practical work to better understand the mechanism of forming the testimony of a witness, assess the objectivity of the client's claims (in the bar), identify psychological errors of the court and investigators in the course of the case and, accordingly, give professional recommendations. The lawyer himself needs to develop in himself observation, which is a derivative of perception.
Perceptual properties include: objectivity, integrity, structure. For a lawyer, the main thing is to know and remember that perception is not carried out by copying or accurately measuring an object, but is likened to a selection process in which not all points are captured object (person, objects of evidence, etc.), but only those on which the choice fell. And it is in this case that the selected elements that were given preference will be re-evaluated in comparison with all the others (for example, those signs on the basis of which it is possible to prove the innocence of the client). In addition, it must be borne in mind that a person with a lack of information seeks to fill in the missing elements of the perception of an object, which sometimes leads to erroneous judgments. Customers should always be asked what their claims are based on.
Meaningfulness of perception implies the process of studying an object, its essence, the transition of an image of perception into a product of thinking. In this case, the lawyer needs to keep in mind that a person (and often) sees what he wants to see, and not what is actually there. First of all, this concerns the lawyer himself in the conduct of various cases.
A special place among the properties of perception is occupied by apperception. This is the dependence of perception on the factors of a person's mental life - his experience, interests, etc. In other words, over the course of a person’s life, a bank of hypotheses accumulates in the process of perception, and it is these hypotheses that make it possible to respond to the actions of various stimuli by choosing from the bank the hypothesis that most closely matches the qualitative characteristics of the next stimulus (stimulus). A practicing lawyer must take into account that contact with a new object (the number of witnesses, the choice of the desired reaction to testimony, etc.) requires two or three stages of solving a specific legal problem.
Other properties of perception include: constancy, illusory ( distortion), change in space and time. All these properties perceptions appear quite often when considering the psychological characteristics of the conduct of legal (judicial, protective, etc.) actions.
2. Memory- a complex mental phenomenon, which consists in the ability of a person to keep in mind and reproduce various circumstances that took place in the past. Memory is associated with perception and other forms of consciousness of the individual. And it is she who plays the most important role. in the development of human self-consciousness, and the legal consciousness of the individual is a necessary part of a complete personality.
In the professional activity of a lawyer, memory performs enoughwide features. It should be distinguished by its large volume, the strength of its memorization, the accuracy of reproduction of various details of law enforcement and sufficient mobilization readiness to recall the necessary information, and at the right time.
A practicing lawyer must and must be able to extract the necessary information from the memory of witnesses, victims, clients, and, of course, he must have and use knowledge of the patterns of memorization, save and play. And this quality is very important in the activities of an investigator, judge, lawyer. There are the following types of memory:
· figurative (most active view memory of witnesses, clients, etc.);
· motor (memory of the sequence of actions of witnesses, etc.);
· emotional;
· verbally logical is the leading type of memory based on ourthoughts expressed in verbal form;
involuntary;
· arbitrary (this type of memory is the most productive, since it is mediated by the goals and objectives of capturing, preserving facts);
· short-term, long-term, operational.
A lawyer in his professional activity needs to pay attention to the following patterns of memory, which in turn consist of the processes of memorization, reproduction, forgetting:
· for lawyer (investigative) practice, memorization in the form of visual (eidetic) images is of interest, i.e. a person perfectly and involuntarily remembers an object and then reproduces it in detail;
· it is necessary to take into account the "Zeigarnik effect" - incomplete, interrupted actions are remembered twice as often as completed ones (cases with witnesses, an objective assessment of their testimony, etc.);
· take into account the features of reproduction - reminiscences, essencewhich consists in strengthening new semantic connections in the memory (repeated legal surveys, etc.);
· take into account the processes of forgetting in people with certain disorders of mental activity;
· use techniques for activating the memory of participants in a civil (criminal) process.
Among cognitive processes, the highest and most complex isthe level of logical knowledge (thinking), which affects the formation of personality. From the point of view of psychology, thinking is an indirect reflection in the human mind of essential properties, connections and relationships objects and phenomena of the surrounding world. The thought, the concept reflects not only the form, but also the essence of objects, their internal connections and patterns of development.
AT legal practice one has to solve, almost always, non-standard tasks that allow for various options and the choice of the optimal way to achieve the goal. And it is this factor that encourages lawyer to active mental activity, bearing a purely social character.
The legal practitioner must fully represent and use at work different kinds of thinking. These types include: visual, practical and verbally logical (discursive) thinking. Object Thinking lawyer is based on skills, experience (social and professional). In the process discursive thinking concepts are formed, conclusions are drawn, complex theoretical problems are solved. This is the main means of cognitive activity of a lawyer. It is always clothed in linguistic form. That is why a practicing lawyer, and especially a lawyer, must follow how and what a participant in a civil (criminal) process, form an appropriate opinion about the nature of his mental activities, assess the level of his intelligence. The role of discursive thinking in the work of a lawyer is great - in proving the innocence of a subject, establishing the causes of illegal actions, etc.
It is necessary to pay attention to the fact that a lawyer in his practice applies (this is one of the manifestations of discursive thinking) reflexive reasoning. So, the lawyer creates a dynamic model of the behavior of the client, imitates the train of thought and makes a decision. This allows the lawyer to make the right decisions and influence the decisions of the client. A practicing lawyer significantly shortens the path to the truth if he avoids a mechanical enumeration of all possible options.
In order to rationally solve the tasks facing the lawyer, he needs to consistently go through a number of stages:
· preparatory: awareness of the purpose of the activity, formulation of issues that need to be resolved;
· orientation in the conditions of the task: familiarization with the case materials, initial data, etc. Release versions;
· determination of ways, means and methods for solving the problem;
· the solution of the problem. Applied to various legal situations the lawyer (investigator) uses certain tactical combi- nations in the form of a certain set of investigative-mediated actions;
· comparison of the obtained results with the initial conditions of the problem.
The thinking of a professional lawyer is characterized by the following qualities: cognitive activity, breadth and depth, predictability, flexibility and independence of thinking.
Imagination occupies an intermediate position between memory and thinking. It is necessary in a problematic legal situation. With the help of imagination, compensating for the lack of factual material, the lawyer (investigator) manages to activate thinking, find the right solution, and predict the final results. In law enforcement activities of other subjects of the legal process - witnesses, defendants, etc., an active, recreating imagination.
It should be noted that the acquired knowledge, experience, reading fiction, etc. have a positive impact on the development and fruitfulness of the imagination of a practicing lawyer.
3. In the professional activity of a lawyer, of course, an understanding of a special class is required. mental phenomena, including: emotions, feelings, anxiety, fear, stress, frustration, affect. Lawyer should competently evaluate these phenomena when it is necessary to study the behavior subject of various legal relations: when resolving civil law disputes, in the practice of dealing with illegal actions when it is necessary to impose a punishment, as well as in the study of motives that explain why a person committed an illegal act.
The simplest manifestations of the psyche include emotions and feelings.
Emotions- these are short-term experiences of a person that express his attitude to what is happening.
In legal practice, the following should be taken into account:
· emotions getting out of control strong impact on behaviorhuman, mood, thinking;
· emotions can turn into a sense of hostility, which underlies illegal behavior;
· in situations of an uncertain nature, the subject experiences ambivalent emotional states (increased anxiety, tension, etc.).
The practicing lawyer himself also needs to know the language of emotions and feelings. This helps to recognize emotional states client and expressiveness of forms of response to what is happening in the process communications.
Let us briefly consider the states of emotional tension that actively influence the behavior of persons participating in the “man-law” system: anxiety, fear, stress and its varieties - frustration, affect, suffering. State anxiety arises as a result of a premonition or an indefinite, irreversibly approaching danger.
A lawyer needs to take into account the huge role of the subjective factor influencing the state of anxiety and, accordingly, the behavior of a person - a participant in the process. In addition, anxiety can be strong factor in life, remaining at the same time not realized by the person. Anxiety can lead to pathological disorders psyche (mental disorder). A lawyer needs to take these factors into account when assessing the mental state of a guilty person, defendant, witness, etc. For example, this concerns the resolution of civil law disputes related to compensation for moral damage to a subject who has suffered moral and physical suffering (see Articles 151, 1101 of the Civil Code of the Russian Federation). In legal proceedings, the assessment of the anxiety of one or another participant in the process is carried out taking into account the personality of the subject, his social status, self-esteem, etc. The lawyer must take into account that there is a factor of personal anxiety, which is of a constant nature, and a factor of situational anxiety (a temporary state of mind).
Fearis an emotional reaction to a specific, objective an existing threat. Fear is a manifestation of the instinct of self-preservation.
Fear is the most dangerous of all emotions. The main reasons for the appearance of fear are: a feeling of impending failure, a sense of one's own helplessness, defenselessness, insurmountable
danger to yourself and your loved ones.
A special kind of fear is phobias- obsession, inadequate experiences, which are based on the fear of a particular content (open, closed space, height, animals, etc.).
A practicing lawyer should keep in mind that the subject (client, civil plaintiff, etc.) really experienced a state of fear if, during the consideration of criminal cases, it was established that the crime was accompanied by threats, intimidation. When resolving civil law disputes, various transactions made under the influence of threats are recognized as invalid.
The appearance of fear, of course, is associated with determinants, i.e. kind « natural stimuli" that are inherited or acquired during lifeway. When evaluating the various actions of the subject in the system "human– right” the lawyer needs to know the consequences of experiencing fear:
· decreased visual acuity;
· impaired thinking;
· distortion of the estimate of the distance between objects;
· fragmentary memories;
· constriction of consciousness (confusion, misunderstanding of what is happening).
Knowledge of the following factors is of great importance in the investigationillegal actions:
· sudden severe mental shock;
· temporary special mental state as a circumstance mitigating punishment;
· exceeding the limits of necessary defense;
· extreme cases at work (railroad dispatcher, operator in a military unit, etc.).
Stress- this is a state of mental tension, which is due to the adaptation of the human psyche, his body to complex, changing conditions of life. Such conditions (in legal practice) can be both circumstances related to the commission illegal actions, as well as the very procedure of doing business, causing a state of mental tension not only in the accused, the witness, the client, but often the investigator, lawyer, judge.
The peculiarity of stress lies in its inconsistency: it hasboth positive and negative impact on a person:
· the positive (mobilizing) effect of stress has known limits, stimulating greater efficiency of the subject's vital activity;
· prolonged exposure to stress leads to disruption of activityorganism, i.e. has a destructive impact on the psyche (anger, rage, suffering, depression).
The lawyer must understand the causes of stress and take into account its impact when considering cases (civil and criminal):
· stress is often associated with the decision of very difficult and important for the subject tasks;
· stress often manifests itself physically (in the form of noise, visual impact, loneliness, conflict, etc.);
· the experience of stress is associated with psychophysiological characteristicsa person (the margin of resistance to stress - the level of tolerance).
The lawyer must be guided in establishing the fact of stress as follows:
· in a subject in a stressful state, it is noticeably difficult to assess the strength of a threatening factor and there is a tendency to overestimate this assessment;
· in civil law matters (conclusion of transactions, contracts, economic contracts) in a stressed state, the subject admits so-called "deals with the vices of the will."
It should be emphasized that in modern conditions, post-stress mental disorders are of great importance as a result of an event experienced by the subject, which goes beyond the limits of ordinary experience. life (environmental disasters, hostilities, terrorist attacks, armed attacks, etc.). People with post-stress disorders show signs of social maladjustment (isolation, inadequate response on the environment: a joke is perceived as an insult, increased conflict). It is in these features of the post-stress state that one should look for an explanation of illegal acts in the form of conflicts. Given the strong impact of stress factors on the human psyche, the legislator left the courts the opportunity, taking into account the circumstances of the case, the personality of the client, to mitigate the punishment.
frustrationcalled the stress of shattered hope. She expresses herselfin the characteristic features of experiences and behavior caused by objectively insurmountable difficulties that arise on the way to the goal.
It is necessary to clearly distinguish between the constructive and destructive effects of frustration on a person. signs constructive frustrations:
· the dependence of the complexity of the task set on a large intensification of efforts;
· replacement of means to achieve the goal, revision of previous actions;
· replacement of the goal (in a state of frustration, the subject goes to search for an alternative goal, which is possible by reaching a compromise).
signs destructive frustrations:
· low frustration tolerance threshold;
· violation of the fine coordination of efforts aimed at achieving goals;
· limitation that does not allow the subject to see alternative ways to achieve the goal or another suitable goal;
· emotional arousal.
Emotional response to frustration:
· aggressiveness towards completely foreign objects;
depression.
The legal practitioner should remember that aggressive reactionsmost often observed in people unrestrained, rude, prone to psychopathy. He must have a high level of frustration stability, since the work of a lawyer, investigator, judge is accompanied by large neuropsychic overload associated with decision making. Knowledge of the psychological motives for the emergence of frustration helps a lawyer to understand the motives for illegal actions against a person. Frustration can lead to emotional breakdowns, one of the forms of which is affect.
Affect: lawyers have long paid attention to this emotional state. The concept of affect is fixed in legal norms (Articles 107, 113 Criminal Code of the Russian Federation). Affect is a short-term emotional process of explosive character, which quickly takes possession of the subject, proceeds very violently and is characterized by significant changes in consciousness and a decrease in control over the will. The lawyer must distinguish pathological affect from the affect itself (called "physiological" effect).
Knowledge of certain signs of passion helps the court, investigator, lawyer, by working with witnesses, victims, suspects, to collect the necessary information and analyze what has been done by a person in a state of passion.
Signs of affect:
· the suddenness of the appearance of affective excitement for the subject himself;
· the intensity of emotional experiences (manifested in the clamping of the muscular system);
· the explosive nature of emotional discharge;
· a change in consciousness, its “narrowing” and the concentration of thinking on affective experiences that go to the detriment of the subject’s own interests and plans;
· partial amnesia (forgetting) what happened;
· external signs (spectacular facial expressions, intermittent speech, alteredvoice timbre, etc.);
· decreased self-control;
· post-affective exhaustion of the nervous system, loss of strength, stupor, retardation.
In order to correctly resolve the issue of whether the defendant was (accused) in a state of passion, in addition to the above signs The lawyer needs to investigate:
· the nature of the affective situation;
· individual psychological characteristics of the subject's personality;
· psychophysiological state of the subject on the eve of illegal actions;
· peculiarities of the behavior of the suspect (client) immediately after the commission of an action of an unlawful nature.
In recent years, a very large experience has been accumulated in establishing affectthe subjects involved in law enforcement activities. A solid methodological base has been created, recommendations for the diagnosis of affect have been developed. Thus, the mental attitude accompanies any cognitive activity of a person, including judicial, providing both positive and negative influence on it. She precedes decisions that are made under its influence.
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Types of feeling.
prepared
educator
S. Red
The value of sensation in human life.
Feeling, as such, is a rather complicated mental phenomenon, as it seems at first glance. Despite the fact that this is a fairly well-studied phenomenon, the global nature of its role in the psychology of activity and cognitive processes is underestimated by man. Sensations are widespread in ordinary human life, and in the continuous process of cognitive activity for people it is an ordinary primary form of the psychological connection of the organism with the environment.
Partial or complete absence of types of sensation (sight, hearing, taste, smell, touch) in a person prevents or hinders its development. Sensations are of great importance for the formation of such cognitive processes as speech, thinking, imagination, memory, attention and perception, as well as for the development of activities as a specific type of human activity aimed at creating objects of material and spiritual culture, transforming one's abilities, preserving and improving nature, and the building of society.
At the very beginning of life, in addition to physical development, first of all, speech is formed in people, which is the main means of human communication. Without it, a person would not be able to receive and transmit a large amount of information, in particular, one that carries a large semantic load or captures in itself something that cannot be perceived with the help of the senses. Written speech often acts as a way of remembering information. External speech plays mainly the role of a means of communication, and internal means of thinking. It should also be noted that speech narrows the boundaries of the chosen type of activity. The formation of speech, in turn, is problematic or even impossible without such types of sensations as sight, hearing, touch.
Man is an organic part of nature and society, he is a fairly complex organism. The origin and development of the human body is directed, first of all, to the formation of personality. People are not born as individuals, but become them in the process of development. The personality structure includes abilities, temperament, character, volitional qualities, emotions, motivation, social attitudes. The formation and development of personality is greatly influenced by cognitive processes, activities, as well as human relationships. The acquired qualities in the formation of personality are influenced by the educational process. But how can you imagine the educational process without sensations?
The vital role of sensations is to timely and quickly bring to the central nervous system, as the main control organ of activity, information about the state of the external and internal environment, the presence of biologically significant factors in it.
The life of every person is complex and multifaceted. It is revealed through a number of important processes. They can be conditionally divided into social and business activity of an individual, culture, medicine, sports, communication, interpersonal relations, scientific and research activities, entertainment and recreation.
The full flow of all of the above processes is problematic, and sometimes even impossible to imagine without the involvement of all our senses. Therefore, it is necessary to evaluate the role of sensations in a person's life, since sometimes this knowledge helps in organizing the prosperous existence of an individual in society, achieving success in a business environment.
1. The concept of sensations
In the process of cognition of the surrounding world, in the psychology of people, researchers single out such an important phenomenon in the life of every person as sensation.
Feeling called the simplest mental process of reflection in the cerebral cortex of individual properties of objects and phenomena of the surrounding world that affect the brain through the corresponding sensory organs. So, looking at some object, for example a chair, a person determines its color, shape, size with the help of vision, through touch he learns that it is solid, smooth, moving his hands, he is convinced of its heaviness. All these are separate qualities of a given material object, information about which gives sensations.
Sensing ability- this is the only phenomenon of the organism, through which the external world penetrates into human consciousness. With all the necessity and significance of sensation, it gives the possibility of orientation in the world around.
Our sense organs are the products of a long evolution, so they are specialized to reflect certain types energy, certain properties of objects and phenomena of reality, which are adequate stimuli for specific sense organs. Light, for example, is an adequate irritant for the eye, and sound for the ear, etc. Such differentiation in the field of sensations in man is connected with the historical development of human society. A variety of information about the state of the external and internal environment, the human body receives with the help of the senses, in the form of sensations. Sensations are considered the simplest of all mental phenomena. The ability to sense is present in all living beings with a nervous system. As for conscious sensations, they exist only in living beings that have a brain and a cerebral cortex. This, in particular, is proved by the fact that when the activity of the higher parts of the central nervous system is inhibited, the work of the cerebral cortex is temporarily turned off in a natural way or with the help of biochemical preparations, a person loses the state of consciousness and, along with it, the ability to have sensations, that is, to feel, to consciously perceive the world . This happens during sleep, during anesthesia, with painful disturbances of consciousness.
As we can see, in the process of any cognitive activity, the starting point is sensation.
2. Classification of sensations
Currently, there are about two dozen different analyzer systems that reflect the effects of the external and internal environment on receptors. Classification allows you to group them into systems and present relationships of interdependence. There are the following bases for the classification of sensations:
* by the presence or absence of direct contact with the irritant that causes sensations;
* at the location of the receptors;
* according to the time of occurrence in the course of evolution;
* according to the modality of the stimulus.
According to the presence or absence of direct contact with the stimulus, discant and contact reception are distinguished. Vision, hearing, smell belong to discant reception. These types of sensations provide orientation in the nearest environment. Taste, pain, tactile sensations - contact.
According to the location of the receptors, exteroception, interoception and proprioception are distinguished. Exteroceptive sensations arise from irritation of receptors located on the surface of the body (visual, auditory, tactile, etc.)
Interoceptive sensations occur when receptors inside the body are irritated (feeling of hunger, thirst, nausea). Proprioceptive sensations occur when receptors in muscles and tendons are stimulated.
According to the modality of the stimulus, sensations are divided into visual, auditory, olfactory, gustatory, tactile, static, kinesthetic, temperature, pain. There are sensations that occupy an intermediate place between auditory and skin - vibrational sensations.
There are peculiar sensations that underlie the perception of obstacles, which are not realized by sighted people, but are characteristic of the blind. The blind at a distance can feel the obstacle, and the more clearly, the more massive the obstacle. It has been established that this occurs with the help of the skin of the face and, above all, the forehead. It is assumed that these are heightened thermal sensations or locational sensations, which are noted in bats.
It should be noted that sensations also greatly affect perception, attention, memory, imagination, thinking and speech; in the absence of sensations, other cognitive processes will be limited or impossible.
Perception is not represented without sensations, since it occurs through the influence of our senses on objects and phenomena of the objective world, together with the processes of sensation, perception provides sensory orientation in the surrounding world. The process of perception proceeds under the influence of almost all sensations. This, for example, can be visual perception, under the influence of vision, the main properties of the image are formed, which are formed in the process and result of perception - objectivity (perception in the form of objects separated from each other), integrity (the image is completed to some integral form), constancy (perception of objects relatively constant in shape, color and size, a number of other parameters of independently changing physical conditions of perception) and categorical (perception is of a generalized nature).
Attention is also impossible without the sense organs, since it organizes a variety of sensations. Attention is a process of conscious or unconscious (semi-conscious) selection of one information coming through the senses and ignoring the other.
Memory is the process of reproduction, memorization, preservation and processing by a person of various information. And information, in turn, as mentioned above, comes through the senses. Let's think logically, how will we have the opportunity to remember without sensations? There will be a corresponding answer to this question.
Imagination - special form human psyche, which is separate from the rest mental processes and at the same time occupying an intermediate position between perception, thinking and memory. This is a complex process that takes place in thinking under the influence of the information that enters the brain from the external environment through the senses and is processed through perception, as well as under the influence of those images that are in the human memory.
Thinking is a higher cognitive process. It is the product of new knowledge, active form creative reflection and transformation by man into reality. Thinking can also be understood as the acquisition of new knowledge, the creative transformation of existing ideas. The formation and development of thinking is influenced by new information and existing representations that come and are formed through sensations.
Speech is a means of communication. Speech is formed under the influence of sound signals (phonemes, morphemes, words, sentences, phrases), which are exchanged by individuals using sound sensations. Under the influence of the received signals, active and passive vocabulary and pronunciation skills are formed.
Types of feeling.
All types of sensations have common properties:
quality - these are specific features that distinguish one type of sensation from others (auditory ones differ from other types of sensations in height, timbre; visual ones in saturation, etc.)
intensity is determined by the strength of the acting stimulus and the functional state of the receptor;
duration (duration) is determined by the time of action of the stimulus;
spatial localization - the sensation occurs after some time, the latent period for different species is not the same. This is information about the location of the stimulus in space, which gives us distant receptors (auditory, visual).
Reasons for distinguishing types of sensations:
in connection with the sense organs, they distinguish visual, auditory, tactile, olfactory, gustatory;
according to the location of the receptors, they are distinguished:
interoceptive sensations - signaling the state of the internal processes of the body / organic sensations and sensations of pain. They are among the least conscious and always retain their proximity to emotional states.
exteroceptive sensations - receptors are located on the surface of the body, provide information about the properties of the external environment.
Propreoctive sensations - receptors are located in the muscles, ligaments. They give information about the movement and position of our body / sense of balance, movement.
on contact with the irritant emit:
distant sensations - auditory, visual, etc. Provide information about the properties of the stimulus without direct contact of the receptor with the object itself.
contact sensations - skin, taste, organic. Occur when the receptor is directly exposed to the object.
on the basis of genetic classification distinguish:
protopathic sensations - described by the English neurologist Head in 1918. It is customary to understand them as more primitive, affective, less differentiated and localized, which include organic feelings of hunger, thirst, etc.
epicritical sensations - the most high view sensations that are not subjective in nature, separated from emotional states, reflect the objective objects of the external world and are much closer to complex individual processes.
a special group of non-specific sensations stands out - people have vibration receptors, which are especially developed in the blind).
Depending on the nature of the stimuli acting on a given analyzer, and on the nature of the sensations arising in this case, separate types of sensations are distinguished.
First of all, it is necessary to single out a group of five types of sensations, which are a reflection of the properties of objects and phenomena of the external world - visual, auditory, gustatory, olfactory and skin. The second group consists of three types of sensations that reflect the state of the body - organic, balance sensations, motor. The third group consists of two types of special sensations - tactile and pain, which are either a combination of several sensations (tactile.), Or sensations of different origin (pain).
visual sensations.
Visual sensations - sensations of light and color - play a leading role in a person's knowledge of the external world. Scientists have found that 80 to 90 percent of information from the outside world enters the brain through the visual analyzer, 80 percent of all work operations are carried out under visual control. Thanks to visual sensations, we learn the shape and color of objects, their size, volume, remoteness. Visual sensations help a person navigate in space, coordinate movements. With the help of sight, a person learns to read and write. Books, cinema, theater, television reveal the whole world to us. No wonder the great naturalist Helmholtz believed that of all the human senses, the eye is the best gift and the most wonderful product of the creative forces of nature.
The colors that a person feels are divided into achromatic and chromatic. Achromatic colors are black, white and gray intermediate between them. Chromatic - all shades of red, orange, yellow, green, blue, indigo, violet. White color is the result of the impact on the eye of all light waves that make up the spectrum. Achromatic colors reflect rods that are located at the edges of the retina. The cones are located in the center of the retina. They function only in daylight and reflect chromatic colors. The sticks function at any time of the day. Therefore, at night, all objects seem to us black and gray.
Color has a different effect on the well-being and performance of a person. It has been established, for example, that the optimal coloring of the workplace can increase labor productivity by 20-25 percent. Color has a different effect on success academic work. The most optimal color for painting the walls of classrooms is orange-yellow, which creates a cheerful, upbeat mood, and green, which creates an even, calm mood. Red color excites; dark blue is depressing; both of them tire the eyes.
The less light, the worse a person sees. Therefore, you cannot read poor lighting. At dusk, it is necessary to turn on electric lighting earlier so as not to cause excessive stress in the work of the eye, which can be harmful to vision, and contribute to the development of myopia in schoolchildren.
Special studies speak of the significance of lighting conditions in the origin of myopia: in schools located on wide streets, there are usually fewer nearsighted people than in schools located on narrow streets built up with houses. In schools where the ratio of window area to floor area in classrooms was 15 percent, there were more nearsighted people than in schools where the ratio was 20 percent.
Auditory sensations.
Hearing, like vision, plays an important role in human life. The ability of verbal communication depends on hearing. Auditory communication is of great importance in human life. Thanks to them, a person hears speech, has the ability to communicate with other people. With hearing loss, people usually lose the ability to speak. Speech can be restored, but on the basis of muscle control, which can replace auditory control. The human auditory analyzer can perceive sound waves with a frequency of oscillations per second. Auditory sensations reflect: the pitch, which depends on the frequency of vibration of sound waves; loudness, which depends on the amplitude of their oscillations; timbre of sound - forms of vibrations of sound waves. All auditory sensations can be reduced to three types - speech, musical, noise. Musical is the singing and sounds of the majority musical instruments. Noises - the sound of a motor, the rumble of a moving train, the sound of rain, etc. Hearing to distinguish speech sounds is called phonemic. It is formed in vivo depending on the speech environment. The musical ear is no less social than the speech ear; it is brought up and formed, just like the speech ear. Strong and prolonged noises passing through the organ of hearing cause a loss of nervous energy in people, damage cardiovascular system, reduce attention, reduce hearing and performance, lead to nervous disorders. Noise has a negative effect on mental activity, so special measures to fight him.
An irritant for the auditory analyzer are sound waves - longitudinal vibrations of air particles propagating in all directions from the sound source. When air vibrations enter the ear, they cause the eardrum to vibrate.
The brain end of the auditory analyzer is located in temporal lobes bark. Hearing, like vision, plays an important role in human life. The ability of verbal communication depends on hearing. With hearing loss, people usually lose the ability to speak as well. Speech can be restored, but on the basis of muscle control, which in this case will replace auditory control. This is done through special training. Therefore, some deaf-deaf people have a satisfactory colloquial speech without hearing any sound at all.
Vibration sensitivity is adjacent to auditory sensations. They have a common nature of reflected physical phenomena. Vibration sensations reflect vibrations of an elastic medium. This type of sensitivity is figuratively called "contact hearing". No specific vibration receptors/humans have been found. At present, it is believed that all tissues of the body can reflect the vibrations of the external and internal environment. In humans, vibrational sensitivity is subordinated to auditory and visual.
There are three characteristics of auditory sensations. Auditory sensations reflect the pitch of the sound, which depends on the frequency of vibrations of sound waves, the loudness, which depends on the amplitude of their vibrations, and timbre - a reflection of the form of vibrations of sound waves. The timbre of sound is the quality that distinguishes sounds that are equal in pitch and loudness. Different timbres differ from each other in the voices of people, the sounds of individual musical instruments.
All auditory sensations can be reduced to three types - speech, musical and noise. Musical sounds - singing and sounds of most musical instruments. Examples of noise are the noise of a motor, the rumble of a moving train, the crackling of a typewriter, etc. Speech sounds combine musical sounds (vowels) and noise. (Consonants).
A person develops quite quickly phonemic awareness to the sounds of their native language. It is more difficult to perceive a foreign language, since each language differs in its phonemic features. The ear of many foreigners simply does not distinguish the words "Flame", "dust", "drank" - the words for the Russian ear are completely dissimilar. A resident of Southeast Asia will not hear the difference in the words "boots" and "dogs".
Strong and prolonged noise causes significant loss of nervous energy in people, damages the cardiovascular system - absent-mindedness appears, hearing and working capacity decrease, nervous disorders are observed. Noise has a negative effect on mental activity. Therefore, special measures are being taken in our country to combat noise. In particular, in a number of cities it is forbidden to give automobile and railway signals unnecessarily, it is forbidden to break the silence after 11 pm.
vibration sensations.
Vibration sensitivity is adjacent to auditory sensations. They have a common nature of reflected physical phenomena. Vibration sensations reflect vibrations of an elastic medium. No specific vibration receptors have been found in humans. At present, it is believed that all tissues of the body can reflect the vibrations of the external and internal environment. In humans, vibrational sensitivity is subordinated to auditory and visual. For the deaf and deaf-blind, vibration sensitivity compensates for hearing loss. Short vibrations have a tonic effect on the body of a healthy person, but prolonged and intense vibrations tire and can cause painful phenomena.
Taste sensations.
Taste sensations are caused by the action on taste buds of substances dissolved in saliva or water. A dry piece of sugar placed on a dry tongue will not give any taste sensations.
Taste buds are taste buds located on the surface of the tongue, pharynx and palate. There are four kinds; accordingly, there are four elementary taste sensations: the sensation of sweet, sour, salty and bitter: The variety of taste depends on the nature of the combination of these qualities and on the addition of olfactory sensations to the taste sensations: by combining sugar, salt, quinine and oxalic acid in different proportions, it was possible to simulate some of the taste sensations.
Olfactory sensations.
This is one of the most ancient, simple, but vital important sensations. Olfactory organs are olfactory cells located in the nasal cavity. Irritants for the olfactory analyzer are particles of odorous substances that enter the nasal cavity along with the air.
In modern man, olfactory sensations play a relatively minor role. But with damage to hearing and vision, the sense of smell, along with other remaining intact analyzers, becomes especially importance. The blindly deaf use their sense of smell, just as the sighted use their eyesight: they identify familiar places by smell and recognize familiar people.
Skin sensations.
This is the most widely represented type of sensuality. There are two types of skin sensations - tactile (sensations of touch) and temperature (sensations of heat and cold). Accordingly, on the surface of the skin there are different types nerve endings, each of which gives a feeling of only touch, only cold, only heat. The sensitivity of different parts of the skin to each of these types of irritations is different. Touch is most felt on the tip of the tongue and on the fingertips; the back is less sensitive to touch. The skin of those parts of the body that are usually covered by clothing is most sensitive to the effects of heat and cold.
A peculiar type of skin sensations is vibrational sensations that occur when the surface of the body is exposed to air vibrations produced by moving or oscillating bodies. In normally hearing people, this type of sensation is poorly developed. However, with hearing loss, especially in deaf-blind people, this type of sensation develops noticeably and serves to orient such people in the world around them. Through vibrational sensations, they feel music, even recognize familiar melodies, feel a knock on the door, talk by tapping Morse code with their foot and perceiving floor shaking, they learn about approaching transport on the street, etc.
organic sensations.
Organic sensations include sensations of hunger, thirst, satiety, nausea, suffocation, etc. The corresponding receptors are located in the walls of internal organs: the esophagus, stomach, and intestines. During the normal functioning of the internal organs, separate sensations merge into one sensation, which is general well-being person.
Feelings of balance. Organ of balance sensation - vestibular apparatus inner ear, which gives signals about the movement and position of the head. The normal functioning of the organs of balance is very important for a person. For example, when determining the suitability for a specialty of a pilot, especially an astronaut pilot, the activity of the balance organs is always checked. The organs of balance are closely connected with other internal organs. With a strong overexcitation of the organs of balance, nausea and vomiting are observed (the so-called sea or air sickness). However, with regular training, the stability of the balance organs increases significantly.
Motor sensations.
Motor, or kinesthetic, sensations are sensations of movement and position of body parts. Receptors for the motor analyzer are located in muscles, ligaments, tendons, and articular surfaces. Motor sensations signal the degree of muscle contraction and the position of parts of our body, for example, how much the arm is bent at the shoulder, elbow, etc.
Tactile sensations.
Tactile sensations are a combination, a combination of skin and motor sensations when palpating objects, that is, when a moving hand touches them. The sense of touch is of great importance in human labor activity, especially when performing labor operations that require great accuracy. With the help of touch, palpation is the knowledge of the world by a small child. This is one of the important sources of obtaining information about the objects surrounding it.
In people deprived of sight, touch is one of the most important means of orientation and cognition. As a result of practice, it reaches great perfection. Such people can deftly peel potatoes, thread a needle, do simple modeling, even sewing.
Pain.
Pain sensations are of a different nature. First, there are special receptors (“pain points”) located on the surface of the skin and in the internal organs and muscles. Mechanical damage to the skin, muscles, diseases of internal organs give a feeling of pain. Secondly, sensations of pain arise under the action of a superstrong stimulus on any analyzer. Blinding light, deafening sound, intense cold or heat radiation, a very sharp odor also cause pain.
Painful sensations are very unpleasant, but they are our reliable guard, warning us of danger, signaling trouble in the body. If it were not for the pain, a person would often not notice a serious ailment or dangerous injuries. Not for nothing did the ancient Greeks say: "Pain is the watchdog of health." Complete insensitivity to pain is a rare anomaly, and it brings a person not joy, but serious trouble.
List of used literature
1., Kondratiev: Textbook for industr. - ped. technical schools. - M.: Higher. school, 1989.
2. Lindsay P., Norman D. Human information processing. Introduction to psychology. - M., 1974.
3. Luria and perception.
4. Nemov. Proc. For students of higher, pedagogical, educational institutions. In 2 books. Book. 1. General foundations of psychology. - M.: Enlightenment: Vlados, 19s.
5. General psychology, edited by others. M. Enlightenment 1981.
6. Petrovsky in psychology. Moscow 1995.
7. Psychology and Pedagogy: Textbook/, etc.; Rep. ed. cand. philosophy sciences, associate professor. - M.: INFRA-M;
8. Psychology and pedagogy. Proc. allowance for universities. Compiled and editor-in-chief Radugin editor Krotkov, 19s.
9. Rubinshtein of general psychology. V2t. T1. M. 1989.
10. Rudik. Textbook for students of technical schools physical education. M., "Physical culture and sport", 1976.
11. Social psychology. Brief essay. Under the general editorship and. M., Politizdat, 1975.
The role and significance of the sensory level of cognition
Sensations and perception: concept, types, patterns.
In professional activity
Accounting for their patterns by a lawyer
Sensations and perception: concept, types, patterns. The role and significance of the sensory level of knowledge in the professional activities of a lawyer. Thinking: concept, types, operations. Accounting by a lawyer in professional activities of a rational level of knowledge. Memory: its main processes, qualities, types. Accounting by a lawyer of the patterns of memory of participants in legal proceedings. The concept and types of imagination. The role of imagination in the work of a lawyer. Attention: concept, properties, types. Attention in the professional activities of a lawyer.
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Feeling- ϶ᴛᴏ the process of reflecting the individual properties of objects and phenomena of the objective world, as well as internal states organism under the direct action of material stimuli on the corresponding receptors, on the sense organs. This is a direct connection of consciousness with the outside world, the transformation of the energy of external stimuli into facts of consciousness - information. In the act of sensation, a connection with the environment is established through the sense organs. Images of sensations perform regulatory, cognitive and emotional functions. Unlike animal sensations, human sensations are mediated by practical activities and the whole process historical development society.
Feelings:
1. According to the presence or absence of direct contact of the receptor with the stimulus that causes a feeling, distant (hearing, sight, smell) and contact (taste, pain) reception are distinguished.
2. According to the location of receptors on the surface of the body, in muscles, tendons or inside the body, respectively, exteroception (visual, auditory, tactile), proprioception (feeling in muscles and tendons), interoception (sensations of hunger, thirst) are distinguished.
3. Visual sensations are achromatic (reflect the transition from white to black through a mass of shades of gray); chromatic (reflect a color gamut with numerous shades and color transitions).
4. Auditory sensations are speech, musical, sensations of noises and rustles.
5. Vibratory sensations are adjacent to auditory sensations and reflect vibrations of an elastic medium. This type of sensitivity is figuratively called contact hearing.
6. Olfactory sensations are distant sensations. The function of smell is suppressed by sight, hearing, taste. These sensations help to recognize the quality of food, warn of danger to the body. air environment, allow in some cases to determine the composition of a chemical substance.
7. Taste sensations arise when the sense organ touches the object itself. There are 4 basic qualities of taste stimuli: sour, sweet, bitter, salty.
8. Skin sensations include: tactile system (touch sensations); temperature system (sensations of heat and cold); pain system.
9. Static (gravitational) sensations reflect the position of our body in space.
10. Kinesthetic sensations - ϶ᴛᴏ sensations of movement and position of individual parts of the body. As a result of these sensations, knowledge about the strength, speed, trajectory of movement of body parts is formed.
11. Organic sensations arise from the internal organs, form an organic feeling (well-being) of a person.
In order to correctly assess the testimony of various participants in legal proceedings, it is extremely important to know about the basic patterns, the properties of sensations that affect the formation of testimony. These patterns (properties) of sensations include:
1. Thresholds of sensitivity. For any sensation to occur, the stimulus must have a certain intensity value. The lower and upper limits of sensations are called absolute sensitivity. It is measured by the lower and upper threshold of sensitivity. The minimum value of irritation, which is necessary for the occurrence of a barely noticeable sensation, is commonly called the absolute lower threshold of sensation. The upper absolute threshold of sensations is ϶ᴛᴏ the maximum value of irritation, a further increase in which causes pain or disappearance of sensations. Along with absolute, relative sensitivity is distinguished - ϶ᴛᴏ sensitivity to changes in the intensity of exposure. Relative sensitivity is measured by the discrimination threshold - ϶ᴛᴏ the minimum difference in the strength of two stimuli, which is extremely important for changing the intensity of sensation.
People have different sensitivity thresholds. Given the dependence on age and other circumstances, they change. Temporary deviations of sensitivity from the usual norm are influenced by factors such as time of day, extraneous stimuli, mental state, fatigue, illness, pregnancy in women, etc. When evaluating the quality of sensations of a witness, suspect (accused), it is also extremely important to find out whether whether the subject is exposed to side irritants (alcohol, narcotic or similar pharmacological substances), which increase or sharply dull the sensitivity of the analyzers. All this should be taken into account during interrogation, during an investigative experiment conducted in order to check the quality of sensations. For example, by examining the vibrational sensitivity of a person suspected of feigning deafness, it is quite easy to convict him of a lie. It is enough to throw a small object on the floor behind the "sick" back to check his simulative behavior. A really sick person with impaired hearing with unimpaired vibrational sensitivity will respond to this stimulus. The simulator, if he does not know about the developed vibrational sensation of the deaf, will not react to this stimulus. Of course, after such a preliminary test, the suspect should be sent for a forensic psychological or complex medical and psychological examination.
2. Sensitization (translated from Latin means "sensitivity") - ϶ᴛᴏ increased sensitivity of analyzers under the influence of internal (mental) factors. Sensitization can be caused by the interaction of sensations (weak taste sensations increase visual sensitivity); physiological factor(state of the body); expectation of this or that impact; the significance of such an impact; a special setting for distinguishing stimuli; exercises (for example, a wine taster). In people deprived of any kind of sensitivity, this deficiency is compensated by increasing the sensitivity of other organs. This phenomenon is usually called compensatory sensitization (for example, a visually impaired person has a fairly developed hearing).
3. Adaptation (translated from Latin means "adaptation") - ϶ᴛᴏ adaptation of sensitivity to a constantly acting stimulus. Such an adaptation is manifested in a decrease or increase in sensitivity thresholds (for example, adaptation to darkness, to light). This regularity is extremely important to take into account when evaluating witness testimony, when, for example, a subject deliberately seeking to mislead the investigator (court) falsely claims that he did not see any objects, because "it was dark." In fact, given the length of his stay in relative darkness and the development of dark adaptation in him, this may not be entirely true. It is known that a person who finds himself in a darkened room, after 3–5 minutes, begins to distinguish the light penetrating there, to see the outlines of objects. After 20–30 minutes, he already orients himself quite well in the dark. Staying in absolute darkness increases the sensitivity of the visual analyzer to light in 40 minutes by 200 thousand times.
4. Contrast (translated from French means "opposite") - ϶ᴛᴏ increased sensitivity to certain properties under the influence of other properties of reality (for example, the feeling of cold intensifies after feeling hot). Sometimes contrasting phenomena lead to errors in sensations, and, consequently, in testimony.
5. Synesthesia (translated from the Greek language means “sensations”) - ϶ᴛᴏ the transition of sensations of one modality into sensations of another modality, sensations of one kind into sensations of another kind. With synesthesia, one of the sensations at the moment does not have a directly acting stimulus, but is reproduced. The most common form of synesthesia is the so-called "color hearing", in which a sound sense - noise, tone, musical chord - causes a visual image, light or color representation. Synesthesia occurs in approximately 12% of people, but "color hearing" occurs in only 4%.
In the work of a lawyer, sensations form the basis of more complex process perceptions of objects and phenomena are directly related to the professional activity performed and have a significant impact on it. For example, knowledge of the patterns of sensations contributes to a more qualified investigation of crimes. So, when conducting an investigative experiment, it is extremely important to take into account the fact that sensitivity depends on the length of stay in a given environment, on the impact of a number of stimuli, on a person’s experience and his physiological state. In some cases, non-compliance with sensitivity thresholds gives grounds to consider the testimony unfair. For example, if the interrogated person claims that he did not notice the difference in weight between two boxes, and the check showed that this difference significantly exceeds the difference threshold, then there is reason to doubt the veracity of the testimony. At the same time, it should be borne in mind that the optimal condition for distinguishing is to increase the weight calculated according to the formula: the initial weight of the load plus 1/30 of its mass. Indications about the color qualities of an object perceived in twilight lighting should also be critically evaluated. The task of the investigator is to recreate all the essential conditions in which the reflection of individual properties of objects and phenomena took place, and to take into account the main patterns of sensitivity.
Perception- ϶ᴛᴏ reflection of objects and phenomena in the totality of their properties and parts with a direct impact on the senses. Perceptions are conditioned by the objectivity of the world of phenomena and arise from the direct action of physical stimuli on the receptor surfaces of the sense organs. Together with the processes of sensation, they provide a direct sensory orientation in the surrounding world.
Perception classification:
1. Taking into account the dependence on the participation of the will and purposefulness, involuntary (not associated with volitional tension and a pre-set goal) and arbitrary (intentional and purposeful) perception are distinguished.
2. Considering the dependence on the modality of receptors, auditory, visual, olfactory, tactile and other perceptions are distinguished.
3. Taking into account the dependence on complexity, the development of perceptual activity, simultaneous (single-act) and successive (stage-by-stage, sequential) perception are distinguished.
4. Taking into account the dependence on the form of existence of matter, the perceptions of space, time, space, by man are singled out. Perception of space - ϶ᴛᴏ perception of the shape, size, volume of objects, the distance between them, their relative position, distance and direction in which they are located. The perception of time is a reflection of the objective duration, speed and sequence of the phenomena of reality. It largely depends on the content of the activity, for example, time passes quickly, filled with interesting things. The perception of movement is a reflection in time of changes in the position of objects or the observer himself in space, a reflection of the direction and speed of the spatial existence of objects. Human perception of a person - ϶ᴛᴏ perception of movements, actions, deeds and activities of another person - ϶ᴛᴏ social perception.
Patterns of perception:
1. Objectivity - ϶ᴛᴏ correspondence of perception images to real objects of reality, this is the relative independence of the perceived characteristics of objects from the parameters of irritation of the receptor surfaces of the sense organs.
2. Integrity - ϶ᴛᴏ property of perception, which consists in the fact that any object, and even more so a spatial situation, is perceived as a stable systemic whole.
3. Structurality - ϶ᴛᴏ isolation from overall structure the subject of its parts and certain aspects.
Objectivity, integrity and structure of perception play an important role in the activities of the investigator. So, the investigator, having examined the corpse with fatal injuries to the head, must also examine the murder weapon seized from the suspect; to identify the main, leading features of the seized object ͵ distinguishing it as a murder weapon, with the help of which a craniocerebral injury of a strictly defined configuration was caused. And if the investigator sees among the leading signs completely the wrong ones or does not notice the necessary ones at all, then the result of his search will be negative: microtraces-overlays will not be found on the crime weapon, i.e. those signs, on the basis of which it will be possible to prove the involvement of the suspected person in the committed crime.
4. Constancy - ϶ᴛᴏ the relative independence of the reflection of the objective qualities of objects (size, shape, characteristic color) from the changed conditions of their perception (illuminance, distance, angle of view). A state of mental tension can have a destructive effect on constancy. For this reason, when interrogating a witness, it is advisable to find out not only the features of the object perceived by him - that is, what he saw, heard - but also his state, as well as the conditions in which his perceptual activity proceeded, and only after that follows evaluate his statements about the shape, size, color and other properties of an object.
5. Meaningfulness - ϶ᴛᴏ reckoning the perceived object to the main group, class, generalizing it in a word, this is an understanding of the essence of the object. In a number of cases, misunderstanding of the essence of the subject can explain many shortcomings in the search activities of the investigator during the inspection of the scene, when he “sees” far from everything, which is extremely important for establishing the truth.
6. Selectivity - ϶ᴛᴏ preferential selection by a person of some objects in comparison with others, depending on the characteristics of his personality.
7. Apperception - ϶ᴛᴏ independence of perception from past experience͵ from the general content of a person's mental activity and his individual characteristics. Apperception can be personal (depending on the individual characteristics of a person) and situational (for example, at night a stump seems like a scary animal). This psychological phenomenon explains the errors when the investigator “sees” not a murder, but a suicide at the scene, although in fact the material situation contradicts such a “vision”.
It is necessary to distinguish between perception adequate to reality and illusion.
8. Illusions of perception (translated from Latin means "to deceive") - ϶ᴛᴏ inadequate reflection of the perceived object and its properties, this is a distorted perception real items. Illusions of visual perception are especially numerous. The causes of visual illusions are very different. Illusions arise when there is not enough contrast between the perceived objects and the surrounding background in terms of shape, volume, color, and illumination. One of the causes of illusions is the effect of irradiation, when light objects appear larger than the same size, but dark. Illusions of vision do not include optical tricks and mysterious ghosts created with the help of mirrors, projection devices and other technical devices, as well as optical phenomena observed in nature (mirage, northern lights, rainbow, etc.). The appearance of the latter is due to the optical properties earth's atmosphere. Also, the visual illusions that occur in some people at dusk and in the dark are not illusions of perception, when insufficient lighting makes it difficult for the eyes to work and creates a special mood and distortion of sensations as a result of myopia, hyperopia, color blindness and other defects of the visual apparatus ͵ not typical for most people. The errors of the muscular-articular analyzer include the Charpentier illusion: from two objects of equal weight, but different sizes the smaller one seems heavier, and if you lift two objects that are the same in weight and appearance, but different in volume, then the smaller one will be perceived as heavier. The illusion of Aristotle can also be attributed to the illusions of a non-visual nature: if you cross the middle and index fingers on your hand and touch the tip of your nose with your eyes closed with the pads of these fingers, then the illusion of its bifurcation arises. In all of the above examples, there is a "one-sided" deception in which our own senses fail us. Illusions of perception underlie the distortion of information transmitted by witnesses of a crime, as well as by suspects (accused) when they commit a crime.
In the professional activity of a lawyer, it is often important to separate objective facts from subjective layers. So, for example, when interrogating a witness, it is extremely important to clarify the conditions in which the incident was perceived (illumination, duration, distance, meteorological conditions, etc.). At the same time, one should be aware that people are often not able to accurately assess the number of perceived objects, the distance between them, their spatial relationship and size. At the same time, gaps in sensory perception are often filled with elements that did not actually exist. Judgmental errors are often explained by the integrity of perception and are caused by the fact that the assessment of the subject as a whole is transferred to the assessment of its details.
It is important to correctly establish the time of the event under investigation, its duration and sequence, the pace of actions of the participants in the event, etc. Quite often, witnesses give incorrect testimony about time intervals. This should not always be assessed as deliberate falsehood. It is necessary to find out the content of the eyewitness's activity during the observed event, his mental state, dominant attitudes, etc., since these errors can be explained by certain patterns. The duration of small periods of time is usually somewhat exaggerated, and large intervals of time are reduced. Intervals of 5-15 minutes are most accurately estimated. A fast pace also leads to an exaggeration of the time interval, while a slow pace leads to an underestimation. With positive emotions, time is underestimated, and with negative emotions, time is overestimated.
It is known that one of the forms of intentional perception is observation - a deliberate, purposeful, systematic, systematic and long-term perception of objects and phenomena of reality, people and oneself. Observation is not related to visual acuity or features of the retina, but is a quality of thinking, memory, attention, because a person sees not only with the help of the eye, but mainly with the help of the brain.
Observation is the main method of studying the situation of the scene. Perceiving individual phenomena, the investigator seeks to establish their causal relationships, to identify such features that can be used to identify a person (for example, the identity of a criminal).
Observation is a paramount condition for a successful search. Fresh plaster, paint, newly nailed boards, pasting fresh wallpaper, screws moved in their sockets, new heads of recently driven nails, unnatural thickenings in objects, etc. - all this should not escape the supervisory officer conducting the search.
special sphere observation is the behavior of persons passing through the case (suspect, accused, victim, witness, etc.). Observation of manifestations of mental and physical condition suspected, accused or defendant during the preliminary investigation or judicial trial has no evidentiary value, but it is extremely important for operational psychological diagnostics, establishing contact and trusting relationships, legitimate mental impact.
At the same time, it is important for the investigator conducting the observation to take into account the advantages and disadvantages individual type perception. The allocation of these types is based on establishing the correlation of the sensory organization with mental and emotional processes. The following types of perception are distinguished, which the investigator should be able to diagnose and take into account when performing investigative actions with the participation of representatives of these types:
1. People with a synthetic type of perception tend to generalize phenomena and determine the main meaning of what is happening, they do not attach importance to details.
2. People of the analytical type of perception tend to isolate and analyze, first of all, the details, particulars. Οʜᴎ delve into all circumstances, details, finding it difficult to understand the main meaning of phenomena.
3. The analytical-synthetic type of perception occurs most often in life and is especially favorable for activity. People of this warehouse tend to understand the basic meaning of the phenomenon and its actual confirmation, that is, they correlate the analysis of individual parts with conclusions, the establishment of facts with their explanations.
4. People with an emotional type of perception are characterized not by revealing the essence of the phenomenon and its parts, but by the desire to express their feelings caused by this phenomenon. They show increased emotional excitability to a wide variety of stimuli.
Observation is not a purely passive, contemplative act. The process of observation is influenced by the level of development of thinking, and feelings, and interest, and experience of interaction with the observed object.
Observation is not an innate quality, it is developed by practice and exercises.
For rational perception (observation) it is advisable:
1) clearly and clearly formulate cognitive goals, select essential information; to start an activity (cognitive process) with the formulation of its goal, setting the question: “What do I want to achieve by perceiving information?”;
2) make the most of all the senses, primarily sight and hearing, as well as analyzers of smell, taste, touch;
3) perceive information using existing knowledge.
In order to arouse interest in the perception of information, it is important to realize its significance for practical work. It is necessary to use all your knowledge to make the process of perception more intense, to reflect on what is already known about the perceived information. Developed perception helps to assimilate a larger amount of information with a lesser degree of energy costs.
Sensations and perceptions are the simplest cognitive processes at the level of sensory cognition. The next, higher cognitive process is thinking - a rational level of cognition of reality.
