The mental process depends on. "psychological processes, states, properties"
Saratov State University named after N. G. Chernyshevsky
Psychology faculty
in the discipline "Psychology"
on the topic: Basic psychological processes
Completed by: Berezina D.V.
Saratov 2011
Introduction
1.Basic psychological processes and states
2. Cognitive psychological processes
2.1 Feelings
2.2 Perception
2.3 Thinking
3. Universal mental processes
3.1 Memory
3.2 Attention
3.3 Imagination
Conclusion
Bibliography
Introduction
The topic of the essay is "Psychological processes".
Psychological processes are inherent in every person. Mental processes: perception, attention, imagination, memory, thinking and speech. They are essential components human activity.
Psychological processes are not just involved in activity, but they develop in it. All mental processes are interconnected and represent a single whole. In the absence of any of the mental processes (speech, thinking, etc.), a person becomes inferior. Activity forms mental processes. Any activity is a combination of internal and external behavioral actions and operations. We will review each type mental activity separately.
1. Basic psychological processes and states
Traditionally, in Russian psychology, it is customary to distinguish two groups of psychological processes.
Specific, or actually cognitive, processes, which are sensation, perception and thinking. The result of these processes is the knowledge of the subject about the world and about himself, obtained either with the help of the senses, or rationally:
· sensation is the selection of the properties of an object, sensory, sensuality;
· perception is the perception of an object as a whole, as well as perception is the perception of an image, objects;
· thinking is a reflection of the relations between objects, their essential properties for cognition.
Nonspecific, i.e. universal, mental processes - memory, attention and imagination. These processes are also called end-to-end, in the sense that they pass through any activity and ensure its implementation. Universal mental processes are necessary conditions for cognition, but are not reduced to it. Thanks to the universal mental processes, the cognizing, developing subject has the ability to maintain the unity of "his Self" in time:
· memory allows a person to retain past experience;
· attention helps to extract actual (real) experience;
· imagination predicts future experience.
2. Cognitive psychological processes
1 Feelings
So, the process of cognition is the acquisition, retention and preservation of knowledge about the world. Feelings are one of the components of the cognitive process.
Sensations are defined as the process of reflecting individual properties of objects and phenomena of the objective world with their direct impact on receptors. The physiological basis of sensation is a nervous process that occurs when a stimulus acts on an analyzer adequate to it. To this, perhaps, we can only add that sensations also reflect the state of the body of the subject himself with the help of receptors located in his body. Feelings are the source of knowledge important condition the formation of the psyche and its normal functioning.
The need to constantly receive sensations is well manifested when there are no external stimuli (with sensory isolation). As experiments have shown, in this case, the psyche ceases to function normally: hallucinations occur, thinking is disturbed, a pathology of perception of one's body is noted, etc. Specific psychological problems arise with sensory deprivation, i.e. when the influx of external influences is limited, which is well known on the example of the development of the psyche of people who are blind or deaf, as well as those who see and hear poorly.
Human sensations are extremely diverse, although since the time of Aristotle, only five senses have been talked about for a very long time - sight, hearing, touch, smell and taste. In the 19th century knowledge about the composition of sensations has expanded dramatically as a result of the description and study of their new types, such as vestibular, vibrational, "muscular-articular" or kinesthetic, etc.
Properties of sensations
Whatever the sensation, it can be described with the help of several characteristics, properties inherent in it.
Modality is a qualitative characteristic in which the specificity of sensation as a simple mental signal is manifested in comparison with a nervous signal. First of all, such types of sensations as visual, auditory, olfactory, etc. are distinguished. However, each type of sensation has its own modal characteristics. For visual sensations these can be hue, lightness, saturation; for auditory - pitch, timbre, loudness; for tactile - hardness, roughness, etc.
Localization - a spatial characteristic of sensations, that is, information about the localization of the stimulus in space.
Sometimes (as, for example, in the case of pain and interoceptive, "internal" sensations), localization is difficult, indefinite. In this regard, the “probe problem” is interesting: when we write or cut something, the sensations are localized at the tip of a pen or knife, that is, not at all where the probe contacts the skin and affects it.
Intensity is a classic quantitative characteristic. The problem of measuring the intensity of sensation is one of the main problems in psychophysics.
The basic psychophysical law reflects the relationship between the magnitude of the sensation and the magnitude of the acting stimulus. Psychophysics explains the variety of observable forms of behavior and mental states primarily by differences in the physical situations that cause them. The task is to establish a connection between the body and the soul, the object and the sensation associated with it. The area of irritation causes sensation. Each sense organ has its own boundaries - that means there is an area of sensation. There are such variants of the basic psychophysical law as the logarithmic law of G. Fechner, the power law of S. Stevens, as well as the generalized psychophysical law proposed by Yu. M. Zabrodin.
Duration is the temporal characteristic of sensation. It is determined by the functional state of the sense organ, but mainly by the time of action of the stimulus and its intensity. The sensation occurs later than the stimulus begins to act, and does not disappear immediately with its termination. The period from the beginning of the action of the stimulus to the onset of sensation is called the latent (hidden) period of sensation. It is not the same for different types of sensations (for tactile - 130 ms, for pain - 370 ms, for taste - 50 ms) and can change dramatically in diseases of the nervous system.
After the termination of the stimulus, its trace remains for some time in the form of a sequential image, which can be either positive (corresponding to the characteristics of the stimulus) or negative (having opposite characteristics, for example, colored in an additional color). We usually do not notice positive sequential images because of their short duration. The appearance of successive images can be explained by the phenomenon of retinal fatigue.
Auditory sensations, like visual sensations, can also be accompanied by successive images. The most comparable phenomenon in this case is “ringing in the ears”, i.e. unpleasant feeling, which is often accompanied by exposure to deafening sounds.
2.2 Perception
Representatives of psychology interpret perception as a kind of integral configuration - gestalt. Integrity - according to Gestalt psychology - is always the selection of a figure against the background. Details, parts, properties can only be separated from the whole image later. Gestalt psychologists have established many laws of perceptual organization, quite different from the laws of association by which elements are linked in integral structure(the laws of proximity, isolation, good form, etc.). They convincingly proved that the integral structure of the image affects the perception of individual elements and individual sensations. The same element, being included in different images of perception, is perceived differently. For example, two identical circles appear different if one is surrounded by large circles and the other by small circles, etc.
The main features of perception are distinguished:
) integrity and structure - perception reflects a holistic image of an object, which, in turn, is formed on the basis of generalized knowledge about the individual properties and qualities of an object. Perception is able to capture not only separate parts of sensations (individual notes), but also a generalized structure woven from these sensations (entire melody);
) constancy - the preservation of certain properties of the image of an object that seem constant to us. So, an object known to us (for example, a hand), remote from us, will seem to us exactly the same size as the same object that we see close. The property of constancy is involved here: the properties of the image approximate the true properties of this object. Our perceptual system corrects the inevitable errors caused by the infinite variety of surroundings and creates adequate images of perception. When a person puts on glasses that distort objects and enters an unfamiliar room, he gradually learns to correct the distortions caused by the glasses, and finally stops noticing these distortions, although they are reflected on the retina. So, the constancy of perception that is formed in the process of objective activity is a necessary condition for a person's orientation in a changing world;
) the objectivity of perception is an act of objectification, i.e., the assignment of information received from the outside world to this world. There is a certain system of actions that provides the subject with the discovery of the objectivity of the world, and the main role is played by touch and movement. Objectivity also plays an important role in the regulation of behavior. Thanks to this quality, we can distinguish, for example, a brick from a block of explosives, although they will be the same in appearance;
) meaningfulness. Although perception arises as a result of the direct action of the stimulus on the receptors, perceptual images always have a certain semantic meaning. Perception is thus connected with thinking and speech. We perceive the world through the prism of meanings. To consciously perceive an object means to mentally name it and attribute the perceived object to a certain group, class of objects, to generalize it in a word. For example, when we look at a watch, we do not see something round, shiny, etc., we see a specific object - a watch. This property of perception is called categorization, that is, the assignment of the perceived to a certain class of objects or phenomena. This connection between perception and thinking appears especially clearly under difficult conditions of perception, when hypotheses about the belonging of an object to a class are consistently put forward and tested. In other cases, according to G. Helmholtz, unconscious conclusions “work”; sensation perception thinking memory
5) activity. During the process of perception, the motor components of the analyzers are involved (hand movements during touch, eye movements during visual perception, etc.). In addition, it is necessary to be able to actively move your body in the process of perception;
) property of apperception. The perceptual system actively "builds" the image of perception, selectively using not all, but the most informative properties, parts, elements of the stimulus. At the same time, information from memory, past experience is also used, which is attached to sensory data (apperception). In the process of formation, the Image itself and the actions to build it are constantly being corrected through Feedback, the image is compared with the reference.
Thus, perception depends not only on irritation, but also on the perceiving object itself - a particular person. Perception always affects the personality of the perceiver, his attitude to the perceived, needs, aspirations, emotions at the time of perception, etc. Perception, therefore, is closely related to the content of a person’s mental life.
2.3 Thinking
For example - the highest stage of information processing by a person or animal, the process of establishing links between objects or phenomena of the surrounding world; or - the process of reflecting the essential properties of objects, as well as the connections between them, which leads to the emergence of ideas about objective reality. The debate over the definition continues to this day.
In pathopsychology and neuropsychology, thinking is one of the highest mental functions. It is considered as an activity that has a motive, a goal, a system of actions and operations, a result and control.
Thinking is the highest stage of human cognition, the process of reflection in the brain of the surrounding real world, based on two fundamentally different psychophysiological mechanisms: the formation and continuous replenishment of the stock of concepts, ideas and the derivation of new judgments and conclusions. Thinking allows you to gain knowledge about such objects, properties and relationships of the surrounding world that cannot be directly perceived using the first signal system. The forms and laws of thinking are the subject of consideration of logic, and the psychophysiological mechanisms - respectively - of psychology and physiology. (from the point of view of physiology and psychology - this definition is more accurate)
3. Universal mental processes
Cognitive psychology, considering memory both as a function and as a process at the same time and trying to explain the patterns of its functioning, presents it as an evolving, multi-level storage system (sensory register, short-term memory, long-term memory). Memory as a system of processes for organizing information for the purpose of memorization, preservation and reproduction can also be considered as a substructure of intelligence - system interaction cognitive abilities and knowledge available to the individual.
Being the most important characteristic of all mental processes, memory ensures the unity and integrity of the human personality.
Separate types of memory are singled out in accordance with three main criteria:
) according to the nature of mental activity that prevails in activity, memory is divided into motor, emotional, figurative and verbal-logical;
) by the nature of the goals of the activity - into involuntary and arbitrary;
) according to the duration of fixation and preservation of the material - for short-term, long-term and operational.
3.2 Attention
Attention is one of the sides of human consciousness. In any conscious activity of people, it manifests itself to a greater or lesser extent: whether a person listens to music or peers into a drawing of a detail. Attention is included in the process of perception, in the process of memory, thinking, imagination. The presence of attention in human activity makes it productive, organized and active.
The problem of attention was first developed within the framework of the psychology of consciousness. The main task was considered to be the study of the inner experience of a person. But as long as introspection remained the main research method, the problem of attention eluded psychologists. Attention served only as a "stand", a tool for their mental experiences. Using an objective experimental method, W. Wundt found that simple reactions to visual and auditory stimuli depend not only on the characteristics of external stimuli, but also on the attitude of the subject to the perception of this stimulus. He called the simple entry of any content into consciousness perception (perception), and the focusing of clear consciousness on individual contents - attention, or apperception. For such followers of Wundt as E. Titchener and T. Ribot, attention has become cornerstone their psychological systems (Dormyshev Yu. B., Romanov V. Ya., 1995).
At the beginning of the century, this situation changed dramatically. Gestalt psychologists believed that the objective structure of the field, and not the intentions of the subject, determine the perception of objects and events. Behaviorists rejected attention and consciousness as the main concepts of the psychology of consciousness. They tried to completely abandon these words, because they mistakenly hoped that they could develop some more precise concepts that would allow, using strict quantitative characteristics, to objectively describe the corresponding psychological processes. However, forty years later, the concepts of "consciousness" and "attention" returned to psychology (Velichkovsky B.M., 1982).
It took psychologists decades to describe the concept of "attention" experimental work and observations. IN modern psychology It is customary to single out the following criteria for attention:
) external reactions - motor, vegetative, providing conditions for better signal perception. These include turning the head, fixing the eyes, facial expressions and posture of concentration, holding the breath, vegetative components of the orienting reaction;
) concentration on the performance of a certain activity. This criterion is the main one for "activity" approaches to the study of attention. It is associated with the organization of activities and control over its implementation;
) increase in the productivity of cognitive and executive activities. In this case we are talking about increasing the efficiency of "attentive" action (perceptual, mnemonic, mental, motor) in comparison with "inattentive";
) selectivity (selectivity) of information. This criterion is expressed in the ability to actively perceive, memorize, analyze only part of the incoming information, as well as in responding only to a limited range of external stimuli;
) clarity and distinctness of the contents of consciousness that are in the field of attention. This subjective criterion was put forward within the framework of the psychology of consciousness. The entire field of consciousness was divided into the focal area and the periphery. Units of the focal area of consciousness appear to be stable, bright, and the contents of the periphery of consciousness are clearly indistinguishable and merge into a pulsating cloud of indefinite shape. Such a structure of consciousness is possible not only with the perception of objects, but also with memories and reflections.
Not all phenomena of attention are associated with consciousness. The remarkable Russian psychologist H. H. Lange divided the objective and subjective aspects of attention. He believed that in our consciousness there is, as it were, one brightly lit place, moving away from which mental phenomena darken or turn pale, less and less conscious. Attention, considered objectively, is nothing but the relative dominance of a given representation at a given moment in time; subjectively, it means to be focused on this impression (N. N. Lange, 1976).
Within the framework of various approaches, psychologists focus on certain manifestations of attention: on vegetative reactions of information selection, control over the performance of an activity, or a state of consciousness. However, if we try to generalize the entire phenomenology of attention, we can come to the following definition.
Attention is the implementation of the selection of the necessary information, the provision of electoral programs of action and the preservation of constant control over their course (Luria A.R., 1975).
The main properties of attention are the focus of attention on certain objects and phenomena (in particular, external and internal), the degree and amount of attention.
The degree of attention is a characteristic of its intensity. As subjective experiences it is evaluated
3.3 Imagination
The product or result of the process of imagination are images of the imagination. They may arise in accordance with instructions, instructions from another subject, based on viewing photographs, paintings, movies, listening to music, perceiving individual sounds and noises, or through a description of an event, thing, character, or association with something. . Only one list of ways to produce images of the imagination shows its close connection with other mental processes that have a figurative nature (sensation, perception, memory, ideas, thinking).
Imagination is based on past experience, and therefore the images of the imagination are always secondary, that is, they are “rooted” in the previously experienced, perceived, felt by a person. But unlike memory processes, the task of preserving and accurately reproducing information is not set here. In the imagination, experience is transformed (generalized, supplemented, combined, acquires a different emotional coloring, its scale changes).
Unlike mental images (concepts, judgments, conclusions), the control function is significantly reduced here. The imagination is relatively free, because it is not constrained by the task of assessing the correctness of what our consciousness or subconscious produces.
Many researchers as hallmark the process of imagination is called novelty. But it should be noted that the novelty here is not absolute, but relative. The image of the imagination is new in relation to what is seen, heard, perceived at some point in time or point of view, approach to the interpretation of a person. There is more of this novelty in the processes of creation, but less in the recreating imagination.
Finally, visualization of images is related to imagination, they can be attributed to any modality (visual, auditory, tactile, gustatory, etc.).
Basic Functions of the Imagination
Goal-setting - the future result of the activity is created in the imagination, it exists only in the mind of the subject and directs his activity to obtain the desired.
Anticipation (anticipation) - modeling the future (positive or negative consequences, the course of interaction, the content of the situation) by summarizing the elements of past experience and establishing cause-and-effect relationships between its elements; in the imagination, the future is born from the past.
Combination and planning - creating an image of the desired future by correlating the elements of perception and past experience with the results of the analytical and synthetic activity of the mind.
Substitution of reality - a person may be deprived of the opportunity to really act or be in a certain situation, then by the power of his imagination he is transferred there, performs actions in his imagination, thereby replacing the real reality with an imaginary one.
Penetration into the inner world of another person - on the basis of a description or demonstration, the imagination is able to create pictures of what has been experienced (experienced at a given moment in time) by another being, thereby making it possible to join him inner world; this function serves as the basis for understanding and interpersonal communication.
Thus, imagination is an integral part of human activity and life, social interaction and knowledge.
Conclusion
In the abstract, we considered two groups of psychological processes: specific, or actually cognitive, processes, which are sensation, perception and thinking; non-specific, i.e., universal, mental processes - memory, attention and imagination.
Thus, sensations are defined as the process of reflecting individual properties of objects and phenomena of the objective world with their direct impact on receptors. The physiological basis of sensation is a nervous process that occurs when a stimulus acts on an analyzer adequate to it. To this, perhaps, we can only add that sensations also reflect the state of the body of the subject himself with the help of receptors located in his body. Sensations are the initial source of knowledge, an important condition for the formation of the psyche and its normal functioning.
Perception is a reflection of integral objects and phenomena with their direct impact on the senses. In the course of perception, ordering and unification occurs individual sensations into whole things. Unlike sensations, which reflect the individual properties of the stimulus, perception reflects the object as a whole, in the aggregate of its properties.
Thinking is the process of modeling the systematic relations of the surrounding world on the basis of unconditional provisions. However, in psychology there are many other definitions.
Memory is the memorization, preservation and subsequent reproduction by the individual of his experience. In memory, the following main processes are distinguished: memorization, preservation, reproduction and forgetting. These processes are formed in activity and determined by it.
Memory is the most important, defining characteristic of the mental life of a person. The role of memory cannot be reduced to fixing what “was in the past”. After all, no action in the "present" is unthinkable outside the processes of memory; the flow of any, even the most elementary, mental act necessarily implies the retention of each of its elements for "coupling" with the subsequent ones. Without the ability for such cohesion, development is impossible: a person would remain "forever in the position of a newborn."
Attention is the concentration of consciousness and its focus on something that has a particular meaning for a person. Orientation refers to the selective nature of this activity and its preservation, and concentration refers to deepening in this activity and distraction from the rest. From this definition it follows that attention does not have its own product, it only improves the result of other mental processes. Attention is inseparable from other mental processes and states.
Imagination refers to the "universal" mental processes. Imagination is the mental process of creating an image of an object by transforming reality or ideas about it. Imagination supplements perception with elements of past experience, a person's own experiences, transforms the past and present through generalization, connection with feelings, sensations, ideas.
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The psyche is complex and diverse in its manifestations. Generally there are three major groups mental phenomena:
1) mental processes;
2) mental states;
3) mental properties.
mental processes - dynamic reflection of reality in various forms ah mental phenomena. The mental process is the course of a mental phenomenon that has a beginning, development and end. At the same time, it must be borne in mind that the end of one mental process is closely connected with the beginning of another. Hence - the continuity of mental activity in the state of wakefulness of a person. Mental processes are called as external influences on the nervous system, and irritations emanating from internal environment organism. All mental processes are divided into cognitive, emotional And strong-willed(Fig. 5).
Rice. 5. Classification of mental processes
Cognitive mental processes play an important role in human life and activity. Thanks to them, a person reflects the objective world around him, cognizes it and, on the basis of this, orients himself in the environment and acts consciously.
In complex mental activity various processes are connected and form a single whole, providing an adequate reflection of reality and the implementation various kinds activities.
mental states - this is a relatively stable level of mental activity determined at a given time, which is manifested by increased or decreased activity of the individual. Each person experiences various mental states every day (Fig. 6). In one mental state, mental or physical work is easy and productive, in another it is difficult and inefficient. Mental states are of a reflex nature, arising under the influence of a certain environment, physiological factors, time, etc.
Rice. 6. Classification of mental states
Mental properties of a person are stable formations that provide a certain qualitative and quantitative level of activity and behavior, typical for this person. Each mental property is formed gradually in the process of reflection and is fixed by practice. It is therefore the result of reflective and practical activities. The mental properties of a person are diverse (Fig. 7), and they must be classified in accordance with the grouping of mental processes on the basis of which they are formed.
Rice. 7. Classification of mental properties
1. Cognitive mental processes
Cognitive mental processes are the channels of our communication with the world. The incoming information about specific phenomena and objects undergoes changes and turns into an image. All human knowledge about the surrounding world is the result of the integration of individual knowledge obtained with the help of cognitive mental processes. Each of these processes has its own characteristics and own organization. But at the same time, proceeding simultaneously and harmoniously, these processes imperceptibly for a person interact with each other and as a result create for him a single, integral, continuous picture of the objective world.
1. Feeling - the simplest cognitive mental process, during which there is a reflection of individual properties, qualities, aspects of reality, its objects and phenomena, the connections between them, as well as internal states organism, directly affecting the human senses. Sensation is the source of our knowledge of the world and ourselves. The ability to sense is present in all living organisms that have a nervous system. Conscious sensations are characteristic only for living beings that have a brain. The main role of sensations is to quickly bring to the central nervous system information about the state of both the external and internal environment of the body. All sensations arise as a result of the action of stimuli-irritants on the corresponding sense organs. In order for a sensation to arise, it is necessary that the stimulus that causes it reach a certain value, called absolute lower threshold of sensation. Each type of sensation has its own thresholds.
But the sense organs have the ability to adapt to changing conditions, so the thresholds of sensations are not constant and can change when moving from one environment to another. This ability is called sensation adaptation. For example, during the transition from light to dark, the sensitivity of the eye to various stimuli changes tenfold. The speed and completeness of adaptation of various sensory systems is not the same: in tactile sensations, with smell, a high degree of adaptation is noted, and the lowest degree is observed with pain sensations, since pain is a signal of dangerous violation in the work of the body, and the rapid adaptation of pain sensations can threaten him with death.
The English physiologist C. Sherrington proposed a classification of sensations, presented in fig. 8.
Exteroceptive sensations- these are sensations arising from the influence of external stimuli on human analyzers located on the surface of the body.
proprioceptive sensations These are sensations that reflect the movement and position of parts of the human body.
Interoceptive sensations These are sensations that reflect the state of the internal environment of the human body.
By the time the sensations occur relevant And irrelevant.
For example, a sour taste in the mouth from a lemon, a feeling of so-called "factual" pain in an amputated limb.
Rice. 8. Classification of sensations (according to Ch. Sherrington)
All sensations have the following characteristics:
¦ quality- an essential feature of sensations, which makes it possible to distinguish one of their types from others (for example, auditory from visual);
¦ intensity- a quantitative characteristic of sensations, which is determined by the strength of the acting stimulus;
¦ duration- the temporal characteristic of sensations, determined by the time of exposure to the stimulus.
2. Perception - this is a holistic reflection of objects and phenomena of the objective world with their direct impact at the moment on the senses. The ability to perceive the world in the form of images is only in humans and some of the highest representatives of the animal world. Together with the processes of sensation, perception provides direct orientation in the surrounding world. It involves the selection of the main and most significant features from the complex of fixed features with simultaneous distraction from the non-essential ones (Fig. 9). Unlike sensations, which reflect individual qualities of reality, perception creates an integral picture of reality. Perception is always subjective, since people perceive the same information differently depending on their abilities, interests, life experience etc.
Rice. 9. Classification of types of perception
Consider perception as intellectual process successive, interconnected acts of searching for signs necessary and sufficient for the formation of an image:
The primary selection of a number of features from the entire flow of information and the decision that they belong to one specific object;
Search in memory of a complex of signs that is close in sensations;
Assigning the perceived object to a certain category;
Search additional features confirming or refuting the correctness of the decision;
The final conclusion about which object is perceived.
To the main properties of perception relate: integrity- internal organic interconnection of parts and the whole in the image;
objectivity- an object is perceived by a person as a separate physical body isolated in space and time;
generality- assignment of each image to a certain class of objects;
constancy- the relative constancy of the perception of the image, the preservation of the object of its parameters, regardless of the conditions of its perception (distance, lighting, etc.);
meaningfulness- understanding the essence of the perceived object in the process of perception;
selectivity- preferential selection of some objects over others in the process of perception.
Perception happens outward directed(perception of objects and phenomena of the external world) and internally directed(perception of one's own states, thoughts, feelings, etc.).
According to the time of occurrence, perception is relevant And irrelevant.
Perception can be erroneous(or illusory) such as visual or auditory illusions.
The development of perception is very important for learning activities. Developed perception helps to quickly assimilate a larger amount of information with a lower degree of energy costs.
3. Submission - this is a mental process of reflecting objects and phenomena that are not currently perceived, but are recreated on the basis of previous experience. Ideas arise not by themselves, but as a result of practical activity.
Since ideas are based on past perceptual experience, the main classification of ideas is based on classifications of types of sensations and perceptions (Fig. 10).
Rice. 10. Classification of types of representations
Main view properties:
fragmentation- in the presented image, any of its features, sides, parts are often absent;
instability(or impermanence)- the representation of any image sooner or later disappears from the field of human consciousness;
variability- when a person is enriched with new experience and knowledge, there is a change in ideas about the objects of the surrounding world.
4. Imagination - This is a cognitive mental process, which consists in the creation of new images by a person based on his ideas. Imagination is closely related to the emotional experiences of a person. Imagination differs from perception in that its images do not always correspond to reality, they may contain, to a greater or lesser extent, elements of fantasy, fiction. Imagination is the basis of visual-figurative thinking, which allows a person to navigate the situation and solve problems without direct practical intervention. It especially helps in those cases when practical actions are either impossible, or difficult, or inexpedient.
Rice. eleven. Classification of types of imagination
When classifying types of imagination, they proceed from the main characteristics - degree of volitional effort And degree of activity(Fig. 11).
Recreating imagination manifests itself when a person needs to recreate the representation of an object according to its description (for example, when reading a description of geographical places or historical events, as well as when meeting literary characters).
Dream is the imagination directed towards the desired future. In a dream, a person always creates an image of what is desired, while in creative images the desire of their creator is not always embodied. A dream is a process of imagination that is not included in creative activity, i.e., does not lead to an immediate and direct receipt of an objective product in the form artwork inventions, products, etc.
Imagination is closely related to creativity. creative imagination It is characterized by the fact that a person transforms his ideas and creates independently a new image - not according to a familiar image, but completely different from it. In practical activity, the process of artistic creativity is associated, first of all, with the phenomenon of imagination in those cases when the author is no longer satisfied with the reconstruction of reality by realistic methods. Turning to unusual, bizarre, unrealistic images makes it possible to enhance the intellectual, emotional and moral impact of art on a person.
Creation is an activity that generates new material and spiritual values. Creativity reveals the need of the individual for self-expression, self-actualization and realization of their creative potential. In psychology, there are creative activity criteria:
¦ creative is such an activity that leads to a new result, a new product;
¦ since a new product (result) can be obtained by chance, the process of obtaining the product itself must be new ( new method, reception, method, etc.);
¦ the result of creative activity cannot be obtained using a simple logical conclusion or action according to a known algorithm;
¦ creative activity, as a rule, is aimed not so much at solving a problem already set by someone, but at an independent vision of the problem and the identification of new, original solutions;
¦ creative activity is usually characterized by the presence of emotional experiences preceding the moment of finding a solution;
¦ creative activity requires special motivation.
Analyzing the nature of creativity, G. Lindsay, K. Hull and R. Thompson tried to find out what hinders the manifestation of creative abilities in humans. They found that interferes with creativity not only insufficient development of certain abilities, but also the presence of certain personality traits, for example:
- a tendency to conformism, i.e., the desire to be like others, not to differ from most people around;
- Fear of appearing stupid or funny;
- fear or unwillingness to criticize others because of the idea formed since childhood about criticism as something negative and offensive;
- excessive conceit, i.e., complete satisfaction about one's personality;
- the prevailing critical thinking, i.e., aimed only at identifying shortcomings, and not at finding ways to eradicate them.
5. Thinking - this is the highest cognitive process, the generation of new knowledge, a generalized and indirect reflection of reality by a person in its essential connections and relations. The essence of this cognitive mental process is the generation of new knowledge based on the transformation of reality by a person. This is the most complex cognitive process, the highest form of reflection of reality (Fig. 12).
Rice. 12. Classification of types of thinking
subject-effective thinking is carried out during actions with objects with direct perception of the object in reality.
Visual-figurative thinking occurs when presenting objective images.
abstract-logical thinking is the result of logical operations with concepts. Thinking wears motivated And purposeful nature, all operations of the thought process are caused by the needs, motives, interests of the individual, his goals and objectives.
¦ Thinking is always individually. It makes it possible to understand the laws of the material world, cause-and-effect relationships in nature and public life.
The source of mental activity is practice.
¦ physiological basis thinking is reflex activity of the brain.
¦ An exceptionally important feature of thinking is an inextricable connection with speech. We always think in words, even if we don't speak them out loud.
Active research into thinking has been going on since the 17th century. Initially, thinking was actually identified with logic. All theories of thinking can be divided into two groups: the first are based on the hypothesis that a person has innate intellectual abilities that do not change over the course of life, the second on the idea that mental abilities are formed and developed under the influence of life experience.
To the main mental operations relate:
analysis- mental division of the integral structure of the reflection object into constituent elements;
synthesis- reunification of individual elements into a coherent structure;
comparison- establishing relationships of similarity and difference;
generalization- selection of common features based on the combination of essential properties or similarities;
abstraction- highlighting any side of the phenomenon, which in reality does not exist as an independent one;
specification- distraction from common features and highlighting, emphasizing the particular, single;
systematization(or classification)- mental distribution of objects or phenomena in certain groups, subgroups.
In addition to the types and operations listed above, there are thinking processes:
judgment- a statement containing a specific thought;
inference- a series of logical related sayings leading to new knowledge;
definition of concepts- a system of judgments about a certain class of objects or phenomena, highlighting their most common features;
induction- derivation of a particular judgment from a general one;
deduction- the derivation of a general judgment from particular ones.
Basic quality thinking characteristics these are: independence, initiative, depth, breadth, speed, originality, criticality, etc.
The concept of intelligence is inextricably linked with thinking.
Intelligence is the totality of all mental abilities enabling a person to solve various problems. In 1937, D. Wexler (USA) developed tests for measuring intelligence. According to Wexler, intelligence is the global ability to act intelligently, think rationally, and cope well with life's circumstances.
L. Thurstone in 1938, exploring intelligence, singled out its primary components:
counting ability- the ability to operate with numbers and perform arithmetic operations;
verbal(verbal) flexibility- ability to find the right words to explain something;
verbal perception- ability to understand spoken and written language;
spatial orientation- the ability to imagine various objects in space;
memory;
reasoning ability;
the speed of perception of similarities and differences between objects.
What determines intelligence development? The intellect is affected by hereditary factors and the state of the environment. The development of intelligence is influenced by:
Genetic conditioning - the influence of hereditary information received from parents;
Physical and mental state of the mother during pregnancy;
Chromosomal abnormalities;
Ecological living conditions;
Features of the child's nutrition;
The social status of the family, etc.
Attempts to create single system The "dimensions" of human intelligence encounter many obstacles, since intelligence includes the ability to perform mental operations of completely different quality. The most popular is the so-called IQ(abbreviated as IQ), which allows you to correlate the level of intellectual capabilities of an individual with the average indicators of his age and professional groups.
There is no consensus among scientists about the possibility of obtaining a real assessment of intelligence using tests, since many of them measure not so much innate intellectual ability how much knowledge, skills and abilities acquired in the learning process.
6. Mnemic processes. At present, there is no unified, complete theory of memory in psychology, and the study of the phenomenon of memory remains one of the central tasks. Mnemic processes, or memory processes, are studied by various sciences that consider physiological, biochemical and psychological mechanisms memory processes.
Memory is a form mental reflection, which consists in the consolidation, preservation and subsequent reproduction of past experience, making it possible to reuse it in activity or return to the sphere of consciousness.
Among the first psychologists who began experimental studies of mnemonic processes was the German scientist G. Ebbinghaus, who, while studying the process of memorizing different phrases, deduced a number of memorization laws.
Memory connects the past of the subject with his present and future - this is the basis of mental activity.
TO memory processes include the following:
1) memorization- such a process of memory, as a result of which the new is consolidated by linking it with the previously acquired; memorization is always selective - not everything that affects our senses is stored in memory, but only what matters to a person or aroused his interest and greatest emotions;
2) preservation– the process of processing and retaining information;
3) reproduction– the process of retrieving stored material from memory;
4) forgetting- the process of getting rid of long-obtained, rarely used information.
One of the most important characteristics is memory quality, which is due to:
The speed of memorization(number of repetitions required to retain information in memory);
the speed of forgetting(the time during which the memorized information is stored in memory).
There are several grounds for classifying the types of memory (Fig. 13): by the nature of the mental activity that prevails in the activity, by the nature of the goals of the activity, by the duration of consolidation and preservation of information, etc.
Rice. 13. Classification of types of memory
The work of different types of memory obeys some general laws.
The Law of Understanding: the deeper the comprehension of what is remembered, the easier the latter is fixed in memory.
Law of Interest: interesting things are remembered faster because less effort is spent on it.
Installation law: memorization is easier if a person sets himself the task of perceiving the content and remembering it.
Law of First Impression: the brighter the first impression of what is remembered, the stronger and faster its memorization.
Context law: information is easier to remember when it is correlated with other simultaneous impressions.
The law of the volume of knowledge: the more extensive knowledge on a particular topic, the easier it is to remember new information from this area of knowledge.
The law of the volume of stored information: the greater the amount of information for simultaneous memorization, the worse it is remembered.
Deceleration law: any subsequent memorization inhibits the previous one.
End law: what is said (read) at the beginning and end of a series of information is better remembered, the middle of the series is remembered worse.
The law of repetition: repetition improves memory.
In psychology, in connection with the study of memory, one can come across two terms that are very similar to each other - "mnemonic" and "mnemonic", the meanings of which are different. Mnemic means "pertaining to memory", and mnemonic- "related to the art of memorization", i.e. mnemonics are memorization techniques.
The history of mnemonics goes back to Ancient Greece. IN ancient Greek mythology speaks of Mnemosyne, the mother of the nine muses, the goddess of memory, memories. Mnemonics received special development in the 19th century. in connection with the laws of associations that have received theoretical justification. For better memorization, various mnemonic techniques. Let's give examples.
Association method: the more various associations arise when storing information, the easier the information is remembered.
Link method: combining information into a single, integral structure with the help of key words, concepts, etc.
Place method based on visual associations; having clearly imagined the subject of memorization, one must mentally combine it with the image of the place, which is easily retrieved from memory; For example, in order to memorize information in certain sequence, you need to break it down into parts and associate each part with a specific place in a well-known sequence, for example, the route to work, the arrangement of furniture in the room, the arrangement of photographs on the wall, etc.
A well-known way of remembering the colors of the rainbow, where the initial letter of each word of the key phrase is the first letter of the word denoting the color:
To each - To red
hunter - O range
and does - and yellow
h nat - h green
G de- G blue
With goes– With blue
f azan – f purple
7. Attention - this is an arbitrary or involuntary orientation and concentration of mental activity on some object of perception. The nature and essence of attention cause controversy in psychological science; there is no consensus among psychologists regarding its essence. The complexity of explaining the phenomenon of attention is due to the fact that it is not found in a “pure” form, it is always “attention to something”. Some scientists believe that attention is not an independent process, but is only a part of any other psychological process. Others believe that this is an independent process that has its own characteristics. Indeed, on the one hand, attention is included in all psychological processes, on the other hand, attention has observable and measurable characteristics (volume, concentration, switchability, etc.), which are not directly related to other cognitive processes.
Attention is necessary condition mastery of any kind of activity. It depends on the individual typological, age and other characteristics of a person. Depending on the activity of the individual, three types of attention are distinguished (Fig. 14).
Rice. 14. Classification of types of attention
involuntary attention is the simplest form of attention. He is often called passive or forced since it arises and is maintained independently of human consciousness.
Arbitrary attention controlled by a conscious purpose, connected with the will of man. It is also called volitional, active or deliberate.
Post-voluntary attention also has a purposeful character and initially requires volitional efforts, but then the activity itself becomes so interesting that it practically does not require volitional efforts from a person to maintain attention.
Attention has certain parameters and features, which are largely a characteristic of human abilities and capabilities. TO basic properties of attention usually include the following:
concentration- this is an indicator of the degree of concentration of consciousness on a particular object, the intensity of communication with it; concentration of attention implies the formation of a temporary center (focus) of all psychological activity of a person;
intensity- characterizes the efficiency of perception, thinking and memory in general;
sustainability- ability long time support high levels concentration and intensity of attention; determined by the type of nervous system, temperament, motivation (novelty, importance of needs, personal interests), as well as external conditions human activities;
volume- a quantitative indicator of objects that are in the focus of attention (for an adult - from 4 to 6, for a child - no more than 1-3); the amount of attention depends not only on genetic factors and on the capabilities of the short-term memory of the individual, the characteristics of the perceived objects and the professional skills of the subject also matter;
distribution- the ability to focus on several objects at the same time; at the same time, several focuses (centers) of attention are formed, which makes it possible to perform several actions or monitor several processes at the same time without losing any of them from the field of attention;
switching - the ability to more or less easily and fairly quickly move from one type of activity to another and focus on the latter.
2. Emotions and feelings
Emotions and feelings are called experiences by a person of his attitude to objects and phenomena of reality, to what he cognizes, to himself and other people.
Emotion- this is a direct reflection of the existing relationship, an experience associated with the satisfaction or dissatisfaction of needs. Emotions are involved in all mental processes in any human condition. They are able to anticipate events that have not yet occurred and may arise in connection with ideas about previously experienced or imaginary situations.
Feeling- a more complex, established attitude of a person to what he knows and does. As a rule, feeling includes a whole range of emotions. Feelings are peculiar only to a person, they are socially conditioned, give completeness and brightness to our perception, so emotionally colored facts are remembered longer. At different peoples and in different historical epochs, feelings are expressed in different ways.
Emotions and feelings are inextricably linked to physiological state of the human body: with some, a person feels a surge of strength, an increase in energy, and with others, a decline, stiffness. Emotions and feelings are always purely individual. Some of them are congenital, some are acquired in vivo as a result of training and education. The more complex a living being is organized, the more high step on the evolutionary ladder it occupies, the richer the range of emotions and feelings that it is able to experience. The oldest in origin, the simplest and most common among living beings, emotional experiences are pleasure derived from the satisfaction of organic needs, and displeasure if the corresponding needs remain unsatisfied.
In psychology, there are several basic, or fundamental, emotions: joy, surprise, suffering, anger, disgust, contempt, fear, shame.
Depending on the combination of speed, strength and duration of feelings, the following are distinguished types of emotional states: mood, passion, affect, enthusiasm, stress, frustration (a state of disorganization of the consciousness and activity of the individual due to a severe nervous shock).
Emotions and feelings are inseparable from a person's personality. In emotional terms, people differ from each other in many ways: emotional excitability, duration, stability, strength and depth of emotional experiences that arise in them, dominance of positive or negative emotions.
The improvement of higher emotions and feelings means the personal development of a person. Such development can be carried out in several directions:
Inclusion in the emotional sphere of new objects, people, events, etc.;
Increasing the level of conscious control of their feelings;
Gradual inclusion in the moral sphere more and more high values and norms, such as conscience, decency, sense of duty, responsibility, etc.
So, the creation of mental images of the environment is carried out through cognitive mental processes, which are fastened into a single, integral cognitive mental activity of a person. The image of the surrounding world is the most complex mental formation, in the formation of which various mental processes are involved.
In this section, the following topics will be considered: mental processes from the point of view of cybernetic science, the theory of signals and mental processes, the information structure of nervous processes and mental images.
The concept of mental processes
Definition
Mental processes are certain structural elements that can be isolated from the psyche as a whole; dynamic reflection of reality in various forms of mental phenomena.
The peculiarity of mental processes is their short duration.
All mental processes can be divided into cognitive, emotional and volitional.
What is included in each section, we can see in Figure 1.
Figure 1. "Types of mental processes"
Let's consider in more detail each of their types.
Cognitive mental processes:
- Sensation is a certain process of reflection of individual properties of the external world. Feeling is the simplest mental process. The ability to sense is present in all living organisms that have a nervous system. Conscious sensations are characteristic only for living beings that have a brain. The mechanism of sensation formation will be discussed in subsection 4.3. "Information Structure of Nervous Processes and Mental Images".
- Perception is a holistic reflection of objects and phenomena of the objective world with their direct impact at the moment on the senses. The main properties of perception: integrity, objectivity, constancy, meaningfulness, selectivity.
- Representation is the process of reflecting the phenomena of the external world, recreated on the basis of previous experience. Main properties of views:
- fragmentation - in the presented image, any of its features are often absent;
- instability;
- variability - when a person is enriched with new experience and knowledge, there is a change in ideas about the objects of the surrounding world.
- object-effective thinking is carried out during actions with objects with direct perception of the object in reality;
- visual-figurative thinking occurs when presenting objective images;
- abstract-logical thinking is the result of logical operations with concepts.
The main mental operations include: analysis, synthesis, comparison, generalization, abstraction, concretization, systematization (or classification).
- Memory is a form of mental reflection, the main functions of which are: consolidation, preservation and reproduction of experience. Memory processes include:
- memorization is such a process of memory, as a result of which the new is consolidated by linking it with the previously acquired; memorization is always selective - not everything that affects our senses is stored in memory, but only what matters to a person or aroused his interest and greatest emotions;
- preservation - the process of processing and retaining information;
- reproduction - the process of retrieving stored material from memory;
- Forgetting is the process of getting rid of long-received, rarely used information.
Emotional mental processes are experiences by a person of his attitude to objects and phenomena of reality, to what he cognizes, to himself and other people.
mental processes
mental processes - A stable and purposeful set of interconnected neuropsychic acts that, according to a certain scheme, transform inputs into outputs to obtain specific product, a result of value to the psyche as a whole. If we consider memory as an example of a mental process, then the input here will be the memorized information and the conscious or unconscious need to remember this information, the output is the memorized information.
- attention,
- memory,
- emotions,
- feelings,
- feeling
- perception,
- thinking,
Mental processes belong to the category of mental phenomena - that is, they are accessible to direct observation, including unskilled ones. In this case, the observer usually reflects not the process itself "in pure form", and its characteristics, deviations from the norm. Examples:
- the person is attentive / absent-minded, his attention is focused on this or that;
- memory is well developed / poorly developed, one person has a well-developed memory for faces, and the other for words;
- one person is emotionally balanced, and the other is not, one has an emotion of joy, and the other has surprise;
- between some people there is love and harmony, others treat each other with disgust;
- in some periods, someone can be stubborn and persistent, in others - sluggish and apathetic, etc.
In Russian general psychology, three types of mental phenomena are generally distinguished:
- mental processes
- mental states
- mental properties.
The differences between these phenomena are temporary. Mental processes are the most fleeting, properties are the most stable in time.
Recently, the very concept of mental processes has been subjected to justified criticism. Indeed, the allocation of mental processes is a purely conditional division of the psyche into constituent elements. This division is due to the fact that psychology began to claim the title of a full-fledged science in the twentieth century. And in any science one cannot do without analysis, without dividing the object of study into more or less independent units. From this came the classification of mental phenomena, mental processes, etc.
In modern publications, it is increasingly argued that mental processes are closely interrelated. They, strictly speaking, merge into one holistic process which is the psyche. The division of consciousness into mental processes is conditional, it has no theoretical justification. At present, integrative approaches to the psyche are being developed in science, and the classification of mental processes has more of a pedagogical and propaedeutic value, descending as science develops.
Indeed, the relationship between mental processes is very close. It is expressed, for example, in the fact that perception is impossible without memory, memorization is impossible without perception, and attention is impossible without thinking. If, for example, attention develops during psychological training, then memory also develops along with it.
However, it is impossible to completely abandon the concept of a mental process. If only because their essence as mental phenomena is too obvious. It should also be noted that critics of mental processes, for some reason, are convinced that processes in general should be completely independent of each other, "parallel" and not "intersecting". Therefore, they say, mental processes and not processes in general.
As an analogy with mental processes, we can consider social processes. These social processes take place in society: children go to school, athletes prepare for the next Olympics, parents raise children, adults go to work, alcoholics drink alcohol, the police fight crime, etc. There are a lot of these processes, somewhere they intersect, somewhere they go in parallel. One person can participate in many social processes. The fact that we cannot unequivocally and accurately divide the life of society into social processes does not mean at all that they do not exist at all as such.
Reproduction of a person's knowledge, skills, various forms of behavior and emotional state, as well as individual mental (representations, thoughts, movements, feelings, etc.), their transfer from a latent, potential state to an actual action. Rapidly and rapidly flowing, the most strong emotion explosive properties, uncontrolled by consciousness and capable of taking the form of a pathological affect. Also, in general psychology, affect is understood as a whole emotional and sensory sphere of a person. A mental process that ensures the concentration of consciousness on certain real or ideal objects. The ability of a person, manifested in self-determination and regulation of his activities and various mental processes. The following are distinguished as the main functions of the will: the choice of motives and goals, the regulation of motivation for actions with insufficient or excessive motivation, the organization of mental processes into an adequate system for the activity performed by a person, the mobilization of physical and mental capabilities in a situation of overcoming obstacles in achieving goals. Imagination and representation are tools for reflecting and designing the surrounding world. A concept that indicates quantitative, primarily speed, indicators of the implementation of certain actions. These indicators are closely related to the work of non-specific brain structures. different levels, in particular at the cortical level. In different states in which a person can be (fatigue, excitement, stress), these indicators show a very wide variability. Unambiguous correspondence of certain parts of the brain and mental processes. The connection between thought and speech. The relationship between sensation and perception. The ability of the psyche to preserve certain images over time. cognitive processes(perception, memory, thinking, imagination) are included as component to any human activity and provide one or another of its effectiveness. Cognitive processes allow a person to plan in advance the goals, plans and content of the upcoming activity, to play in the mind the course of this activity, his actions and behavior, to foresee the results of his actions and manage them as they are performed. A reproduced image of an item based on our past experience. While perception gives us an image of an object only in the immediate presence of this object, representation is an image of an object that is reproduced in the absence of an object. Images of objects, scenes and events arising from their recall or productive imagination. The analogy between the psychic and the robotic allows us to draw certain parallels between psychic phenomena and general cybernetic laws and regularities. Emotional and sensual sphere of a person.Current control by topics 41 groups
SECTION 1. BASICS OF PSYCHOLOGY
Topic 1. Subject, tasks and methodological foundations psychology
1) + Hippocrates
2) I.P. Pavlov
3) Leonhard
4) E. Kretschmer
2 In addition to humans, the following animals are endowed with imagination:
1) monkeys and dolphins
2) + no one but a person
3) dolphins
3. The image of an object or event that satisfies an urgent need, not connected with reality - this is such a form of imagination as ...
2) + fantasy
3) hallucination
4) typing
4. Forms of thinking include:
1) imagination, imagination, fantasy
2) convergence and divergence
3) synthesis, analysis, comparison
4) + concept, judgment, conclusion
5. The general ability to learn and solve problems, which determines the success of any activity and underlies other abilities, is ...
1) + intelligence
2) inner speech
4) thinking
Moral, practical, intellectual, aesthetic - these are varieties ...
1) + feelings
2) affects
4) affects
A strong and relatively short-term emotional state associated with a sharp change in important life circumstances for the subject is
1) + affect
2) passion
3) feeling
4) mood
8. The non-specific reaction of the body to any requirement of the environment causes a state ...
1) Depression
2) Inspiration
3) Frustrations
4) + Stress
9 One of the most simple ways understanding another person, likening him, identifying yourself with him - this is:
a) identification;
b) empathy;
c) reflection.
d) comparison
10. A certain emotional state of a mass of people, which is a means of a lack of information about some frightening or incomprehensible news, or an excess of information, is:
a) stress;
b) frustration;
C) panic.
11. The motive for helping someone, not consciously connected with their own selfish interests, is called:
a) careerism;
b) altruism;
c) selfishness.
12. Empathy, empathy, the desire to emotionally respond to the problems of another person, is called:
a) identification;
b) empathy;
c) reflection;
d) extraversion.
13. (- select one answer) A psychological direction that considers that the subject of psychology is behavior as a set of body reactions to environmental stimuli, - ...
1) psychoanalysis
2) humanistic psychology
3) psychology of consciousness
4) behaviorism +
14.(- select one answer)
Psychological system of analysis mental life proposed by Z. Freud
1) humanistic psychology
2) depth psychology(psychoanalysis) +
3) associative psychology
W. Wund is the first who created
1) psycho-correction center
2) the concept of the unconscious
3) psychological laboratory +
4) reflex theory
What is the subject of psychology as a science?
1) consciousness
2) behavior
3) + psyche
17.K mental properties personalities include:
1) thinking and consciousness
2) + temperament and abilities
3) wants and needs
4) emotions and will
18. The main functions of the psyche are:
1)reflection and protection of the body
2) + reflection and regulation of behavior and activity
3) body protection and performance
4) regulation of behavior and prediction
19. The direction of psychology, the main task of which is the application of scientific knowledge to help the population in everyday and critical situations, is called ...
1) + practical psychology
3) social psychology
4) behavioral approach
20. Feelings do not include:
1) +integrity
2) sensitization
3) contrast
4) adaptation
21 The mental process responsible for the formation of a holistic image of the object with its direct impact on the analyzers:
1) presentation
2) cognitive dissonance
3) feeling
4) + perception
22. Attention. arising as a result of a consciously set goal and requires certain volitional efforts, is called ...
1) perceptual
2) + arbitrary
3) scattered
4) involuntary
23. The amount of attention for a person is:
1) +5-9 objects
2) 3-5 objects perceived simultaneously
3) 9-11 objects
4) 5-7 objects
24. (- select one answer)
The main task of psychology is …
1) correction of social norms of behavior
2) study of the laws of mental activity +
3) development of problems in the history of psychology
4) improvement of research methods
25. (- select one answer)
Mental processes are
1) temperament
2) character
3) feeling +
4) ability
26. (- select one answer) One of the principles of domestic psychology is the principle
1) taking into account the age characteristics of a person
2) unity of thinking and intuition
3) unity of consciousness and activity +
4) learning
27. The methods by which the subject of science is studied is called
1) processes
2)goals
3) methods +
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