Normal digestion within a separate diet. Digestive system

TEST

Discipline: “Physiology of Nutrition”

Specialty: 260800 "Technology of products and organization of public catering"

I've done the work:

2nd year student, 4 groups

Kovtun Roman Viktorovich

Moscow 2013.

Option 5

1. Stomach, structure and functions. The influence of nutrition on gastric function.

2. Water-soluble vitamins, role for the human body, sources in

nutrition and physiological needs in various conditions.

Elimination of nutritional deficiency.

3. General characteristics biologically active additives(BAA).

Probiotics, prebiotics and probiotic products.

4. Fundamentals of clinical nutrition. Characteristics of diet No. 1. Create a menu

diet number 1 for the day.

1. For all living organisms, food is a source of energy and substances that ensure their vital functions, and nutrition (a set of processes including absorption, processing, absorption and further assimilation nutrients) – necessary condition their existence.

Comparing the digestive apparatus of higher organisms with a chemical plant, Pavlov gave an extremely vivid description of the digestive process: “In its main task in the body, the digestive canal is obviously a chemical plant that subjects the raw material entering it - food - to processing, mainly chemical; to make it capable of entering the juices of the body and there serving as material for the life process. This plant consists of a number of departments in which food, depending on its properties, is more or less sorted and either delayed for a while or immediately transferred to the next department. Various reagents are delivered to the plant and its various departments, delivered either from nearby small factories, built within the very walls of the plant, so to speak, in a makeshift manner, or from more distant separate organs, large chemical factories, which communicate with the plant by pipes and reagent lines. These are the so-called glands with their ducts. Each factory delivers a special liquid, a special reagent, with certain chemical properties, as a result of which it acts in a changing manner only on the known components of food, which is usually a complex mixture of substances. These properties of reagents are determined mainly by the presence of special substances in them, the so-called enzymes.”

In other words, the sequential processing of food occurs as a result of its gradual movement along the digestive tract through departments (oral cavity, esophagus, stomach, intestines), the structure and functions of which are strictly specialized.

In the oral cavity, food is subjected not only to mechanical grinding, but also to partial chemical processing. Then, through the esophagus, the food bolus enters the stomach.

Structure

The stomach is an organ of the digestive system, it is a sac-like extension of the digestive tract, located between the esophagus and the duodenum. Due to the presence in it of muscles and mucous membranes, locking devices and special glands, the stomach ensures the accumulation of food, its initial digestion and partial absorption. The gastric juice secreted by the glands contains digestive enzymes, hydrochloric acid and other physiologically active substances, breaks down proteins, partially fats, has bactericidal effect. The mucous membrane of the stomach produces anti-anemic substances (Castle factors) - complex compounds that affect hematopoiesis.

In the stomach, an anterior wall is isolated, directed anteriorly and somewhat upward, and a posterior wall, facing backwards and downwards. Along the edges where the anterior and posterior walls converge, a lesser curvature of the stomach is formed, directed upwards and to the right, and a longer greater curvature of the stomach, directed downwards and to the left. In the upper part of the lesser curvature is the place where the esophagus enters the stomach - the cardiac opening, and the part of the stomach adjacent to it is called the cardiac part. To the left of the cardial part is a dome-shaped protrusion, facing up and to the left, which is the bottom (vault) of the stomach. On the lesser curvature of the stomach in its lower section, there is an invagination - an angular notch. The right, narrower part of the stomach is called the pyloric part. A wide part is distinguished in it - the pylorus cave, and a narrower part - the pylorus canal, followed by the duodenum. The boundary between the latter and the stomach is a circular groove, which corresponds to the place of exit from the stomach - the pyloric opening. middle part stomach between its cardial part and the bottom on the left and the pyloric part on the right, is called the body of the stomach.

The size of the stomach varies greatly depending on the body type and degree of filling. A moderately full stomach has a length of 24-26 cm, the greatest distance between the greater and lesser curvature does not exceed 10-12 cm, and the anterior and posterior surfaces are separated from each other by 8-9 cm. The length of an empty stomach is about 18-20 cm, and the distance between the greater and lesser curvature is up to 7-8 cm, the front and rear walls are in contact. The capacity of an adult's stomach is on average 3 liters.

The stomach continuously changes its shape and size depending on the filling and condition of neighboring organs. empty stomach does not touch the anterior abdominal wall, as it goes posteriorly, and the transverse colon is located in front of it. When full, the greater curvature of the stomach descends to the level of the navel.

Three quarters of the stomach are located in the left hypochondrium, one quarter in the epigastric region. The cardiac inlet is located to the left of the X-XI thoracic vertebrae, the pyloric outlet is located at the right edge of the XII thoracic or I lumbar vertebra. The longitudinal axis of the stomach is directed obliquely from top to bottom, from left to right and from back to front. The anterior surface of the stomach in the region of the cardia, fundus and body of the stomach is in contact with the diaphragm, in the region of lesser curvature - with the visceral surface of the left lobe of the liver. A small area of ​​the body of the stomach of a triangular shape is adjacent directly to the anterior abdominal wall. Behind the stomach is a slit-like space of the peritoneal cavity - an omental bag that separates it from the organs lying on the posterior abdominal wall and located retroperitoneally. The posterior surface of the stomach in the region of the greater curvature of the stomach is adjacent to the transverse colon, in the upper left part of this curvature (the fundus of the stomach) - to the spleen. Behind the body of the stomach are the upper pole of the left kidney and the left adrenal gland, as well as the pancreas.

Fixing apparatus and mechanism for adaptation to the vertical position of the body. The relative stability of the position of the stomach is ensured by the low mobility of the inlet and from a part of its outlet and the presence of peritoneal ligaments.

To the lesser curvature of the stomach from the gates of the liver, two sheets (duplicature) of the peritoneum approach - the hepatogastric ligament, from the greater curvature from below, two sheets of the peritoneum also extend to the transverse colon - the gastrocolic ligament, and, finally, from the beginning of the greater curvature and the left part of the fundus of the stomach, the duplication of the peritoneum goes to the left to the gates of the spleen in the form of a gastro-splenic ligament.

The structure of the stomach wall. The outer serous membrane of the stomach covers the organ on almost all sides. Only narrow stripes the walls of the stomach on the lesser and greater curvature do not have a peritoneal cover. Here, blood vessels and nerves approach the stomach in the thickness of its ligaments. A thin subserous base separates serosa from muscle. The muscular layer of the stomach is well developed and is represented by three layers: the outer longitudinal, middle circular and inner layer of oblique fibers.

The longitudinal layer is a continuation of the longitudinal layer of the muscular lining of the esophagus. Longitudinal muscle bundles are located mainly near the lesser and greater curvature of the stomach. On the anterior and posterior walls of the stomach, this layer is represented by separate muscle bundles, better developed in the area of ​​the pylorus. The circular layer is better developed than the longitudinal layer; in the area of ​​the pyloric part of the stomach it thickens, forming the pyloric sphincter around the outlet of the stomach. The third layer of the muscular layer, found only in the stomach, consists of oblique fibers. Oblique fibers spread across the cardiac part of the stomach to the left of the cardiac opening and descend down and to the right along the anterior and posterior walls of the organ towards the greater curvature, as if supporting it.

The submucosa is quite thick, which allows the mucous membrane to gather into folds. The mucous membrane is covered with a single layer of cylindrical epithelium. The thickness of this shell ranges from 0.5 to 2.5 mm. Due to the presence of the muscular plate of the mucous membrane and the submucosa, the mucous membrane forms numerous folds of the stomach, which have a different direction in different parts of the stomach. So, along the lesser curvature, there are longitudinal folds, in the region of the bottom and body of the stomach - transverse, oblique and longitudinal. At the site of the transition of the stomach into the duodenum, there is an annular fold - the pylorus valve, which, when the pyloric sphincter contracts, completely separates the cavity of the stomach and duodenum.

The entire surface of the gastric mucosa (on the folds and between them) has small (1-6 mm in diameter) elevations, which are called gastric fields. On the surface of these fields are gastric pits, which are the mouths of numerous (about 35 million) gastric glands. They secrete gastric juice (digestive enzymes) for the chemical processing of food. In the connective tissue basis of the mucous membrane there are arterial, venous, lymphatic vessels, nerves, as well as single lymphoid nodules.

Vessels and nerves of the stomach. To the stomach, to its lesser curvature, the left gastric artery (from the celiac trunk) and the right gastric artery (a branch of the own hepatic artery) approaches, to the greater curvature - the right gastroepiploic artery and the left gastroepiploic artery, to the bottom of the stomach - short gastric arteries (branches of the splenic artery). The gastric and gastroepiploic arteries form an arterial ring around the stomach, from which numerous branches extend to the walls of the stomach. Deoxygenated blood flows from the walls of the stomach along the veins of the same name, which accompany the arteries and flow into the tributaries of the portal vein.

Lymphatic vessels from the lesser curvature of the stomach to the right and left gastric lymph nodes, from the upper parts of the stomach from the side of the lesser curvature and from the cardial part - to the lymph nodes of the lymphatic ring of the cardia, from the greater curvature and lower sections stomach - to the right and left gastro-omental nodes, and from the pyloric part of the stomach - to the pyloric nodes.

The innervation of the stomach (formation of the gastric plexus) involves vagus (X pair) and sympathetic nerves. The anterior vagus trunk branches in the anterior, and the posterior one in the posterior wall of the stomach. The sympathetic nerves approach the stomach from the celiac plexus through the gastric arteries.

Stomach shape. In a living person, there are three main shapes and positions of the stomach, corresponding to three body types.

In people with a brachymorphic body type, the stomach has the shape of a horn (cone) and is located almost transversely.

The mesomorphic body type is characterized by the shape of a fishing hook. The body of the stomach is located almost vertically, then bends sharply to the right, so that the pyloric part takes an ascending position on the right near spinal column. An acute angle open to the top is formed between the digestive sac and the evacuation channel.

In people of dolichomorphic body type, the stomach is in the form of a stocking. The descending section descends low, the pyloric part, which is an evacuation canal, rises steeply, located along the midline or somewhat to the side of it.

Such forms of the stomach, as well as numerous intermediate variants, are found when the human body is in an upright position. When lying on your back or side, the shape of the stomach changes, mainly due to a change in its relationship with neighboring organs. The shape of the stomach also depends on age and gender.

Basic functions of the stomach

The main functions of the stomach are the chemical and physical processing of food received from the oral cavity, the accumulation of chyme and its gradual evacuation into the intestine. It also takes part in intermediate metabolism, excreting metabolic products, including protein metabolism products, which, after hydrolysis, are absorbed and then utilized by the body. The stomach plays a major role in hematopoiesis, in water-salt metabolism and maintaining a constant pH in the blood.

The actual digestive activity of the stomach is ensured by gastric juice secreted by the glands of the stomach, under the influence of which hydrolysis of proteins occurs, swelling, and denaturation of a number of substances and cellular structures of food.

The surface epithelium and cells of the neck of the glands secrete a secret. The composition of the secret can change with stimulation of the gastric glands. The main organic component of the secretion of these cells is gastric mucus. The inorganic components are Na+; Ka+; Ca++; Cl-; HCO-3; Its pH is 7.67. Mucus has a slightly alkaline reaction, is secreted in the form of a gel and protects the mucous membrane from mechanical and chemical influences. Mucus secretion is stimulated by mechanical and chemical irritation of the gastric mucosa, vagus and splanchnic nerves, as well as by the removal of mucus from the surface of the mucous membrane.

The secretory activity of the gastric glands is regulated by reflex and humoral mechanisms, the study of which was successfully started in the laboratory of I.P. Pavlov. he formulated the doctrine of the phases of gastric secretion when ingesting various types of food. The initial secretion is conditioned reflexively. It is realized through the cortical and subcortical centers of the brain. The main conductor of central influences on the gastric glands is the vagus nerve. This secretion increases, reaching its maximum due to irritation of the receptors of the oral cavity. In the subsequent period of stimulation of secretion, irritation of the stomach receptors is essential. The described mechanisms constitute the complex reflex phase of secretion. The complex-reflex phase is soon superimposed by the neurohumoral phase, in which the leading role is played by gastrin, a hormone available in two forms in the gastric mucosa. Reflexes of the stomach receptors with the inclusion of gastrin in the stimulation mechanisms of the gastric glands provides the so-called gastric phase.

The motor activity of the stomach ensures the deposition of food, its mixing with gastric juice and movement - portioned evacuation into the duodenum.

The reservoir function is combined with the hydrolytic one and is carried out mainly by the body and bottom of the stomach, while the evacuation function is carried out by its antral part.

Effect of nutrition on stomach function

Poorly moistened with saliva, poorly chewed food, very little changed chemically (especially starch), enters the stomach. And the stomach, as you know, has no teeth, hence poor digestion.
In boiled food, induced autolysis is impossible, so it remains in the stomach for a long time (“lies like a stone”). Because of this, the secret apparatus of the stomach is overstrained - hence indigestion and low acidity.
If two types of different foods are consumed, for example, protein and starch (cutlet and potatoes), then an indigestible mixture is obtained in the stomach. Remember, proteins are digested in the stomach and duodenum, and starch begins to be digested a little in the mouth, and then in the duodenum (and qualitatively and quantitatively by other enzymes than protein food). Subsequently, this indigestible mixture clogs the liver with its decay products and then, with a weak liver, the entire body, especially when there is portal hypertension.
If food is washed down with sweet liquids, then fermentation of sugars in the stomach begins, alcohol is formed, which destroys the layer of protective mucus that covers the inside of the stomach and protects it from the digestive influence of its own digestive juices. This causes gastritis, stomach ulcers, indigestion, and so on.

2. Water-soluble vitamins do not accumulate in the body, so they must be constantly supplied to the body through food. The structure of water-soluble vitamins is currently well understood. The active forms and the mechanism of their biological action. The first vitamin obtained in pure form, was vitamin B1, or thiamine. The merit of the discovery in 1912 of this vitamin belongs to K. Funk.
According to the chemical structure, thiamine consists of two cyclic compounds: a six-atomic tyranide ring and a pentaatomic thiazyl ring, including a sulfur atom S and an amino group NH2.
Thiamine is integral part decarboxylase enzymes involved in redox reactions.
Vitamin B1 affects carbohydrate metabolism, the synthesis of fats from proteins. About 5% of this vitamin in the form of thiamine triphosphates is involved in the transmission nerve impulses.
A lack of vitamin B1 leads to the accumulation of pyruvic and lactic acids in the brain, heart muscle, liver and kidneys. This leads to defeat nervous system in the form of muscle paralysis (it is no coincidence that vitamin B1 is called aneurin), cardiac activity and digestive tract functions deteriorate. Swelling develops in the legs and abdomen.
The cause of hypo- and avitaminosis B1 may be a lack of this vitamin in the human diet, and damage to the intestines, as a result of which the processes of thiamine absorption are disrupted.
When feeding pets: dogs and cats, you should know that the insides of many river fish (pike, carp, smelt, etc.) contain the enzyme thiaminase, which destroys vitamin B1 (Belov A.D. et al., 1992). Therefore, prolonged feeding of raw fish can lead to vitamin B1 deficiency.
The main source of vitamin B1 is cereal bran, bread coarse, yeast, liver, buckwheat and oatmeal.
The daily human need for vitamin B1 is 2-3 mg.
Vitamin B2 (riboflavin, lactoflavin) was isolated in its pure form from whey in 1933 by the German chemist R. Kuhn.
Riboflavin is part of flavin enzymes, which are involved in the processes of tissue respiration, deamination of amino acids, oxidation of alcohols, fatty acids, synthesis of uric acid. The function of riboflavin in enzymes is to gain and subsequently lose hydrogen electrons.
Vitamin B2 deficiency is manifested by growth retardation, dermatitis, germination of the cornea by blood vessels (vascularization), hair loss, decreased pulse, paralysis and convulsions. The daily human need for vitamin B2 is 1.5-2.5 mg.
A lot of riboflavin is found in foods plant origin, as well as in milk, cheese, meat, yeast.
Vitamin B3 (pantothenic acid) is part of coenzyme A-CoA, which is involved in the synthesis of acetyl-coenzyme A. In turn, acetyl CoA catalyzes the synthesis of cholesterol, fatty acids, stearic hormones, acetylcholine, and hemoglobin.
Hypovitaminosis pantothenic acid causes disruption of the heart, nervous system, kidneys, and dermatitis - inflammation of the skin.
Pantothenic acid is found in many foods; we can say that it is omnipresent (from the Greek pontothen - from everywhere, from all sides).
Sources of pantothenic acid can be meat, eggs, yeast, cabbage, potatoes, and liver. The daily requirement for adults is 10 mg.
Vitamin B4 (choline). This vitamin was first discovered in bile (Greek chole - bile). Choline is widely distributed in nature. There is a lot of it in the brain, liver, kidneys and myocardium. Chemical formula choline has next view: [(CH3)3N + CH2CH2OH]OH-.
Choline is part of the phospholipids and proteins lecithin and sphingomylline. Vitamin B4 is involved in the synthesis of methionine and acetylcholine, which is an important chemical transmitter of nerve impulses.
Vitamin B6 (pyridoxine, antidermin) is a group of substances derived from peredin. Vitamin B6 can be present in the body in several forms, the most active of which is phosphopyridoxal:
Vitamin B6 is part of the enzymes involved in the metabolism of proteins, fats and carbohydrates, and is able to lower blood cholesterol levels. A deficiency of vitamin B6 can manifest itself in the form of dermatitis, damage to the spleen, impaired absorption of amino acids and vitamins B12, and seizures.
Vitamin B6 is found in large quantities in wheat bran, brewer's yeast, barley, liver, meat, egg yolk and milk. The daily requirement for vitamin B6 is 1.9-2.2 mg.
Vitamin B12 (cyanocobalamin, antianemic vitamin) was discovered in 1948. The chemical structure of vitamin B12 consists of a paraffin core and cobalt. Vitamin B12 is involved in the synthesis of DNA, adrenaline, proteins, urea, regulates the synthesis of phospholinides, and stimulates hematopoiesis. Able to activate folic acid.
Vitamin B12 deficiency causes neurodysmorphic disease and pernicious anemia. With a lack of this vitamin, the synthesis of hydrochloric acid in the stomach decreases and then completely stops. Therefore, treatment of vitamin B12 deficiency must be carried out together with the administration of hydrochloric acid to the patient. The source of cyanocobalamin is only products of animal origin: liver, milk, eggs. The daily requirement of cyanocobalamin is 2-5 mcg.
Vitamin B9 (folic acid) was discovered in 1947 as a growth factor for bacteria. It got its name from the fact that it was found in large quantities in the leaves of green plants (Latin folium - leaf). It is not folic acid itself that has biological activity, but its derivatives - tetrahydrofolic acid and its salts.
As a coenzyme, folic acid is part of the enzymes necessary for the synthesis of nucleic acids, proteins, and phospholipids. Concomitant use vitamins B9 and B6 improves the absorption of the latter.
Vitamin deficiencies B9 are more common among the population of the Hindustan Peninsula and the African continent due to a lack of animal proteins in the diet. The main symptom of avitaminosis Sun is anemia. The mechanism of development of anemia is a violation of the formation cellular elements blood and hemoglobin. In addition to anemia, bleeding gums, intestines, dermatitis are noted.
Folic acid is found in fresh vegetables (cauliflower, beans, tomatoes), porcini mushrooms, strawberries, yeast, and liver. There is evidence that folic acid can be synthesized by intestinal bacteria. The daily requirement for vitamin Bc is 0.1 and 0.2 mg.
Vitamin B13 (orotic acid) was first isolated from cow colostrum, as evidenced by the name (Greek oros - colostrum). Orotic acid is widely distributed in nature. The functional role of vitamin B13 is the synthesis of pyrimidine nucleosides (thymine, uracil, cytosyl) - structural components DNA and RNA. Orotic acid helps improve liver function and inhibits the adverse effects of steroid hormones.
Vitamin B15 (pangamic acid).
It is believed that pangamic acid is involved in the biosynthesis of mentonine, choline, creatine, and also activates the transfer of oxygen into the body.
Pangamic acid is found in the seed coats of rice and other cereals; a lot of it is found in liver and yeast.
Vitamin PP (nicotinic acid, antipellagritic factor). The disease caused by the lack of this vitamin has been known since ancient times and is called "pellagra", which means "pelle agra" in Italian. rough skin". Accordingly, the vitamin was named - Pellagra prevente - warning pellagra, i.e. PP.
In 1920, I. Goldberg successfully used nicotinic acid to treat a pellagra-like disease in dogs - "black tongue". And in 1937, data were obtained on the successful use of this drug in pellagra in humans.
Vitamin PP exists in two forms: nicotinic acid(I) and nicotinamide (II).
The provitamin of niacin is the amino acid tryptophan.
Vitamin PP is part of the enzymes that are involved in redox reactions: tissue respiration, the breakdown of carbohydrates, fats. The connection between vitamin PP and carbohydrate metabolism was established in the 40s. XX century domestic scientists. Vitamin PP regulates the synthesis of fatty acids and amino acid metabolism.
With beriberi PP, inflammation of the skin is observed - dermatitis, chronic diarrhea, in some cases acquired dementia.
The daily requirement for vitamin PP is about 18-21 mg.
The main sources of this vitamin are vegetables, milk, fish, liver, kidneys, yeast. Corn grains contain a substance that destroys vitamin PP -. That's why long-term use corn, especially in raw form with milky-wax ripeness, is not recommended.
Vitamin C (ascorbic acid, anti-scorbutic vitamin). Scurvy is the name of a disease caused by vitamin C deficiency. Scurvy is a constant companion of sailors and explorers. A serious illness accompanied by bleeding gums, hemorrhages on the body, tooth loss, shortness of breath, impaired cardiac activity, decreased efficiency and sharp decline general resistance of the body.
Back at the end of the 19th century. Professor Pashutin V.V. discovered that scurvy occurs as a result of the absence of a certain factor in plant foods, which was given the name of vitamin C.
The structure of vitamin C was established much later, in the 30s. XX century
Vitamin C is necessary for the synthesis of adrenal hormones - norepinephrine, the formation of dentin, cartilage tissue And. Helps to maintain the resistance (resistance) of the body to infection, is able to neutralize toxins, including microbial origin(diphtheria, dysentery, etc.). Ascorbic acid also involved in DNA synthesis. It should be remembered that vitamin C is incompatible with thyroid hormones, vitamins A and D. In the 20s. of the last century, it was believed that the most effective antiscorbutic agent had onion, garlic and frozen cranberries. It has been proven that the main vitamin carriers of vitamin C are carrots, sorrel, gooseberries, black currants, etc.
Sources of vitamin C can be rose hips, black currants, citrus fruits, vegetables, sauerkraut, fresh vegetables and needles. The prophylactic dose of vitamin C, according to the Committee of the All-Russian Health Organization (WHO), should be 30-50 mg.
Vitamin H (biotin, antiborrheic vitamin) was first isolated from chicken yolk. The biological role of vitamin H is that it is part of the enzymes involved in the synthesis of fatty acids and glucose. Vitamin deficiency of biotin is manifested by growth retardation, dermatitis, seborrhea ( increased secretion fat sebaceous glands skin), baldness (alonecia), muscle diseases(myalgia), loss of appetite, and in rare cases and mental disorders. In humans, vitamin deficiency H is rare, since biotin is synthesized in sufficient quantities by intestinal bacteria.
The daily requirement of an adult for biotin is 150-200 mcg.
Bioflavonoids (vitamin P). In 1936, the Hungarian biochemist Szent-Györd isolated a biologically active substance from lemon peel - zest. This compound had the ability to reduce bleeding of small vessels and strengthen their walls. Subsequently, this substance was called vitamin P (from the Latin permability - permeability). Bioflavonoids include rutin and quercetin.
No cases of vitamin P deficiency have been reported in humans. The reason for this is wide use vitamin P in nature. A large number of bioflavonoids are found in rose hips, black currants, lemons, red peppers, tea, carrots, etc. The theoretical daily dose of vitamin P is 50 mg.

3. Biologically active additives (BAA) to food are natural or identical biologically active substances intended for direct intake or inclusion in food products. In Russia, dietary supplements are officially classified as food products, which is hard to agree with.

Dietary supplements are divided into three main groups:

1. Nutraceuticals- dietary supplements used to specifically change the composition of food. Nutraceuticals should bring the nutrient content of diets to a level that meets the needs this person. Nutraceuticals are additional sources of protein and amino acids, polyunsaturated fatty acids, vitamins, minerals, dietary fiber and other nutrients.

Nutraceuticals make it possible to optimize medical nutrition, since some diets are known to be deficient in many nutrients, and the need for them in diseases may increase. In addition, taking nutraceuticals allows you to influence certain metabolic disorders in a sick person. For example, with the development of osteoporosis in diabetic patients, it is advisable to take dietary supplements containing calcium and vitamin D, with diabetes mellitus that has arisen in patients with chronic pancreatitis, the diet should be supplemented with dietary supplements containing a complex of vitamins and minerals.

Probiotics and prebiotics

From the moment the colossal role of normal intestinal microflora(bifido-, lactobacilli and E. coli) in maintaining human health (recall that beneficial bacteria provide anti-allergic protection, actively participate in the enzymatic process, contribute to normal bowel movement, take part in the immune response and metabolism), a direction has begun to develop drugs and biologically active food supplements (BAA) aimed at maintaining and restoring normal intestinal microflora . This is how pre- and probiotics appeared.

Probiotics are live microorganisms: lactic acid bacteria, often bifidobacteria or lactobacilli, sometimes yeast, which, as the term “probiotics” implies, are normal inhabitants of the intestines of a healthy person.

Probiotic microorganisms that stimulate the development of normal human microflora - bifidobacteria and lactobacilli - are an important component of functional products. This was first established by the Russian scientist I.I. Mechnikov, who was awarded the Nobel Prize for this discovery.

Beneficial microorganisms are activated immune system, protect us from the expansion of pathogenic and opportunistic bacteria, neutralize toxins, remove from the body heavy metals, radionuclides, synthesize vitamins, normalize mineral metabolism.

Probiotic preparations based on these microorganisms are widely used as nutritional supplements, as well as in yogurt and other dairy products. Microorganisms that make up probiotics are not pathogenic, non-toxic, contained in sufficient quantities, and remain viable during passage through the gastrointestinal tract and storage. Probiotics don't count medicines and are considered as means that have a beneficial effect on the health of people.

Probiotics can be included in the diet as dietary supplements in the form of lyophilized powders containing bifidobacteria, lactobacilli and their combinations, are used without a doctor's prescription to restore intestinal microbiocenosis, to maintain good health, therefore, permission for the production and use of probiotics as dietary supplements is not required .

Determined that In addition to probiotics, prebiotics are also necessary to maintain normal microflora. They serve as food for microorganisms "friendly" to the human body. The mechanism of probiotic action is based on the fact that the human microflora is represented in the intestine by bifidobacteria, and they produce enzymes such as hydrolases. These enzymes break down prebiotics, and the energy thus obtained is used by bifidobacteria for growth and reproduction. In addition, organic acids are formed in this process. They reduce the acidity of the environment and thereby prevent the development of pathogenic microorganisms that do not have enzymes for processing prebiotics. The latter stimulate and activate the metabolic reactions of beneficial representatives of the human microflora.

Prebiotics are non-digestible food ingredients that promote health by selectively stimulating the growth and/or metabolic activity of one or more groups of bacteria found in the colon. For a food component to be classified as a prebiotic, it must not undergo hydrolysis digestive enzymes human, should not be absorbed in the upper parts of the digestive tract, but should lead to normalization of the ratio of microorganisms populating the large intestine.

Food ingredients that meet these requirements are low molecular weight carbohydrates. The properties of prebiotics are most pronounced in fructose-oligosaccharides (FOS), inulin, galacto-oligosaccharides (GOS), lactulose, lactitol. Prebiotics are found in dairy products, corn flakes, cereals, bread, onions, field chicory, garlic, beans, peas, artichoke, asparagus, bananas, etc. On average, up to 10% of incoming energy and 20% of the volume of food taken are spent on the vital activity of the human intestinal microflora.

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Digestive system diseases In terms of prevalence and loss of ability to work in the population, they occupy one of the first places in the overall structure of morbidity. In epidemiological studies of M. Siurala, performed using gastroscopy and with a morphological assessment of the condition of the gastric mucosa, it was shown that chronic gastritis About half the population is sick. According to X. M. Pärn, the prevalence of chronic gastritis among the population of Tallinn was 37.3%. G. Wolff discovered chronic gastritis in 77% of those examined.

Among diseases of the digestive system, chronic gastritis and stomach ulcers predominate. The high prevalence of these diseases is determined primarily by their polyetiology. From etiological factors factors causing damage to the digestive system play an important role external environment. Eating disorders are important. A change in the nature of nutrition causes a restructuring of the digestive tract, primarily secretory-motor disorders. In addition, the development of digestive diseases is influenced by long-term alcohol intake and smoking abuse. At chronic alcoholism suppression of gastric and pancreatic secretion is detected, endoscopic examinations indicate the development of varying degrees of severity of chronic gastritis (from superficial to atrophic). Nicotine also causes significant changes in the secretory process and is an irritant of the neuro-glandular apparatus of the stomach. A significant role in the etiology of chronic gastritis is given to insufficient digestion of food, eating dry food, and taking excessively hot food. The role of nervous regulation disorders in the pathogenesis is also well known. chronic diseases gastrointestinal tract. Experimental and clinical researches clearly showed the leading role of violations of the central regulation in the development of gastritis and gastric ulcer.

Along with the indicated adverse effects on the digestive organs, factors associated with the professional activity of a person also have a significant impact. Back in the 1930s, it was noted that workers exposed to high temperature and heavy physical exertion, dyspeptic disorders are common and there is a high prevalence of diseases of the digestive system. Observations recent years showed that in the conditions of modern production, workers of "hot" shops are characterized by disorders of the functional state of the digestive tract. Under the influence of high external temperature, inhibition of secretion and motility of the gastrointestinal tract occurs. The mechanism of disruption of the functioning of the digestive organs under conditions of exposure to external high temperatures is complex. Apparently, the leading link is reflex inhibition of the food center and, in connection with this, a decrease in effector impulses vagus nerves. At the same time, there is a decrease in the reactivity of the secretory apparatus itself. Dehydration of the body and disorders also play an important role. water-salt metabolism, it is possible bad influence on the mucous membrane of the digestive tract of metabolic toxic substances (associated with dehydration). Small to moderate muscle load stimulates the activity of the digestive organs, and excessive muscle activity and significant static tension noticeably inhibit it. It should be borne in mind that in industrial conditions the combined effects of adverse meteorological factors and physical stress are often encountered. The nature of functional changes in the digestive system largely depends on the strength of the influence of each factor and the individual characteristics of the organism.

The influence of a complex of factors associated with the profession was traced by E. A. Lobanova, who studied the prevalence and course of chronic gastritis among geophysicists. The author showed a relatively high prevalence of this disease (39.4%) in the surveyed professional group. The frequency of chronic gastritis increased with increasing work experience; in its origin among geophysicists, factors that reflected certain features of the work and life of this professional group of people were important: irregular nutrition, maximum food intake during dinner, eating hot food only once a day, etc.

The role of occupational chemical factors in the etiology of chronic gastritis is recognized by many authors. R. A. Luria emphasized the harmful effects of cast iron, coal, cotton, silicate dust, alkali vapors and acids on the gastric mucosa. This is evidenced by epidemiological observations in various industries.

Among oil industry workers, G. M. Mukhamedova discovered an increase in the prevalence of chronic gastritis with increasing work experience. Among workers in the copper industry, the number of patients with stomach diseases is 4.8 times higher than in the group of people who had no contact with occupational hazards.

R. D. Gabovich and V. A. Murashko, studying the incidence of illness with temporary disability at the Kiev chemical fiber plant, showed that among workers who have industrial contact with carbon disulfide in concentrations close to the maximum permissible concentration, the incidence of chronic gastritis, enteritis, non-infectious colitis etiology is 2.4 times higher than that of workers of the same production who do not come into contact with carbon disulfide.

A group of authors has shown the influence of synthetic chemical products (production of press powders of pheno- and aminoplasts) and individual chemical substances(nitro derivatives of toluene) on the prevalence and course of diseases of the gastrointestinal tract.

E. P. Krasnyuk found a high prevalence of chronic gastritis in various professional groups of industrial and agricultural workers who had industrial contact with various chemicals. The author summarized the results medical examinations more than 12,000 workers. Chronic gastritis was diagnosed in 26% of persons who had contact with caprolactam, in 21% - in contact with carbon disulfide, in 17.9% - working with organochlorine compounds and only 6.5% in the control group. Among the workers of open-hearth shops exposed to a number of adverse production factors (increased dustiness, gas contamination air environment working area, heating microclimate), chronic gastritis was found in 13.5% of cases. Confirmation of the role of adverse production factors in the genesis of the identified pathology of the digestive system is the increase in its frequency in parallel with the increase in length of service in the relevant profession, as well as the intensity of the impact of production factors.

Increased incidence of chronic gastritis workers who had industrial contact with benzene, its homologues and other organic solvents, is shown in the work of V. I. Kazlitin. On the morbidity level of workers with short experience bad influence mainly factors such as the quality and diet, work organization, bad habits (smoking, drinking alcohol). For workers with long production experience and prolonged exposure to chemicals, the leading factor was the production factor.

Of the physical factors, the effect of ionizing radiation on the digestive system has been most thoroughly studied. As is known, in chronic radiation sickness, predominantly functional disorders are observed on the part of the nervous and cardiovascular systems. In response, the gastrointestinal tract to irradiation is characterized by a gradual decrease in the secretory function of the gastric glands. These deviations are well compensated and may not be accompanied by subjective disorders for a long time. As the overall pathological process unstable violations of secretory-motor activity are replaced by more persistent and regular inhibition of secretion. The main clinical symptomatology in patients with chronic radiation sickness is due to the syndrome of neurocirculatory dystonia. In patients with chronic radiation sickness, the development of chronic atrophic changes in the gastric mucosa may be the result of long-term functional disorders of the nervous and cardiovascular systems, leading to a decrease in the activity of gastric blood flow. E. A. Lobanova noted in chronic radiation sickness the development atrophic gastritis, the course of which was characterized by oligosymptomatic or latent character.

Much attention of hygienists and occupational pathologists is attracted by the study of the adverse effects of vibration on the body. Comprehensive clinical and statistical observations have revealed the influence of vibration on the development of certain diseases of the digestive system. In particular, the incidence rates of temporary disability from chronic gastritis, gastric ulcers, diseases of the liver and biliary tract in workers exposed to local vibration (metal choppers) are higher than in workers who do not have industrial contact with vibration. Choppers are much more likely than machine operators to experience exacerbations of gastric ulcers. In patients with vibration disease, combined functional disorders of the stomach, pancreas and liver were found relatively more often (in 62% of cases).

The results of aspiration gastrobiopsy performed in patients with vibration disease, in most cases, indicate the absence morphological changes gastric mucosa, signs of “ superficial gastritis» and only a small number of cases are diagnosed atrophic forms gastritis. These patients exhibit pathological changes in the exocrine function of the pancreas, which are characterized by dissociation of enzyme activity in the duodenal contents and the phenomenon of “evasion” of pancreatic enzymes into the bloodstream. Moderate disturbances of a number of liver functions (protein-forming, carbohydrate) and movement disorders gallbladder (dyskinesia). The latter in most cases are of a vaguely expressed nature.

Mainly functional changes in the activity of the digestive organs in patients vibration disease allow us to recognize the leading factors in the pathogenesis of these changes as disturbances of neuro-reflex regulation against the background of general vegetative dystonia in the form of vegetative-vascular disorders, changes in regional hemodynamics with the development of hypoxia.

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Without looking up from my studies, I rattled off theses about nutritional factors:

Influence nutritional factors on gastric secretion.

Strong stimulants of gastric juice secretion are meat, fish, and mushroom broths containing extractive substances; fried meat and fish; coagulated egg white; black bread and other products containing fiber; spices; alcohol in small quantities, alkaline mineral waters consumed with meals, etc.

Boiled meat and fish moderately stimulate secretion; salted and fermented foods; White bread; cottage cheese; coffee, milk, carbonated drinks, etc.

Weak pathogens - pureed and blanched vegetables, diluted vegetable, fruit and berry juices; fresh white bread, water, etc.
Gastric secretion is inhibited by fats, alkaline mineral waters taken 60-90 minutes before meals, undiluted vegetable, fruit and berry juices, unattractive food, unpleasant odors and tastes, unaesthetic surroundings, monotonous food, negative emotions, overwork, overheating, hypothermia, etc.

The length of time food remains in the stomach depends on its composition, the nature of technological processing and other factors. So, 2 soft-boiled eggs stay in the stomach for 1-2 hours, and hard-boiled eggs stay in the stomach for 6-8 hours. Fat-rich foods stay in the stomach for up to 8 hours, for example sprats. Hot food leaves the stomach faster than cold food. A typical meat lunch stays in the stomach for about 5 hours.

Digestive disorders in the stomach occur with systematic errors in diet, eating dry food, frequent intake of coarse and poorly chewed food, rare meals, hasty eating, consumption of strong alcoholic drinks, smoking, deficiency of vitamins A, C, gr. B. Large amounts of food eaten at one time cause stretching of the stomach walls, increased load on the heart, which adversely affects well-being and health. The damaged mucous membrane is exposed to proteolytic enzymes and hydrochloric acid of gastric juice, which leads to gastritis (inflammation) and stomach ulcers.

The influence of dietary factors on the functioning of the pancreas.
Stimulate digestive function pancreas food acids, cabbage, onion, diluted vegetable juices, fats, fatty acids, water, small doses of alcohol, etc.

Inhibit pancreatic secretion - alkaline mineral salts, whey, etc.

Bile salts keep water-insoluble cholesterol in the bile in a dissolved state. With a lack of bile acids, cholesterol precipitates, which leads to the formation of stones in biliary tract and development of gallstone disease. In case of violation of the outflow of bile into the intestines (stones, inflammation), part of the bile from the bile ducts enters the blood, which causes a yellow color of the skin, mucous membranes and whites of the eyes (jaundice).

Influence of nutritional factors on bile secretion.

Stimulate the production of bile - organic acids, extractive substances of meat and fish. Increases the excretion of bile into the duodenum vegetable oils, meat, milk, egg yolks, fiber, xylitol, sorbitol, warm food, magnesium salts, some mineral waters (Slavyanovskaya, Essentuki, Berezovskaya, etc.). Cold food causes spasm (narrowing) of the bile ducts.

An unfavorable effect on bile secretion and pancreatic secretion is exerted by excessive consumption of animal fats, proteins, salt, essential oils, as well as fast food and prolonged eating disorders.

Influence of nutritional factors on the activity of the small intestine.
Motor and secretory function small intestines increases rough, dense food rich in dietary fiber. Dietary acids, carbonic acid, alkaline salts, lactose, vitamin B1 (thiamine), choline, spices, hydrolysis products of nutrients, especially fats (fatty acids).

Factors affecting the condition of the large intestine.

The functions of the large intestine are directly dependent on the nature of a person's work, age, composition of food consumed, etc. Thus, in mental workers who lead a sedentary lifestyle and are prone to physical inactivity, the motor function of the intestine decreases. With increasing age, the activity of the motor, secretory, and other functions of the large intestine also decreases. Therefore, when organizing the nutrition of these population groups, it is necessary to include “food irritants” that have a laxative effect (wholemeal bread, bran, vegetables and fruits, except for astringents, prunes, cold vegetable juices, mineral waters, compote, lactic acid drinks, vegetable oil, sorbitol, xylitol, etc.).

Weaken intestinal motility (have a fixing effect) hot dishes, flour products (pies, pancakes, fresh bread, pasta, soft-boiled eggs, cottage cheese, rice and semolina porridge, strong tea, cocoa, chocolate, blueberries, etc.).

Reduce motor and excretory function large intestine refined carbohydrates. An overload of the diet with meat products increases the processes of decay, an excess of carbohydrates enhances fermentation.

Dietary fiber deficiency and intestinal dysbiosis are risk factors for carcinogenesis

The small intestine is divided into three sections: duodenum (duodenum), jejunum (jejunum) And ileum (ileum).

Duodenum represents the initial section of the small intestine, has the shape of a horseshoe, length 25-27 cm.

Food coming from the stomach in the duodenum is exposed to pancreatic juice, bile and intestinal juice, As a result, the final products of digestion are easily absorbed into the blood. The active effect of juices manifests itself in an alkaline environment. Pancreatic juice is produced by the pancreas, bile - by the liver, intestinal juice - by many small glands present in the mucous membrane of the intestinal wall.

Pancreas (pancreas) - a complex gland located behind the stomach, 12-15 cm long. It has intra- and exocrine functions.

Intrasecretory function- hormone production insulin and g lucagon directly into the blood, regulating carbohydrate metabolism.

Exocrine function - products pancreatic juice, entering through the excretory duct into the duodenum.

Pancreatic (pancreatic) juice- colorless transparent liquid of alkaline reaction (pH 7.8-8.4) due to the presence of sodium bicarbonate. About 1 liter is produced per day. pancreatic juice. It contains enzymes that digest proteins, fats and carbohydrates to final products suitable for absorption and assimilation by body cells. Enzymes that digest proteins ( trypsin And chymotrypsin) act, unlike pepsin, in an alkaline environment and break down proteins into amino acids. The juice contains lipase, which carries out the main digestion of fats to glycerol and fatty acids; amylase, lactase And maltase, breaking down carbohydrates into monosaccharides; nucleases cleaving nucleic acids.

Pancreatic juice begins to be released 2-3 minutes after the start of a meal. Irritation of food receptors in the oral cavity reflex excites the pancreas. Further separation of the juice is provided by irritation of the mucous membrane of the duodenum with food gruel, hydrochloric acid gastric juice and active hormones formed in the mucous membrane itself secretin And pancreozymin.

Stimulate digestive function of the pancreas food acids, cabbage, onions, diluted vegetable juices, fats, fatty acids, water, small doses of alcohol, etc.

Braking pancreatic secretion - alkaline mineral salts, whey, etc.

Liver (hepar) - a large glandular organ weighing about 1.5 kg, located in the right hypochondrium. The liver is involved in digestion, glycogen deposition, neutralization of toxic substances, synthesizes proteins fibrinogen and prothrombin, participates in blood clotting, metabolism of proteins, fats, carbohydrates, vitamins, minerals, hormones, etc., i.e. is a multifunctional element of homeostasis.

Liver cells continuously produce bile, which enters the duodenum through a system of ducts only during digestion. When digestion stops, bile is collected in the gallbladder, which holds 40-70 ml of bile. Here it is concentrated 7-8 times as a result of water absorption. 500–1200 ml of bile is produced per day.

Bile consists of 90% water and 10% organic and inorganic substances (bile pigments, bile acids, cholesterol, lecithin, fats, mucin, etc.). The color of liver bile is golden yellow, bladder bile is yellow-brown.

The importance of bile in digestion mainly related to bile acids and is as follows:

bile activates enzymes, especially lipase pancreatic and intestinal juices, which in the presence of bile acts 15-20 times faster;

emulsifies fats, i.e. under its influence, fat is crushed into small particles, which increases the area of ​​interaction with enzymes;

promotes the dissolution of fatty acids and their absorption;

neutralizes the acidic reaction of food gruel coming from the stomach;

ensures the absorption of fat-soluble vitamins, calcium, iron and magnesium;

reinforces motor function intestines;

has bactericidal properties, inhibits putrefactive processes in the intestines.

Bile salts keep water-insoluble cholesterol in the bile in a dissolved state. With a lack of bile acids, cholesterol precipitates, which leads to the formation of stones in the bile ducts and the formation cholelithiasis. If the outflow of bile into the intestines is disrupted (stones, inflammation), part of the bile from the bile ducts enters the blood, which causes a yellow coloration of the skin, mucous membranes and whites of the eyes (jaundice).

The process of bile formation intensifies reflexively in the presence of food in the stomach and duodenum, as well as by certain substances (secretin, bile acids) acting on liver cells.

brakes bile secretion cold, overheating of the body, hypoxia, fasting, hormones (glucagon, etc.).

The influence of dietary factors on bile secretion .

Stimulate the production of bile - organic acids, extractive substances of meat and fish. Vegetable oils, meat, milk, egg yolks, fiber, xylitol, sorbitol, warm food, magnesium salts, some mineral waters (Slavyanovskaya, Essentuki, Berezovskaya, etc.) increase the excretion of bile into the duodenum. Cold food causes spasm (narrowing) of the bile ducts.

Excessive consumption of animal fats, proteins, table salt, essential oils, as well as fast food and long-term dietary disturbances have an adverse effect on bile secretion and pancreatic secretion.

Jejunum and ileum

The jejunum is about 2/5 the length and the ileum is about 3/5 the length of the small intestine. The following physiological functions are carried out in these sections: secretion of intestinal juice, mixing and movement of chyme, breakdown and active absorption of digestion products, water and salts.

intestinal juice produced by many intestinal glands, embedded in the folds of the mucous membrane, only under the influence of mechanical and chemical stimuli at the location of the food mass. About 2.5 liters of intestinal juice are released per day. It is an opaque, colorless, opalescent alkaline liquid. Comprises liquid And dense parts. Dense part represents glandular cells of the intestinal mucosa that have accumulated enzymes and are rejected into its lumen. As they disintegrate, they release enzymes into the surrounding liquid. Intestinal juice contains 22 enzymes. The main ones are: enterokinase, pancreatic juice trypsinogen activator, peptidases, cleaving polypeptides, lipase and amylase(in a small concentration ), alkaline phosphatase and sucrase (alpha-glucosidase), an enzyme not found anywhere else.

Small bowel movement carried out due to the contraction of longitudinal and circular muscles. There are two types of movements: pendulum-like and peristaltic, which mix and move food towards the large intestine.

Pendulum-like movements provide mixing of food due to alternate contraction and relaxation of longitudinal and circular muscles in a short section of the intestine.

Peristaltic or vermiform movement provides a slow wave-like movement of chyme to the large intestine as a result of contraction of the circular muscles of one section of the intestine while expanding the lower section.

In the small intestine, the process of processing food substances, which began in the stomach and duodenum, ends. Enzymes in the intestinal juice of the small intestine provide the final breakdown of nutrients.

The process of digestion in the small intestine is carried out in the form of cavity and parietal digestion.

Cavity digestion characterized by the fact that the enzymes of intestinal juice in free form enter the food mass, break down nutrients into simple ones and are transported through the intestinal epithelium into the blood.

Parietal (membrane) digestion discovered by academician A.M. Coal in the 60s of the twentieth century and is due to the structure of the mucous membrane of the small intestine, which forms many folds. In the folds there are protrusions of the mucous membrane called villi. The height of the villi is 0.5-1.5 mm; there are 18-40 villi per 1 mm2. In the center of each villi there is a lymphatic capillary, blood vessel and nerve endings. From above, the villus is covered with a layer of cylindrical epithelial cells, the outer side of which faces the intestinal lumen and has a border formed by filamentous outgrowths - microvilli. The outer side of this marginal epithelium is a semi-permeable biological membrane on which enzymes are adsorbed and the processes of digestion and absorption occur. The presence of microvilli increases the absorption area to 500-1000 m2.

The initial stages of digestion occur exclusively in the cavity of the small intestine. Small molecules formed as a result of cavity hydrolysis enter the villi membranes, where digestive enzymes act. Due to membrane hydrolysis, monomeric compounds are formed, which are absorbed into the blood and lymph. The products of fat processing enter the lymph, and amino acids and simple carbohydrates enter the blood.

Absorption is also facilitated by contraction of the villi. The walls of the villi contain smooth muscles, which, when contracting, squeeze the contents of the lymphatic capillary into a larger lymphatic vessel. The movements of the villi are caused by the breakdown products of nutrients - bile acids, glucose, peptones, and some amino acids.

The influence of dietary factors on the activity of the small intestine.

The motor and secretory function of the small intestines is enhanced by coarse, dense foods rich in dietary fiber. Food acids, carbon dioxide, alkaline salts, lactose, vitamin B1 (thiamine), choline, spices, hydrolysis products of nutrients, especially fats (fatty acids), have a similar effect.

Colon. Processes taking place in the TC. Factors affecting the condition of the large intestine.

The large intestine is located between the small intestine and anus. It begins with the cecum, which has a vermiform appendix, then continues into the colon (ascending, transverse, descending), then into the sigmoid colon and ends with the rectum. total length The large intestine is 1.5-2 m, width in the upper sections is 7 cm, in the lower sections about 4 cm. The small intestine is separated from the large intestine by a valve that allows food mass to pass only in the direction of the large intestine. Three longitudinal muscle bands run along the wall of the colon, tightening it and forming swellings (haustra).

The mucous membrane of the large intestine has semilunar folds and no villi. The mucosa contains intestinal glands that secrete intestinal juice. The juice is alkaline, contains a large amount of mucus, and there are practically no enzymes.

Food enters the large intestine almost completely digested, with the exception of fiber and very small amounts of proteins, fats and carbohydrates.

In the large intestine, water is predominantly absorbed (about 0.5 liters per day), the absorption of nutrients is insignificant.

Colon rich in microorganisms(more than 260 types of microbes). In 1 g of intestinal contents there are 10 9 -10 11 microbial cells. About 30% of the dry mass of feces is microbes; an adult excretes about 17 trillion microorganisms in excrement per day. Numerically, anaerobes (bifidobacteria, bacteroides, etc.) predominate - 96-99%, facultative anaerobic microorganisms make up 1-4% (including coliform bacteria).

Under the influence of intestinal microflora, fiber is broken down, which reaches the large intestine unchanged. As a result of fermentation, fiber is broken down into simple carbohydrates and partially absorbed into the blood. A person digests an average of 30-50% of the fiber contained in food.

Putrefactive bacteria present in the large intestine form toxic substances from protein breakdown products: indole, skatole, phenol etc., which enter the blood and are neutralized in the liver (detoxification). Therefore, excessive protein consumption, as well as irregular bowel movements, can cause self-poisoning of the body.

The microflora of the large intestine is capable of synthesizing a number vitamins(endogenous synthesis) groups B, K (phylloquinone), nicotinic, pantothenic and folic acids.

Relatively recently it has been proven that microflora supplies the body with additional energy(6-9%) due to the absorption of volatile fatty acids formed during the fermentation of fiber.

In addition, intestinal lactobacilli and bifidobacteria form bactericidal substances(acids, alcohols, lysozyme), as well as prevents carcinogenesis(antitumor activity).

The motor function of the large intestine is carried out thanks to the smooth muscles of the intestinal wall. The movements are slow, because muscles are poorly developed. Are being carried out pendulum-shaped, peristaltic And antiperistaltic movements, as a result of which the food is mixed, compacted, and glued together by the mucus of the intestinal juice, resulting in the formation of feces that are evacuated through the rectum. Emptying the rectum (defecation) is a reflex act under the influence of the cerebral cortex.

In general, the entire process of digestion in humans lasts 24-48 hours. Moreover, half of this time occurs in the large intestine, where the digestion process ends.

With a conventional mixed diet, approximately 10% of the food taken is not digested.

Factors affecting the condition of the large intestine .

The functions of the large intestine are directly dependent on the nature of a person’s work, age, composition of food consumed, etc. Thus, in people with mental work who lead a sedentary lifestyle and are subject to physical inactivity, intestinal motor function decreases. With increasing age, the activity of motor, secretory and other functions of the large intestine also decreases. Consequently, when organizing nutrition for these population groups, it is necessary to include “food irritants” that have laxative effect(wholemeal bread, bran, vegetables and fruits, except astringents, prunes, cold vegetable juices, mineral waters, compote, lactic acid drinks, vegetable oil, sorbitol, xylitol, etc.).

Weaken intestinal motility fixing action) hot dishes, flour products (pies, pancakes, fresh bread, pasta, soft-boiled eggs, cottage cheese, rice and semolina porridge, strong tea, cocoa, chocolate, blueberries, etc.).

Refined carbohydrates reduce the motor and excretory functions of the large intestine. Overloading the diet with meat products increases the processes of decay, and excess carbohydrates enhances fermentation.

Deficiency in dietary fiber and dysbiosis intestines are a risk factor for carcinogenesis.

The main question to be answered before talking about healthy eating: Is fermentation and putrefaction in the intestines a normal process? Separate food (table) denies this. Describing the peculiarities of human digestion, the physiologist Howell wrote that the rotting of proteins in the large intestine occurs constantly and this is a variant of the norm.

This raises the question: if fermentation is an inevitable fact, then does the body need it for normal digestion of food? The generally accepted point of view says that although putrefactive bacteria are not beneficial to humans, their body has the ability to adapt and eliminates their harmful effects.

Then another question arises: is it possible to create such a situation so that there is no fermentation and putrefaction in the intestines? Wouldn't it be more natural for digestion?

The effect of malnutrition on the human body

According to research results, bacteria that arise as a result of the decay process break down proteins and form toxic substances to varying degrees:

• hydrogen sulfide;
• phenylacetic acid;
• indolylacetic acid;
• carbon dioxide and so on.

These substances are excreted from the body with faeces and urine.

It is strange to believe that the process of formation of toxic substances is normal and necessary for the natural and daily functioning of the digestive tract. Most physiologists have called this widespread phenomenon normal within the framework modern life civilized person. According to Howell, bacterial activity that goes beyond the permissible limit leads to such unpleasant problems as diarrhea or constipation, and serious illnesses are also possible.

True, he was unable to unambiguously answer what constitutes excessive bacterial activity. By the way, another specialist in the field of physiology - I.I. Mechnikov - experimentally established that decay products cause atherosclerosis of blood vessels and early aging the whole body. In this regard, he proposed introducing fermented milk products into the diet. Diet, separate nutrition, compatibility table - these are ways to establish normal process digestion of food.

The rotting of proteins in the body of a civilized person produces what is considered natural and accompanies him throughout life:

• feces that have an unpleasant odor;
• diarrhea;
• difficulty with bowel movements, constipation;
• bloating;
• colitis;
• haemorrhoids;
• and even the need for toilet paper.

And it seems incredible that there could be people in this world whose stool does not have an unpleasant odor and who do not know what gas is. And that there is an opportunity to experience it yourself, following the advice contained in the detailed table separate power supply. Proponents of this theory argue that after a period of six months to a year, following a separate diet, you can also notice accompanying improvements, for example, a cessation of the development of caries, unusual whiteness of teeth. A fundamental change in the principles of nutrition changes the consequences of digestion, and many physiologists do not take this into account.

How to get nutrients from food?

For an adequate existence and natural flow processes in the body, blood are necessary:

• water and glycerin;
• amino acids and salts;
• fatty acid;
• vitamins and minerals;
• monosaccharides.

Substances that enter it due to poor nutrition:

• alcohol;
• acetic acid;
• hydrogen sulfide.

In general, you need everything that is not poisonous.

During the digestion process, starch from food is separated into simple sugars, in other words, monosaccharides. They only provide benefits and are absorbed by the body. If these same substances undergo fermentation, then the formation of carbon dioxide, alcohol, acetic acid and water occurs. All of these, except water, are toxins.

If proteins supplied with food are digested, the body receives amino acids, which are undoubtedly very important for a full existence. When they rot, only toxic substances appear.

And this happens with all components of nutrition. Digestion produces nutrients, and fermentation produces poisons.

Hence the conclusion, is there any benefit in consuming enough calories from food if they are not digested, but rot? It’s hard not to understand that this will not give a person any benefit! And in order for food to be digested, you need to always have a table of separate food products at hand. Thus, the substances will be fully digested and absorbed by the body.

Certainly, human body can cope with toxins that arise in it during fermentation of foods. And this happens regularly when they are excreted in urine and feces. But why load digestive system work, without which it will function more profitably.

Factors affecting digestion

Which looks more natural: fresh breath, stool is odorless and lacks the release of gases or is unpleasant and Strong smell breath, bloating and rotten-smelling stool? If the second situation can be avoided, then why do it in such a way as to poison your body with toxins that appear due to poor nutrition? After all, it is clear that excessive activity of harmful bacteria has a negative impact on well-being. What will happen if its influence lasts for a long time?

So, the situation is clear: since it is possible to avoid a negative reaction to the process associated with the digestion of food, then this should be taken advantage of. Here it is worth considering factors that will worsen the process of food processing in the stomach and intestines:

• binge eating;
• eating food when very tired;
• eating too soon before starting work;
• food at feverish state or, conversely, when frozen;
• eating during pain and when there is no appetite;
• in a state of strong emotional shocks, such as anxiety, fear, concern, anger, etc.

All these conditions create favorable conditions for the decomposition of food that has been consumed.

But these are all indirect reasons that affect the absorption of food. The main and main source of the problem is the incorrect selection of food products that are consumed at a time. We will help you how to eat food correctly can be a table - the basis of separate nutrition. To put an end to an eating disorder, if it is caused precisely by irrational nutrition, you can adjust the diet in accordance with separate meals. In the case when the disorder is caused by other reasons, then the establishment of nutrition will be a good basis for the treatment of the disease.

Every year people spend a lot of money on medicines that provide temporary relief, but do not eliminate the very phenomenon of indigestion. These drugs eliminate the symptoms, but do not eliminate the problem. They neutralize acidity, reduce bloating, relieve abdominal pain, and even relieve headache, which appeared due to stomach irritation.

But is it natural? It is necessary not to relieve the symptoms, but to eradicate the problem, which lies in the unreasonable combination of foods. And then the signs of a healthy body will be lightness and comfort, and not an upset in the stomach. The proper process of digesting food should not have symptoms of disease.