Features of mental development in children of primary school age with behavioral disorders. With this behavioral disorder, children are ready to unquestioningly obey adults and peers, blindly follow them contrary to their ideas and common sense.

HYPERACTIVE BEHAVIOR

Perhaps, the hyperactive behavior of children, like no other, causes criticism and complaints from educators, teachers, and parents.

Such children have an increased need for movement. When this need is blocked by rules of conduct, norms of school routine (i.e. in situations in which it is necessary to control and voluntarily regulate one’s motor activity), the child’s muscle tension increases, attention deteriorates, performance decreases, and fatigue sets in. Following this emotional release is a protective physiological reaction of the body to excessive overexertion and is expressed in uncontrolled motor restlessness, disinhibition, qualified as disciplinary offenses.

The main signs of a hyperactive child are motor activity, impulsiveness, distractibility, and inattention. The child makes restless movements with his hands and feet; sitting on a chair, writhing, squirming; easily distracted by extraneous stimuli; has difficulty waiting his turn during games, classes, and other situations; answers questions without thinking, without listening to the end; has difficulty maintaining attention when completing tasks or playing games; often moves from one unfinished action to another; cannot play calmly, often interferes with the games and activities of other children.

A hyperactive child begins to complete a task without listening to the instructions to the end, but after a while it turns out that he does not know what to do. Then he either continues aimless actions, or annoyingly asks again what and how to do. Several times during the task he changes the goal, and in some cases he may even forget about it. Often distracted while working; does not use the proposed tools, therefore he makes many mistakes that he does not see and does not correct.

A child with hyperactive behavior is constantly on the move, no matter what he is doing. Each element of his movement is fast and active, but in general there are a lot of unnecessary, even obsessive movements. Often children with hyperactive behavior have insufficiently clear spatial coordination of movements. The child does not seem to “fit” into the space (he touches objects, bumps into corners, walls). Despite the fact that many of these children have bright facial expressions, moving eyes, and fast speech, they often find themselves outside the situation (lesson, game, communication), and after some time they “return” to it again. The effectiveness of “splashing” activity with hyperactive behavior is not always high; often what is started is not completed, the child jumps from one task to another.

A child with hyperactive behavior is impulsive, and it is impossible to predict what he will do next. The child himself does not know this. He acts without thinking about the consequences, although he does not plan anything bad and is sincerely upset about the incident of which he becomes the culprit. Such a child easily endures punishment, does not hold a grudge, constantly quarrels with his peers and immediately makes peace. This is the noisiest child in the children's group.

Children with hyperactive behavior find it difficult to adapt to school and have difficulty entering children's group, often have problems in relationships with peers. The maladaptive features of the behavior of such children indicate insufficiently formed regulatory mechanisms of the psyche, primarily self-control as the most important condition and a necessary link in the development of voluntary behavior.

DEMONSTRATIVE BEHAVIOR

When demonstrative behavior occurs intentional and conscious violation of accepted norms and rules of behavior. Internally and externally, such behavior is addressed to adults.

One of the options for demonstrative behavior is childish antics. Two of its features can be distinguished. Firstly, the child grimaces only in the presence of adults (teachers, caregivers, parents) and only when they pay attention to him. Secondly, when adults show a child that they do not approve of his behavior, the antics not only decrease, but even intensify. As a result, a special communicative act unfolds in which the child, in non-verbal language (through actions), tells adults: “I’m doing something that you don’t like.” Similar content is sometimes expressed directly in words, for example, many children from time to time declare: “I am bad.”

What prompts a child to use demonstrative behavior as a special way of communication?

Often this is a way to attract the attention of adults. Children make this choice in cases where parents communicate with them little or formally (the child does not receive the love, affection, and warmth he needs in the process of communication), and also if they communicate exclusively in situations where the child behaves badly and should be scolded , punish. Lacking acceptable forms of contact with adults (joint reading, work, play, sports activities), the child uses a paradoxical, but only form available to him - a demonstrative prank, which is immediately followed by punishment. “Communication” took place.

But this is not the only reason. If all cases of antics were explained this way, then this phenomenon should not exist in families where parents communicate quite a lot with their children. However, it is known that in such families children act no less. In this case, antics, self-denigration of the child “I’m bad” is a way to get out from under the power of adults, not to submit to their norms and not to give them the opportunity to condemn (since condemnation - self-condemnation - has already taken place). Such demonstrative behavior is predominantly common in families (groups, classes) with an authoritarian parenting style, authoritarian parents, educators, teachers, where children are constantly condemned.

Demonstrative behavior can also arise from the exact opposite desire of the child - to be as good as possible. In anticipation of attention from surrounding adults, the child is focused on specifically demonstrating his merits, his “good quality.”

One of the options for demonstrative behavior is whims - crying for no particular reason, unreasonable willful antics in order to assert oneself, attract attention, and “get the upper hand” over adults. Whims are accompanied by external manifestations of irritation: motor agitation, rolling on the floor, throwing toys and things.

Episodic moodiness can occur as a result of overwork, overexcitement nervous system child strong and diverse

significant impressions, as well as as a sign or consequence of the onset of a disease.

From episodic whims, which are largely due to the age characteristics of younger schoolchildren, one should distinguish entrenched whims that have turned into a habitual form of behavior. The main reason for such whims is improper upbringing (spoiling or excessive severity on the part of adults).

PROTEST BEHAVIOR

Forms of protest behavior of children - negativism, obstinacy, stubbornness.

At a certain age, usually at two and a half to three years (the crisis of a three-year-old child), such undesirable changes in the child’s behavior indicate a completely normal, constructive personality formation, a desire for independence, and an exploration of the boundaries of independence. If such manifestations occur in a child, only negative character, this is regarded as a lack of behavior.

Negativism – this is the behavior of a child when he does not want to do something just because he was asked to do it; This is the child’s reaction not to the content of the action, but to the proposal itself, which comes from adults. L.S. Vygotsky emphasized that in negativism, firstly, what comes to the fore is social attitude to another person; secondly, the child no longer acts directly under the influence of his desire, but can act contrary to it.

Typical manifestations Childhood negativism is causeless tears, rudeness, insolence or isolation, alienation, touchiness. “Passive” negativism is expressed in a silent refusal to carry out the instructions and demands of adults. With “active” negativism, children perform actions opposite to those required and strive at all costs to insist on their own. In both cases, children become uncontrollable: neither threats nor requests have any effect on them. They steadfastly refuse to do what they just recently did unquestioningly. The reason for this behavior is often that the child accumulates an emotionally negative attitude towards the demands of adults, which prevents the child from satisfying the child’s need for independence. Thus, negativism is often the result of improper upbringing, a consequence of a child’s protest against violence committed against him.

It is a mistake to confuse negativism with persistence. A child’s persistent desire to achieve a goal, as opposed to negativism, is a positive phenomenon. This is the most important characteristic of voluntary behavior. With negativism, the motive for the child’s behavior is solely the desire to insist on one’s own, and persistence is determined by a genuine interest in achieving the goal.

It is obvious that with the advent of negativism, contact between the child and the adult is disrupted, as a result of which education becomes impossible.

Negativism to a certain extent integrates all other forms of protest behavior, including stubbornness. The reasons for stubbornness are varied. Stubbornness can arise as a result of an insoluble conflict between adults, for example parents, their opposition to each other without concessions, compromises or any changes. As a result, the child becomes so saturated with an atmosphere of stubbornness that he begins to behave in a similar way, without seeing anything wrong with it. Most adults who complain about the stubbornness of children are characterized by an individualistic orientation of interests, fixation on one point of view; Such adults are “grounded” and lack imagination and flexibility. In this case, the stubbornness of children exists only together with the need of adults to achieve unquestioning obedience at any cost.

Often stubbornness is defined as “the spirit of contradiction.” Such stubbornness, as a rule, is accompanied by feelings of guilt and worries about one’s behavior, but despite this, it arises again and again because it is painful. The reason for such stubbornness is a long-term emotional conflict, stress that cannot be resolved by the child on his own.

Negative, pathologically unconscious, blind, senseless stubbornness. Stubbornness is positive and normal if the child is driven by a conscious desire to express his own opinion, a reasonable protest against the infringement of his rights and vital needs. Such stubbornness, or, in other words, the “struggle for personal independence” is mainly characteristic of active, naturally energetic children with a high sense of self-esteem. The ability to behave regardless of circumstances and even in spite of them, guided by one’s own goals, is an important personal trait along with another, opposite to it, the desire to obey circumstances, rules, and act according to a model.

Closely related to negativism and stubbornness is such a form of protest behavior as obstinacy. What distinguishes obstinacy from negativism and stubbornness is that it is impersonal, i.e. directed not so much against a specific leading adult, but against the norms of upbringing, against the way of life imposed on the child.

Thus, the origins of protest behavior are varied.

AGGRESSIVE BEHAVIOR

Aggressive behavior is purposeful destructive behavior. By implementing aggressive behavior, a child contradicts the norms and rules of people’s lives in society, harms “objects of attack” (animate and inanimate), causes physical harm to people and causes them psychological discomfort (negative experiences, a state of mental tension, depression, fear).

A child’s aggressive actions can act as a means of achieving a goal that is meaningful to him; as a way of psychological release, replacement of a blocked, unsatisfied need; as an end in itself, satisfying the need for self-realization and self-affirmation.

Aggressive behavior can be direct, i.e. directly directed at the irritating object or displaced, when the child for some reason cannot direct aggression towards the source of irritation and is looking for a safer object for release. (For example, a child directs aggressive actions not at an older brother who offended him, but at a cat; he does not hit his brother, but torments the cat.) Since outward-directed aggression is condemned, the child can develop a mechanism for directing aggression towards himself (the so-called auto-aggression - self-humiliation, self-accusation).

Physical aggression is expressed in fights with other children, in the destruction of things and objects.

The child tears up books, scatters and breaks toys, throws them at children and adults, breaks necessary things, and sets fire to them. This behavior, as a rule, is provoked by some dramatic event or the need for attention from adults or other children.

Aggression does not necessarily manifest itself in physical actions. Some children are prone to verbal aggression (insulting, teasing, swearing), which often hides an unsatisfied need to feel strong or a desire to get even for their own grievances.

Problems that arise in children as a result of learning play an important role in the occurrence of aggressive behavior. Didactogeny (neurotic disorders that arise during the learning process) is one of the causes of childhood suicide.

A significant determinant of aggressive behavior in children is exposure to drugs. mass media, primarily cinema and television. Systematic viewing of action films, horror films, and other films with scenes of cruelty, violence, and revenge leads to the fact that: children transfer aggressive acts from television screens into real life; emotional sensitivity to violence decreases and the likelihood of developing hostility, suspicion, envy, anxiety - feelings that provoke more aggressive behavior - increases.

Finally, aggressive behavior can arise under the influence of unfavorable external conditions: an authoritarian parenting style, deformation of the value system in family relationships, etc. As with protest behavior, emotional coldness or excessive severity of parents often leads to the accumulation of internal mental stress in children. This tension can be discharged through aggressive behavior.

Another reason for aggressive behavior is disharmonious relationships between parents (quarrels and fights between them), aggressive behavior of parents towards other people. Cruel, unfair punishments are often a model of a child’s aggressive behavior.

The child’s aggressiveness is indicated by the frequency of aggressive manifestations, as well as the intensity and inadequacy of reactions in relation to stimuli. Children who resort to aggressive behavior are usually impulsive, irritable, and quick-tempered; characteristic features their emotional-volitional spheres are anxiety, emotional instability, poor ability to self-control, conflict, and hostility.

It is obvious that aggression as a form of behavior is directly dependent on the entire complex of personal qualities of the child that determine, guide and ensure the implementation of aggressive behavior.

Aggressiveness makes it difficult for children to adapt to living conditions in society and in a team; communication with peers and adults. A child’s aggressive behavior, as a rule, causes a corresponding reaction from others, and this, in turn, leads to increased aggressiveness, i.e. a vicious circle situation arises.

A child with aggressive behavior needs special attention, since sometimes it turns out that he does not even realize how kind and beautiful human relationships can be.

INFANTILE BEHAVIOR

Infantile behavior is spoken of when the child’s behavior retains features characteristic of an earlier age. For example, for an infantile primary school student the leading activity is still play. Often during a lesson such a child, disconnecting from educational process, unbeknownst to himself, begins to play (rolls a car on the desk, arranges soldiers, makes and launches airplanes). Such infantile manifestations of a child are regarded by the teacher as a violation of discipline.

A child who is characterized by infantile behavior, with normal and even accelerated physical and mental development, is characterized by the immaturity of integrative personal formations. This is expressed in the fact that, unlike his peers, he is unable to make a decision on his own, perform any action, feels a sense of insecurity, demands increased attention to one’s own person and the constant concern of others for themselves; he has decreased self-criticism

Infantile behavior, infantilism as a personality trait, if timely help is not provided to the child, can lead to undesirable social consequences. A child with infantile behavior often falls under the influence of peers or older children with antisocial attitudes, and thoughtlessly joins in illegal actions and behavior.

An infantile child is predisposed to caricatured reactions, which are ridiculed by peers, causing them to have an ironic attitude, which causes the child mental pain.

CONFORMAL BEHAVIOR

The types of behavior disorders discussed rightly cause serious concern among adults. However, it is also important not to ignore over-disciplined children. They are ready to unquestioningly obey adults and peers, blindly follow them contrary to their ideas and common sense. The behavior of these children is conformal; it is completely subordinate to external conditions and the demands of other people.

Conformity behavior, like some other behavioral disorders, is largely due to an incorrect, in particular authoritarian or overprotective, parenting style. Children deprived of freedom of choice, independence, initiative, creativity skills (because they have to act according to the instructions of an adult, because adults always do everything for the child), acquire some negative personal characteristics. In particular, they tend to change their self-esteem and value orientations, their interests and motives under the influence of another significant person or group in which they are included.

The psychological basis of conformity is high suggestibility, involuntary imitation, and “contagion.” However, it would be a mistake to define it as conformal natural imitation of adults when mastering the rules of behavior, assessing significant events, and mastering practical skills. The typical and natural desire of a primary school student to “be like everyone else” in the context of educational activities is also not conformal.

There are several reasons for this behavior and desire. Firstly, children master the skills and knowledge required for educational activities. The teacher controls the whole class and encourages everyone to follow the proposed model. Secondly, children learn about the rules of behavior in the classroom and school, which are presented to everyone together and to each individual. Thirdly, in many situations (especially unfamiliar ones) a child cannot independently choose his behavior and in this case is guided by the behavior of other children.

SYMPTOMATIC BEHAVIOR BEHAVIOR

Any behavioral disorder can be a kind of communicative metaphor, with the help of which a child informs adults about his mental pain, his psychological discomfort (for example, aggressive behavior, fights with peers - a kind of replacement for the missing closeness with parents). Such behavior of a child is classified as symptomatic. A symptom is a sign of a disease or some painful phenomenon. As a rule, a child’s symptomatic behavior is a sign of trouble in his family or at school. Symptomatic behavior becomes a coded message when open discussion of problems with adults is not possible. For example, a seven-year-old girl, returning from school during a particularly difficult period of habituation and adaptation for her, scatters books and notebooks around the room, thus eliminating the affect. After a while, she collects them and sits down to her homework.

Symptomatic behavior is a kind of alarm signal that warns that the current situation is further unbearable for the child.

Often, symptomatic behavior should be considered as a way that the child uses to benefit from an unfavorable situation: not to go to school, to attract the attention of the mother.

A child who shows discomfort, weakness, helplessness and expects to be cared for is essentially controlling the one who is caring for him. About this position, L. S. Vygotsky wrote: “Imagine that a child is experiencing a certain weakness. This weakness can become a strength under certain conditions. A child can hide behind his weakness. He is weak and hard of hearing - this reduces his responsibility compared to other people and attracts greater care from other people. And the child begins to unconsciously cultivate the disease in himself, since it gives him the right to demand increased attention to himself.” By making such a “flight into illness,” a child, as a rule, “chooses” exactly that disease, that behavior that will cause the extreme, most severe reaction adults.

Thus, symptomatic behavior is characterized by several signs: behavioral disorders are arbitrary and cannot be controlled by the child; Behavioral disorders have a strong impact on other people, and, finally, such behavior is often “reinforced” by others.

Mental retardation is a violation of the normal pace of mental development, as a result of which a child who has reached school age continues to remain in the circle of preschool and play interests. With mental retardation, children cannot engage in school activities, perceive school assignments and complete them. They behave in the classroom the same way as in a play environment in a kindergarten group or in a family

Younger schoolchildren with mental retardation are characterized by some typical features, as a result of which they become prone to behavioral disorders.

Features of younger schoolchildren with mental retardation are:

1) instability of the emotional-volitional sphere, which manifests itself in the inability to long time concentrate on purposeful activities;

2) infantilism: absence bright emotions, low level of affective-need sphere, increased fatigue;

3) difficulties in establishing communication contacts;

4) emotional disorders: children experience fear, anxiety, and are prone to affective actions.

Thus, younger schoolchildren with mental retardation experience immaturity of the emotional-volitional sphere, which is one of the factors of undeveloped skills of adequate behavior and a low level of control.

The group of primary schoolchildren with mental retardation and behavioral disorders is diverse.

Behavioral disorders are deviations from social and moral norms accepted in a given society. Currently, along with the concept of “conduct disorder,” the concept of “deviant behavior” or deviant is used.

Let's consider the types of behavior disorders in younger schoolchildren with mental retardation:

1. Aggressive behavior.

Aggressive behavior is purposeful destructive behavior. This behavior can be direct, that is, directly directed at the irritating object, or displaced, when the child for some reason cannot direct aggression to the source of irritation and is looking for a safer object for release. For example, a child directs aggressive actions not at his older brother who offended him, but at a cat - he does not hit his brother, but torments the cat. Since outwardly directed aggression is condemned, the child may develop a mechanism for directing aggression towards himself (so-called auto-aggression - self-humiliation, self-blame)

Aggression manifests itself not only in physical actions. Some children are prone to verbal aggression (insulting, teasing, swearing), which often hides an unsatisfied need to feel strong or a desire to get even for their own grievances.

Aggressive behavior can arise under the influence of unfavorable external conditions: an authoritarian parenting style, a deformation of the value system in family relationships. Emotional coldness or excessive severity of parents often leads to the accumulation of internal mental stress in children. This tension can be discharged through aggressive behavior

Another reason for aggressive behavior is disharmonious relationships between parents (quarrels and fights between them), aggressive behavior of parents towards other people. Harsh, unfair punishments cause aggressive behavior in children.

Aggressiveness makes it difficult for children to adapt to living conditions in society and in a team; communication with peers and adults. The child’s aggressive behavior causes a corresponding reaction from others, and this, in turn, leads to increased aggressiveness, i.e., a vicious circle situation arises.

2. Addictive behavior.

It manifests itself in the abuse of one or more psychoactive substances (PAS) without signs of individual mental and physical dependence.

According to research, primary schoolchildren with mental retardation have a tendency to use psychoactive substances: alcohol, tobacco and volatile narcotic substances.

They understand the drug-induced meaning of the situation, actions and substances, but are not sufficiently aware of the consequences of use. Thus, in a group of children with mental retardation, cases of underestimation of the danger of a single test, as well as ignorance or ignorance of the consequences of using psychoactive substances, were identified.

The research results showed that almost half of children with mental retardation have a positive attitude towards alcohol consumption, while for a significant part of the subjects (32%) “a person who drinks wine or vodka” belongs to the category of the most likable, accepted people, 16% belong to drinking man with sympathy, while among normally developing schoolchildren only 12% have a positive attitude towards a drinker

Thus, the behavioral component of the attitude towards the use of psychoactive substances in younger schoolchildren with mental retardation reflects the formation of a program of actions in drug-induced situations to imitate, weakness in the regulation of behavior and a lack of prediction of its consequences.

Consequently, for primary school students with mental retardation, the experience of using psychoactive substances is associated with disturbances in the emotional-volitional sphere, while among their normally developing peers, addictive behavior is associated with a dysfunctional environment (upbringing in the family), as well as severe maladaptation due to a lack of normative behavior and communication difficulties.

3. Hyperactive behavior.

Hyperactivity in children is manifested by inattention, distractibility, and impulsivity that are unusual for normal, age-appropriate child development.

Hyperactivity is usually based on minimal brain dysfunction (MCD).

The first manifestations of hyperactivity can be observed before the age of 7 years.

Most researchers note three main blocks of hyperactivity: attention deficit, impulsivity, and increased excitability.

A hyperdynamic child is impulsive, and no one risks predicting what he will do next. He himself does not know this. He acts without thinking about the consequences, although he does not plan anything bad, and he himself is sincerely upset about the incident of which he becomes the culprit. He easily endures punishment, does not remember insults, does not hold a grudge, constantly quarrels with his peers and immediately makes peace. This is the noisiest child in the group.

The biggest problem of a hyperdynamic child is his distractibility. Having become interested in something, he forgets about the previous one and does not complete a single task. He is curious, but not inquisitive.

Such a child's attention span and concentration are severely affected; he can concentrate on anything for only a few moments; he is extremely distractible; he reacts to any sound or movement in the classroom.

Such children are often irritable, hot-tempered, and emotionally unstable. As a rule, they are characterized by impulsive actions (“first they will do, and then they will think”).

Children with hyperactive behavior have difficulty adapting to school, do not fit into the children's group, and often have problems in relationships with peers.

4. Demonstrative behavior.

With such behavior, there is a deliberate and conscious violation of accepted norms and rules of behavior. Internally and externally, such behavior is addressed to adults.

One of the options for demonstrative behavior is childish antics. You can highlight its features. Firstly, the child makes faces only in the presence of adults (teachers, parents) and only when they pay attention to him. Secondly, when adults show a child that they do not approve of his behavior, the antics not only do not decrease, but even intensify. As a result, a special communicative act unfolds in which the child, in non-verbal language (through actions), tells adults: “I’m doing something that you don’t like.” The same content is sometimes expressed directly in words, for example, many children from time to time declare “I am bad”

Most often, it encourages the child to use demonstrative behavior as a special way of communication, attracting the attention of adults. Children make this choice in cases where parents communicate with them little and the child does not receive the love, affection, and warmth he needs in the process of communication. Such demonstrative behavior is common in families with an authoritarian parenting style, authoritarian parents, a teacher, where children are constantly humiliated.

One of the options for demonstrative behavior is whims - crying for no particular reason, unreasonable willful antics in order to assert oneself, attract attention, and “get the upper hand” over adults. Whims are accompanied by external manifestations of irritability: motor agitation, rolling on the floor, throwing toys and things. The main reason for such whims is improper upbringing (spoiling or excessive strictness on the part of adults).

5. impulsive behavior .

Impulsivity is one of the types of affective excitability of a child, as a result of which any desire for pleasure must be immediately satisfied without taking into account the specific possibilities of achieving this pleasure and with a lack of volitional regulation of impulses and actions.

It is necessary to distinguish impulsivity from hyperactivity, which is a consequence of minimal brain dysfunction and requires serious and long-term drug and psychotherapeutic treatment.

Impulsivity is a consequence of deficiencies in family upbringing or negative relationships with teachers and peers at school. Boys are more likely to be impulsive than girls

The main symptoms of impulsivity are that the child:
restless in movements and cannot sit still;
impatient and cannot wait for his turn in games and during classes;
shouts out the answer without listening to the question;
curious, but not inquisitive;
none of the things started are completed;
does not know how to play quietly, concentratedly and calmly;
unpredictable in reactions, often surprised by the negative consequences of his behavior and upset because of them;
interferes with the games and activities of other children;
irritable;
has difficulty communicating with other children.

6. Infantile behavior.

Infantile behavior is spoken of when the child’s behavior retains features characteristic of an earlier age. For example, for an infantile primary school student the leading activity is still play. During the lesson, such children disconnect from the educational process and, unnoticed by themselves, begin to play (rolling a car on the desk, arranging soldiers, making and launching airplanes). Such infantile manifestations of a child are regarded by the teacher as a violation of discipline.

7. Conformal behavior.

Conformist behavior is largely due to an incorrect, authoritarian or overprotective parenting style. Children deprived of freedom of choice, independence, initiative, creativity skills (because they have to act according to the instructions of an adult, because adults always do everything for the child), acquire some negative personal characteristics.

With this behavioral disorder, children are ready to unquestioningly obey adults and peers, blindly follow them contrary to their ideas and common sense.

The psychological basis of conformity is high suggestibility and involuntary imitation. The typical and natural desire of a primary school student to “be like everyone else” in the context of educational activities is not conformal

8. Protest behavior.

Children's protest behavior manifests itself in the form of negativism, obstinacy, and stubbornness.

Negativism is the behavior of a child when he does not want to do something just because he was asked to do it; This is the child’s reaction not to the content of the action, but to the proposal itself, which comes from adults.

Stubbornness is a reaction of a child when he insists on something not because he really wants it, but because he demanded it.... The motive for stubbornness is that the child is bound by his initial decision.

Obstinacy is directed not so much against a specific adult as against the norms of upbringing, against the imposed way of life. Chistyakov for parents of junior schoolchildren

9. Symptomatic behavior.

Symptomatic behavior of a child is a sign of trouble in his family and at school. Symptomatic behavior becomes a coded message when open discussion of problems with adults is not possible. For example, a seven-year-old girl, returning from school during a difficult period of habituation and adaptation for her, scatters books and notebooks around the room, thus eliminating the affect. After a while, she collects them and sits down to her homework.

Symptomatic behavior is an alarm signal that warns that the current situation is no longer intolerable for the child (for example, vomiting as a rejection of an unpleasant, painful situation at school

A child who shows discomfort, weakness, helplessness and expects to be cared for is essentially controlling the one who is caring for him.

Thus, the child’s behavior is regulated not only by social conditions (norms, traditions, prohibitions), but also determined and individual characteristics junior school student. Young schoolchildren with mental retardation experience a variety of behavioral disorders due to the immaturity of the emotional-volitional sphere and the characteristics of the central nervous system.

Literature:

1. Large psychological dictionary, ed. , M.: 2003 - 672 p.

2. and others. Fundamentals of correctional pedagogy: Textbook. aid for students higher ped. textbook establishments/ , ; Ed. - 2nd ed., revised. - M.: Academy, 2002. - 272 p.

3. Corrective pedagogy in primary education: Proc. aid for students avg. ped. textbook establishments/, etc.; Ed. . - M.: Academy, 2003. - 320 p.

4. Fundamentals of special psychology: Textbook. aid for students avg. ped. head / , and etc.; edited by . - 2nd ed. - M.: Academy, 2005. - 480 p.

5. Psychological correction child and adolescent aggressiveness: Textbook, St. Petersburg: Rech, 2006. - 144 p.

6. Training for effective interaction with children, St. Petersburg: Speech; M.: Sfera, 2011. - 190 p.

7. Training to prevent bad habits in children / ed. . - St. Petersburg: Rech, 2005. - 256 p.

Educators and psychologists emphasize the importance of instilling voluntary behavior in children. When implementing voluntary behavior, the child, firstly, understands why and why he performs certain actions, acts one way and not another. Secondly, the child himself actively strives to comply with the norms and rules of behavior, without waiting for orders, showing initiative and creativity. Thirdly, the child knows how not only to choose the right behavior, but also to stick to it to the end, despite difficulties, and also in situations where there is no control from adults or other children.

Involuntary behavior ( various deviations in the behavior) of children is still one of the pressing problems of modern pedagogy and teaching practice. Children with behavioral problems systematically break rules, do not obey internal regulations and the requirements of adults, are rude, and interfere with class or group activities.

Causes of behavioral deviations children are varied, but they can all be classified into two groups:

1. disorders caused by individual characteristics of the functioning of the nervous system (instability of mental processes, psychomotor retardation or, conversely, psychomotor disinhibition);

2. behavioral disorders that are the result of a child’s inadequate (defensive) response to certain difficulties in school life or to an unsatisfactory style of relationships with adults and peers. The child’s behavior is characterized by indecisiveness, passivity or negativism, stubbornness, and aggression. It seems that children with this behavior do not want to behave well and deliberately violate discipline. However, this impression is wrong. The child is truly unable to cope with his experiences. The presence of negative experiences and affects inevitably leads to behavioral breakdowns and is a reason for conflicts with peers and adults.

It is possible that behavior disorder may result from idleness and boredom in an educational environment that is not sufficiently saturated with various types of activities or due to ignorance of the rules of behavior.

Let's consider the following types of behavior disorders in schoolchildren: hyperactive, demonstrative, protest, aggressive, infantile, conformal and symptomatic behavior.

Hyperactive behavior

Perhaps, the hyperactive behavior of children, like no other, causes complaints and complaints from parents, educators, and teachers. It occurs mainly in boys.

These children are different increased need in move. When this need is blocked by rules of conduct, norms of school routine (i.e. in situations in which it is necessary to control and voluntarily regulate one’s motor activity), the child’s muscle tension increases, attention deteriorates, performance decreases, and fatigue sets in. The emotional release that occurs after this is a protective physiological reaction of the body, and is considered by surrounding adults as disciplinary offenses.

The main signs of a hyperactive child are motor activity, impulsiveness, distractibility, and inattention. The child makes restless movements with his hands and feet; easily distracted by extraneous stimuli; has difficulty waiting his turn during games, classes, and other situations; often answers questions without thinking, without listening to the end; has difficulty maintaining attention when completing tasks or playing games; often moves from one unfinished action to another; cannot play calmly, often interferes with the games and activities of other children.

A hyperactive child begins to complete a task without listening to the instructions to the end, but after a while it turns out that he does not know what to do. Then he either continues aimless actions, or annoyingly asks what to do and how to do it. Several times during the task he changes the goal, and in some cases he may completely forget about it. Often distracted while working; does not use the proposed tools, therefore he makes many mistakes that he does not see and does not correct.

A child with hyperactive behavior is impulsive, and it is impossible to predict what he will do next. The child himself does not know this. He acts without thinking about the consequences, although he does not plan anything bad and is sincerely upset about the incident of which he becomes the culprit. This is the noisiest child in the children's group.

Children with hyperactive behavior have difficulty adapting to school, do not fit well into children's groups, and often have problems in relationships with peers.

Demonstrative behavior

When demonstrative behavior occurs intentional And conscious violation of accepted norms and rules of behavior. Internally and externally, such behavior is addressed to adults.

One of the options for demonstrative behavior is childish antics . Two of its features can be distinguished. Firstly, the child grimaces only in the presence of adults (teachers, educators, parents) and only when they pay attention to him. Secondly, when adults show a child that they do not approve of his behavior, the antics not only do not decrease, but even intensify. As a result, a special communicative act unfolds in which the child, in non-verbal language (through actions), tells adults: “I’m doing something that you don’t like.” Similar content is sometimes expressed directly in words, for example, many children from time to time declare: “I am bad.”

What prompts a child to use demonstrative behavior as a special way of communication?

1) often this is a way to attract the attention of adults if the child does not receive the love, affection, and warmth he needs during communication, and also if they communicate exclusively in situations where the child behaves badly and should be scolded or punished.

2) in other cases, it is a way to get out from under the authority of adults, not to submit to their norms and not to give them the opportunity to condemn (since the condemnation - self-condemnation - has already taken place). Such demonstrative behavior is predominantly common in families (groups, classes) with an authoritarian parenting style, authoritarian parents, educators, teachers, where children are constantly condemned.

One of the options for demonstrative behavior is whims - crying for no particular reason, unreasonable willful antics in order to assert oneself, attract attention, and “get the upper hand” over adults. Whims are accompanied by external manifestations of irritation: motor agitation, rolling on the floor, throwing toys and things.

Occasionally, whims can arise as a result of overwork, overstimulation of the child’s nervous system with strong and varied impressions, as well as as a sign or consequence of an onset of illness.

From episodic whims, which are largely due to the age characteristics of younger schoolchildren, one should distinguish strengthened whims that have turned into a habitual form of behavior. The main reason for such whims is improper upbringing (spoiling or excessive strictness on the part of adults).

Protest behavior

Forms of protest behavior of children - negativism, obstinacy, stubbornness.

During periods of age-related crises, such undesirable changes in a child’s behavior indicate a completely normal, constructive personality formation: a desire for independence, an exploration of the boundaries of independence. If such manifestations occur frequently enough in a child, this is regarded as a behavioral deficiency.

q negativism – outwardly unmotivated behavior of a child, manifested in actions that are deliberately contrary to the requirements and expectations of the people around him.

Typical manifestations of children's negativism are causeless tears, rudeness, insolence or isolation, aloofness, and touchiness. “Passive” negativism is expressed in a silent refusal to carry out instructions and demands from adults. With “active” negativism, children perform actions that are opposite to those required, and strive at all costs to insist on their own. In both cases, children become uncontrollable: neither threats nor requests have any effect on them. They steadfastly refuse to do what they just recently did unquestioningly. The reason for this behavior is often that the child accumulates an emotionally negative attitude towards the demands of adults, which prevents the child from satisfying the child’s need for independence.. Thus, negativism is often the result of improper upbringing, a consequence of the child’s protest against the violence committed against him.

q stubbornness – the desire to do things one’s own way at all costs, contrary to reasonable arguments, requests, and advice.

The reasons for stubbornness are varied. Stubbornness can arise as a result of an insoluble conflict between adults, for example parents, their confrontation with each other without concessions, compromises, or any changes. As a result, the child becomes so saturated with an atmosphere of stubbornness that he begins to behave in a similar way, without seeing anything wrong with it. Most adults who complain about children’s stubbornness are characterized by an individualistic orientation of interests and authoritarianism; Such adults are “grounded” and lack imagination and flexibility. In this case, the stubbornness of children manifests itself when an adult wants to achieve unquestioning obedience at any cost. This pattern is also interesting: the higher the intelligence of adults, the less often children are defined as stubborn, since such adults, showing creativity, find more options to resolve controversial issues.

q obstinacy impersonal, i.e. directed not so much against a specific leading adult, but against the norms of upbringing, against the way of life imposed on the child.

Thus, the origins of protest behavior are varied. To understand the reasons for negativism, stubbornness, obstinacy means to find the key to the child, to his constructive and creative activity.

Aggressive behavior

Aggressive actions of a child can be:

As a means of achieving a goal that is significant to him;

As a way of psychological release,

As a way to replace a blocked, unsatisfied need;

As an end in itself, satisfying the need for self-realization and self-affirmation.

Aggressive behavior can be direct, that is, directly directed at an irritating object, or displaced, when a child for some reason cannot direct aggression at the source of irritation and is looking for a safer object for release. (For example, a child directs aggressive actions not at an older brother who offended him, but at a cat - he does not hit his brother, but torments the cat.) Since outward-directed aggression is condemned, the child can develop a mechanism for directing aggression towards himself (the so-called auto-aggression - self-humiliation, self-accusation).

Physical aggression is expressed in fights with other children, in the destruction of things and objects. The child tears up books, scatters and breaks toys, throws them at children and adults, breaks necessary things, and sets fire to them. This behavior, as a rule, is provoked by some dramatic event or the need for attention from adults or other children.

Some children are prone to verbal aggression (insulting, teasing, swearing), which often hides an unsatisfied need to feel strong or a desire to get even for their own grievances.

Aggressive behavior can occur under the influence of:

Disharmonious relationships between parents (quarrels and fights between them);

Deformations of the value system in family relationships;

Media exposure, etc.

As with protest behavior, emotional coldness or excessive severity of parents often leads to the accumulation of internal mental stress in children. This tension can be discharged through aggressive behavior.

Infantile behavior

Infantile behavior is spoken of when the child’s behavior retains features characteristic of an earlier age. For example, for an infantile primary school student the leading activity is still play. Often during a lesson, such a child, disconnecting from the educational process, begins to play unnoticed (rolling a car on the desk, arranging soldiers, making and launching airplanes).

"VLADIVOSTOK STATE MEDICAL UNIVERSITY"

MINISTRY OF HEALTH AND SOCIAL DEVELOPMENT OF RUSSIA

Faculty of Clinical Psychology

Department of Clinical Psychology

FEATURES OF MENTAL DEVELOPMENT IN CHILDREN OF PRIMARY SCHOOL AGE WITH BEHAVIORAL DISORDERS

Course work

majoring in Clinical Psychology

Lesnichenko Alexander Nikolaevich

Scientific supervisor: head. Department of Clinical Psychology, Doctor of Psychology, Associate Professor

N. A. Kravtsova ___________

Admitted to defense: head. Department of Clinical Psychology, Doctor of Psychology, Associate Professor

N. A. Kravtsova ___________

Vladivostok, 2013

Introduction

Chapter 1. Mental development of children of primary school age

1 Concepts of the formation and development of the psyche in ontogenesis

2 Features of mental development in primary school age

Chapter 2. Psychological aspects behavioral disorders in primary school children

1 Behavior as a subject of research in psychology

2 Causes and forms of behavioral disorders in children of primary school age

Chapter 3. Empirical study of the characteristics of the mental development of primary schoolchildren with behavioral disorders

1 Purpose, objectives and organization of the study

2 Description of research methods

3 Analysis and interpretation of research results

Conclusion

Bibliography

Appendix 1. Methodology “Studying speed of thinking”

Appendix 2. Methodology “Studying flexibility of thinking”

Appendix 3. Method “Memorize the pictures”

Appendix 4. “Put icons” technique

Appendix 5. “Remember and dot the dots” technique

INTRODUCTION

The increase in the number of children with behavioral disorders, manifested in antisocial, conflict and aggressive behavior, destructive actions, lack of interest in learning, etc., is an alarming symptom of modern society. Such behavior violations are especially often noted by teachers. junior classes.

Often such disorders are caused by errors in upbringing, but modern research increasingly considers such behavioral disorders to be a consequence of minimal brain dysfunction and is called attention deficit disorder. The presence of such problems in a child may be due to mental retardation and various forms of childhood nervousness (neuropathy, neuroses, fears).

At primary school age, personal traits and qualities are formed, certain attitudes begin to take shape, which subsequently determine the child’s behavior. Therefore, the problem of the mental development of children with behavioral disorders in childhood quite relevant at the moment.

The purpose of the work is to study the characteristics of the mental development of primary schoolchildren with behavioral disorders.

.Consider the problem of mental development of personality.

.Analyze the concepts of the formation and development of the psyche in ontogenesis.

.Describe the forms and causes of behavior disorders in children of primary school age.

.To conduct an empirical study of the characteristics of the mental development of children of primary school age.

Research methods:

.Studying quick thinking.

.Studying flexibility of thinking.

.“Remember the pictures.”

.“Put down the icons.”

.“Remember and dot the points.”

Research methods:

.analysis of psychological literature;

Testing;

.methods of mathematical statistics and data processing.

The practical significance of this work lies in the fact that the research obtained can help to understand the characteristics of the mental development of children with behavioral disorders. Knowledge of these features will help in choosing methods for more effective development of mental functions.

The course work consists of an introduction, two chapters, a list of references and an appendix.

The first chapter reveals the essence of mental development, examines the concepts of the formation and development of the psyche, features of mental development and the causes and forms of behavioral disorders in children of primary school age.

The second chapter conducts an empirical study of the characteristics of the mental development of children with behavioral disorders.

CHAPTER 1. MENTAL DEVELOPMENT OF CHILDREN OF PRIMARY SCHOOL AGE

1.1 Concepts of the formation and development of the psyche in ontogenesis

behavior disorder school mental

Developmental and child psychology, as well as developmental psychology, studies the mental development of a child. There are a lot of theories psychological development person. Among the scientists who described the periodization of age-related development, it is worth noting Z. Freud, A. Adler, J. Piaget, E. Erikson, L.S. Vygotsky, D.B. Elkonina and others.

The science of mental development originated at the end of the 19th century. According to the unanimous recognition of psychologists, the founder of child psychology is considered to be the German scientist, follower of Charles Darwin, W. Preyer. Since then, almost every outstanding psychologist dealing with issues of general psychology, at the same time, in one way or another, deals with problems of mental development. Among the most famous scientists who worked in this area are K. Levin, Z. Freud, J. Piaget, S. L. Rubinstein, L. S. Vygotsky, A. R. Luria, A. N. Leontiev, P. Y. Galperin, D. B. Elkonin.

Currently, there are many theories describing human mental development in ontogenesis. Childhood is a period of intense development, change and learning. V. Stern, J. Piaget, I.A. wrote about the paradoxes of child development. Sokolovsky and many others. According to D.B. Elkonin that paradoxes in child psychology are developmental mysteries that scientists have yet to figure out.

All modern scientists recognize that the human psyche and behavior in many manifestations have an innate character, but precisely in the form in which they are already presented in a developed or developing person both the psyche itself and external behavior are, for the most part, a product of training and upbringing.

Big influence The emergence of the first concepts of child development was influenced by the theory of Charles Darwin, who for the first time clearly formulated the idea that development, genesis, obeys a certain law. Subsequently, any major psychological concept has always been associated with the search for the laws of child development. The earliest biogenetic concepts include the concept of recapitulation.

E. Haeckel formulated a biogenetic law in relation to embryogenesis: ontogeny is a short and rapid repetition of phylogeny. This law was transferred to the process of ontogenetic development of the child.

American psychologist S. Hall (1844 - 1924) came up with the idea of creating pedology - a comprehensive science about children, including pedagogy, psychology, physiology, etc. He also came up with the idea of a psychological analysis of children's ages based on the theory of recapitulation, according to which the child in his individual development briefly repeats the main stages of the history of the entire human race. According to S. Hall's theory, the formation of a child's psyche occurs through the passage of phases that follow one after another in a strict order, in accordance with the main direction of the evolutionary process.

B. Skinner identifies development with learning, and c. The concepts of E. Thorndike and B. Skinner emphasized the importance of reinforcement. According to B. Skinner's theory, behavior is entirely determined by the influence of the external environment, and, like the behavior of animals, can be done and controlled. In the case of children's behavior, positive reinforcement is the approval of adults, expressed in any form, negative reinforcement is the dissatisfaction of parents, fear of their aggression.

The foundations of the psychoanalytic approach to understanding the development of the psyche in ontogenesis were laid by Z. Freud (1856-1939). Approaches to understanding childhood sexuality were outlined by Freud at the beginning of the 20th century. S. Freud formulated the theory of the development of the child's psyche and child's personality on the basis of the general theses of psychoanalysis. He proceeded from the idea that a person is born with a certain amount of sexual energy (libido), which moves in a strictly defined sequence to different areas of the body (mouth, anus, genitals).

Periodization of age-related development 3. Freud is called a psychosexual theory of personality, since the central line of his theory is associated with the sexual instinct, broadly understood as receiving pleasure. The names of the stages of personal development (oral, anal, phallic, genital) indicate the main bodily (erogenous) zone with which the feeling of pleasure is associated at this age.

Thus, 3. Freud was interested in childhood as a period that shapes the adult personality. Freud was convinced that all the most significant things in personality development happen before the age of five, and later a person is just functioning, trying to overcome early conflicts, so he did not identify any special stages of adulthood.

Value psychoanalytic concept in that this is a dynamic concept of development, it shows a complex range of experiences, the unity of a person’s mental life, its irreducibility to individual functions and elements.

The further development of the psychoanalytic direction in psychology is associated with the names of K. Jung, A. Adler, K. Horney, A. Freud, M. Klein, E. Erikson, B. Bettelheim, M. Mahler and others.

In his book Childhood and Society, Erikson divided human life into eight individual stages psychosocial development. He believes that these stages are the result of an unfolding genetic "personality blueprint."

E. Erikson based his classification of developmental stages on the content of a specific crisis that a child experiences at each of the eight stages: infancy (up to 1 year), early childhood (1-3 years), play age (4-5 years), school age ( 6-11 years), adolescence (12-18 years), youth, adulthood and old age.

Cognitive theories originate from the philosophical theory of knowledge. The main goal of this direction is to find out in what sequence the cognitive structures that ensure adaptation are deployed. In the cognitive direction, it is especially worth noting the theory of the origin and development of intelligence by J. Piaget and the theory moral development L. Kohlberg.

J. Piaget's research constituted an entire era in the development of the doctrine of the child's speech and thinking, his logic and worldview. They are marked with historical significance,” wrote L.S. Vygotsky is already talking about the first works of J. Piaget. J. Piaget studied the process of child adaptation to the social and objective environment.

The cultural-historical direction of developmental psychology arose as an attempt to determine the relationship in the subject-environment system through the category of social subtext in which the child develops.

L.S. Vygotsky (1896-1934) in the 1920s-1930s. the foundations of the cultural-historical theory of mental development were developed. L.S. Vygotsky did not have time to create a completed theory, but the general understanding of mental development in childhood, contained in the scientist’s works, was later significantly developed, specified and clarified in the works of A.N. Leontyeva, A.R. Luria, A.V. Zaporozhets, D.B. Elkonina, L.I. Bozhovich, M.I. Lisina and other representatives of his school.

L.S. Vygotsky emphasized the unity of hereditary and social aspects in the development process. Heredity is present in the development of all mental functions of the child, but has, as it were, different specific gravity. Elementary functions(starting with sensations and perception) are more determined by heredity than the higher ones (voluntary memory, logical thinking, speech). Vygotsky formulated the laws of mental development:

)Child development has a complex organization in time: the rhythm of development does not coincide with the rhythm of time. The rhythm of development changes at different age periods;

)The law of metamorphosis in mental development: development is a chain of qualitative changes. A child is not just a small adult who knows less and has less, but a being with a qualitatively different psyche.

)Law of uneven age development; Each aspect of a child’s psyche has its own optimal period of development. This law is associated with the hypothesis of L.S. Vygotsky about the systemic and semantic structure of consciousness (in the development of a child there are the most sensitive periods when the psyche is able to perceive external influences; 1-3 years - speech, preschooler - memory, 3-4 years - correction of speech defects).

)The law of development of higher mental functions: initially they are a form of collective behavior. As a form of cooperation with other people and only subsequently become internal individual functions of the person himself.

Features higher mental functions: mediation, awareness, arbitrariness, systematicity; they are formed intravitally; they are formed as a result of mastering special tools, means developed during historical development society. The development of higher mental functions is associated with training in in a broad sense of this word, it cannot occur otherwise than in the form of assimilation of given images, therefore this development goes through a number of stages.

At the end of the 1930s. psychologists of the Kharkov school A.N. Leontyev, A.V. Zaporozhets, P.I. Zinchenko, P.Ya. Galperin, L.I. Bozhovich showed that the development of generalizations is based on the direct practical activity of the subject, and not on verbal communication.

The basis of the ontogenetic theory of mental development formulated by A.N. Leontiev, lies the general psychological theory of activity. In developmental psychology A.N. Leontiev, first of all, studied problems related to sources and driving forces mental development of the child. According to his theory, the source of a child’s mental development is human culture, and the driving forces are age-related changes in the child’s objective position in the system of his relationships with adults and age-related changes in his activities.

Thus, having examined the main theories of child mental development that were formed in the 20th century, we can conclude that attempts to explain the process of a child’s mental development have always been conditioned by the general level of psychological knowledge. At first, child psychology was a descriptive science, not yet capable of revealing the internal laws of development. Gradually, psychology, as well as medicine, moved from symptoms to syndromes, and then to a true causal explanation of the process. In addition, changes in ideas about the mental development of a child have always been associated with the development of new research methods.

1.2 Features of mental development in primary school age

According to A.V. Zaporozhets, the mental development of a child lies in the fact that, under the influence of living conditions and upbringing, the formation of the mental processes themselves, the assimilation of knowledge and skills, the formation of new needs and interests occurs.

The physiological basis for changes in a child’s psyche is the development of his nervous system, the development of higher nervous activity. With age, the mass of the brain increases and its anatomical structure. Along with an increase in brain mass and improvement of its structure, higher nervous activity develops.

The supply of unconditioned reflexes with which a child is born is very limited, which makes the newborn a helpless creature, incapable of any independent activity. A human child must learn everything - sit, stand, walk, use his hands, speak, etc.

Work plays a very important role in a child’s nervous activity very early. cerebral hemispheres brain, which consists in the formation of temporary, conditioned reflex connections. First conditioned reflexes begin to occur in the child in the middle of the first month of life. Gradually, as the child develops, under the influence of upbringing, the child’s conditioned reflex activity becomes more complex. Conditioned reflexes begin to arise not only in direct connection with unconditioned ones, but also on the basis of previously formed conditioned reflexes.

Mastering the vocabulary and grammatical structure of the native language is of utmost importance in the development of a child. Under the influence of the speech of surrounding people, a second signaling system is formed in the child, which leads to a change in all higher nervous activity. With age, the role of words in the cognitive and volitional processes of children increases. At the same time, the child, learning to denote in words not only individual items, but also the complex events that happen to him, moves to more generalized forms of thinking, is distracted from the secondary properties of things, and highlights more important, essential ones in them. Thus, with the formation of the second signaling system, new, more complex mental processes appear in the child.

In order to develop abilities for certain activities, favorable living conditions and appropriate education are necessary. The decisive role of living conditions and upbringing in the development of abilities is especially clearly revealed in cases where people with known organic deficiencies, through systematic exercise and hard work on themselves, achieved outstanding success in one or another area of human activity.

The period of schooling is a qualitatively new stage in human mental development. Indeed, at this time, mental development is carried out mainly in the process of educational activity and, therefore, is determined by the degree of involvement of the student himself in it.

Revealing the factors of individual psychological development at its individual stages, B. G. Ananyev defined the composition of the teaching as a complex formation, including the main forms of activity through which the social determination of many aspects of mental development is carried out. He wrote that teaching is an effect of the interrelations between communication and cognition and, at the same time, an important means of further evolution of each of these basic forms. In terms of focus and content, the teaching is cognitive activity. It is interpreted as the assimilation of social experience specific to a person by appropriating the fund of knowledge and labor experience accumulated by humanity. In this sense, “teaching reflects the process of merging the social with the individual, the formation of individuality through the content and methods of teaching and upbringing.”

The school period is characterized by intensive development of cognitive functions, sensory-perceptual, mental, mnemonic, etc. The leading activity of primary school age is educational activity. As noted by P.Ya. Galperin, unlike a preschooler, a schoolchild draws his knowledge primarily from the teacher’s verbal explanations and by reading textbooks and other literature. Visual aids and illustrations play an important but auxiliary role at this stage of development. In the process of schooling, the child’s thinking develops; it acquires a more abstract and at the same time generalized character.

He also notes that a child’s perception at primary school age becomes more organized and focused. Intentional, logical memorization develops. Further development of the will also occurs. If in a preschooler we can observe only individual volitional actions, then here all activity is subject to a certain plan and acquires a deliberate character. The student studies in class, does homework, prepares for exams, aware of his responsibility to the school, teacher, family, and class team for conscientiously completing educational assignments, for successful preparation to future work activity.

Primary school age is relevant and sensitive for the disclosure of individual characteristics and abilities, the development of self-control skills, self-organization and self-regulation, the formation adequate self-esteem, developing criticality towards oneself and others, developing communication skills with peers, establishing strong and friendly contacts.

In addition, primary school age, according to a number of researchers, is the most favorable period for the assimilation of social and moral norms and rules of behavior, the development of moral normativity, and the formation of a person’s social orientation.

As Efimkina notes, systematic academic work, diverse relationships that a child enters into with members of the school community, participation in public life influence not only the development of individual mental processes, but also the formation of the student’s personality as a whole.

D.B. Elkonin in his work “Child Psychology” notes the leading role of education in the mental development of a child. Mental learning in primary school age includes a number of mental processes. This is the development of observation and perception, memory, thinking and, finally, imagination. According to D.B. Elkonin components of educational activity are motivation, educational task, educational operations, control and evaluation.

Educational activity is multimotivated, that is, it is stimulated and directed by different motives. Among them there are motives that are most adequate to educational tasks; if they are formed in the student, his educational work becomes meaningful and effective. D.B. Elkonin calls them educational and cognitive motives. They are based on cognitive needs and the need for self-development. This is an interest in the content side of educational activity, in what is being studied, and interest in the process of activity - how and by what means results are achieved, decided learning objectives. The child must be motivated not only by the result, but also by the process of educational activity. This is also a motive for one’s own growth, self-improvement, and development of one’s abilities.

A special study of the process of formation of cognitive interests, conducted under the leadership of L. I. Bozhovich, showed their instability and situational nature at the beginning of training. Children may listen to the teacher's story with interest, but this interest disappears after the end of the story. IN further development cognitive interests go in several directions. Interest in specific facts gives way to interest in patterns various kinds, To scientific theories. Interests become more stable and differentiated by areas of knowledge.

As shown by A.I. Lipkina, younger schoolchildren highly appreciate their work if they spent a lot of time on it, invested a lot of effort and effort. Regardless of what they got as a result. They are more critical of other children's work than of their own.

Educational activity has a complex structure and goes through a long process of development. Its development will continue throughout several years of school life. The specifics of a child’s educational activity are influenced by the development of mental functions, personal formations and voluntary behavior.

Junior school age is the completion of the development of self-awareness. Children between the ages of 9 and 12 continue to develop the desire to have their own point of view on everything. They also develop judgments about their own social significance - self-esteem. It develops through the development of self-awareness and feedback with those around them whose opinions they value. Children usually have a high grade if their parents treat them with interest, warmth and love.

Thinking becomes the dominant function at primary school age. Thanks to this, the thought processes themselves are intensively developed and restructured and, on the other hand, the development of other mental functions depends on intelligence.

A significant portion of a child's cognitive development in most cultures occurs in school, beginning between the ages of 5 and 7 years. During this period, cognitive, speech and perceptual-motor skills become more sophisticated and interconnected, which greatly facilitates certain types of learning and increases their effectiveness.

According to Piaget's theory, from the ages of 7 to 11 years, children's thinking becomes reversible, more flexible and complex. They begin to pay attention to how an object changes during the transformation process, and are able to use logical reasoning to correlate these differences in the appearance of the object. Children are able to establish cause-and-effect relationships, especially if a specific object is right in front of them and the changes occurring with it can be directly observed.

The increasingly complex process of acquiring knowledge in educational activities places increased demands primarily on mental activity schoolboy. Hence, it is important to develop precisely those mechanisms that ensure this activity on the basis of functional development and at the same time influence the development of the mental functions themselves. During the school period, various internal mechanisms and methods of actively processing information are formed in order to remember it. One of the leading types of memory is the voluntary and meaningful memorization of verbal and non-verbal material.

Memory-related abilities undergo dramatic changes in children entering the stage of concrete operations. During the early school years, children improve their memory and processing strategies, but their use of mental imagery remains very limited.

During the school period, various internal mechanisms and methods of actively processing information are formed in order to remember it. One of the leading types of memory is the voluntary and meaningful memorization of verbal and non-verbal material. A number of works have shown an increase in the diversity of mnemonic activity and at the same time identified various forms of integration and interaction of memory levels as a result of the generalized nature of the memorization methods used.

As noted by Ya.I. Ponomarev, to create the potential for intellectual development, the formation of operational mechanisms in the structure of mental processes of memory, thinking, perception, and attention is important. A high level of development of both the functional and operational composition of the psyche underlies the formation of various abilities in the process of learning and in other types of activities during schooling.

Gradually, the child develops a correct materialistic worldview, a system of views on the basic phenomena of nature and social life. Character is formed, the moral character of the individual is formed, and the ability to be guided in one’s activities by the high principles of communist morality.

The range of children's interests is expanding, covering various fields of science, production, literature and art. Emotional experiences become more complex and varied.

At primary school age, the foundation of moral behavior is laid, moral standards of behavior are learned, and the social orientation of the individual begins to form. The moral consciousness of younger schoolchildren undergoes significant changes from 1st to 4th grade. By the end of age, moral knowledge and judgments are noticeably enriched, becoming more conscious, versatile, and generalized.

So, early preschool age is characterized by a change in leading activity, the development of cognitive functions, and an expansion of the circle of friends. In this regard, new requirements for behavior are imposed on the child. All this has a decisive impact on the formation and consolidation of a new system of relations to the surrounding reality, other people, to learning and the responsibilities associated with it, shapes character, will, expands the range of interests, and determines the development of abilities.

CHAPTER 2. PSYCHOLOGICAL ASPECTS OF CONDUCT DISORDERS IN PRIMARY SCHOOL AGE CHILDREN

2.1 Behavior as a subject of research in psychology

Behavior is the broadest concept that characterizes the interaction of living beings with the environment, mediated by their external (motor) and internal (mental) activity. The fundamental components of behavior are reactivity and activity. If reactivity makes it possible to basically adapt to the environment, then activity is to adapt the environment to oneself. The higher the level of organization of a living organism, the more important activity becomes compared to reactivity. In a person, the highest level of activity is the activity of the individual, which allows him to solve complex problems associated with the transformation of not only the objective material world, but also the ideal, spiritual, and internal world.

In psychology, the term behavior is widely used to denote the type and level of human activity, along with its manifestations such as activity, contemplation, cognition, and communication.

Behavior became the subject of research at the beginning of the 20th century, when a new direction arose in psychology - behaviorism. In its modern form, behaviorism is a product of exclusively American science, but its beginnings can be found in England, and then in Russia. The founder of this trend was the American psychologist John Watson. In his opinion, introspective psychology, in which the subject of study was subjective reality, inaccessible objective research, could not fully describe the human psyche. Therefore, J. Watson believed that it was necessary to study the behavior of an individual (human and animal) from birth to death as the only possible psychological study objective reality.

A major role in the development of behaviorism was the study of animal behavior by scientists in different countries world, as well as the physiological and psychological ideas of Russian scientists I.P. Pavlov and V.M. Bekhterev.

Russian physiologist I.P. Pavlov is considered the most famous founder of behavioral science. His study of conditioned reflexes underlies classical conditioning, on which the laws of behaviorism are built. I.P. Pavlov suggested and proved that new forms of behavior can arise as a result of establishing connections between congenital forms behavior (unconditioned reflexes) and a new stimulus ( conditioned stimulus). If a conditional (new) and an unconditional (serving as a stimulus for an unconditional reaction) stimulus coincide in time and space, the new stimulus begins to cause an unconditional reaction, and this leads to completely new behavioral features. The conditioned reflex formed in this way can subsequently serve as the basis for the formation of conditioned reflexes of the second and higher orders.

Thus, according to Pavlov, all human behavior can be understood, studied and predicted on the basis of knowledge of the chain of conditioned reflexes, the mechanisms of their formation and attenuation.

V.M. Bekhterev was one of the first who, already at the end of the last - beginning of the current century, put forward and persistently pursued the idea of a comprehensive study of man. Considering a person in his entirety, as a complex, multifaceted and multi-level entity, he advocated the use of interdisciplinary interaction, ensuring a comprehensive study of him. Research by V.M. Bekhterev concerned the study of external forms of human behavior depending on external influences. He substantiated this position through two statements. This is, firstly, the idea that everything internal is expressed externally, and therefore in the study of the psyche it is necessary and sufficient to study the totality of external objective data available to the researcher, and, secondly, this is an indication of the lack of necessary methodological means for identifying and recognition of people's internal, subjective experiences.

According to the teachings of behaviorists, human behavior is fundamentally determined not by internal mental processes, but by mechanical influences of the external environment according to the “stimulus-response” principle. Formula “stimulus-response” (S ® R) was a leader in behaviorism. Thorndike's law of effect elaborates: the connection between S and R strengthens if there is reinforcement. Reinforcement can be positive (praise, material reward, etc.) or negative (pain, punishment, etc.). Human behavior most often stems from the expectation of positive reinforcement, but sometimes the desire to avoid negative reinforcement prevails.

By reactions, behaviorists understand human movements performed when performing a particular action; under stimuli - irritations of the external world accessible to external observation, causing certain reactions in a person.

Since there is a natural connection between stimuli and reactions, then, knowing the reasons for this connection and having studied what stimuli cause certain reactions, it is possible, behaviorists say, to accurately achieve the desired behavior from a person, without any reference to his internal mental experiences.

According to the teachings of behaviorists, the causal relationships that naturally determine human behavior lie in the interaction of external physical factors with human actions. Neither a person’s desires nor feelings can serve as the cause of his actions, since actions are fundamentally material and can only be caused material reasons.

Behaviorists proposed to move from simple to complex in the study of behavior. They distinguished between hereditary, or congenital, reactions (these included unconditioned reflexes, simple emotions) and acquired reactions (habits, thinking, speech, complex emotions, conditioned reflexes, etc.). In addition, reactions were divided (according to the degree of their “hiddenness” from the observer) into external and internal. The former are open to observation with the naked eye (speech, emotions, motor reactions, etc.), the latter are accessible only to observation mediated by special devices (thinking, many physiological reactions, etc.).

The development of behavior consists of the acquisition of new reactions based on the existing repertoire of innate reactions to unconditioned stimuli, i.e. stimuli that, from birth, automatically evoke one or another response. Habits, thinking and speech acquired throughout life are also formed on the basis of innate reactions. The formation of skills and habits (learning) occurs mechanically, gradually, through “trial and error”, without understanding the processes taking place. Somewhat later, the domestic scientist N.A. Bernstein showed that in these experiments only the “external” side of the formation of a skill was presented; in fact, there was an internal transformation of skills hidden from view, i.e. “repetition occurs without repetition.” But behaviorists, ignoring the internal side of behavior, believed that the basis of any learning (acquisition of habits) are actually mechanical laws.

Later, one of J. Watson’s followers, C. Skinner, developing the concept of behaviorism, proved that any behavior is determined by its consequences, formulated the principle of operant maintenance - “the behavior of living organisms is completely determined by the consequences to which it leads. Depending on whether these consequences are pleasant, indifferent or unpleasant, a living organism will show a tendency to repeat a given behavioral act, not attach any significance to it, or avoid its repetition in the future.” Thus, it turns out that a person is completely dependent on his environment, and any freedom of action that he thinks he can use is a pure illusion.

Thinking and speech were considered in behaviorism as acquired skills. To summarize, we can say that in behaviorism thinking was understood as the manifestation of hidden speech movements, however, according to J. Watson, there are other types of thinking that are expressed in the hidden activity of the hands (manual system of reactions) and in the form of hidden (or even open) visceral reactions (i.e. reactions of internal organs). Thus, according to the research of J. Watson, thinking can be kinesthetic (expressed in movements, actions), verbal (verbal) and visceral (emotional), which does not contradict modern research psychology of thinking.

In the early 30s. American psychologist E. Tolman noted that “intermediate” variables intervene in the “stimulus-response” connection, which mediate the influence of the stimulus on the reaction. In this case, this variable was “ cognitive map" Thus, it was impossible to do without psychological concepts, which, it would seem, were forever expelled from behaviorism as unscientific: after all, when E. Tolman spoke about the “cognitive map”, he was actually talking about the category of image. These experiments began the transformation of behaviorism into neobehaviorism, in which the “stimulus-response” scheme turned into a more complicated scheme: “stimulus - any intermediate variable - reaction.”

So, in neobehaviorism, the guiding principle of behavior is a person’s goal, and the connections between stimulus and response are not direct, but indirect through “intermediate variables”: goal, expectation, hypothesis, sign and its meaning, cognitive picture of the world.

An important contribution to the study of personality behavior was made by Gestalt psychology, of which Kurt Lewin is a prominent representative. He noted that to explain behavior it is necessary to determine the operating holistic situation, representing the structure of the field and the state of the individual. It is important to identify this situation itself and how it is presented in the subjective perception of the people acting in it.

Behavior is also interpreted as a way of realizing subject-object and subject-subject relationships available to an individual. The nature of an individual’s behavior is determined both by his individual (behavioral) capabilities and by the nature (content) of his assessments of certain objects, processes, and environmental phenomena.

In his behavior, a person is guided both by the desired result of a particular need, and by habitual and accessible methods of behavior, which always has individual characteristics.

Behavior is also a way of self-affirmation, a way for an individual to defend and realize his life interests.

Since behavior serves to satisfy the needs of the individual, it is divided into types in accordance with the nature of the need: food; protective; sexual; educational; parent; social; official, etc..

Behavior is a factor of adaptation, which is achieved both through changes within the organism and through changes in its behavior in the outside world.

Thinking and consciousness are ways of mentally supporting behavior, and imagination can become a type of (virtual) behavior if an individual spends a significant part of his mental activity on it.

Facts of behavior include: all external manifestations of physiological processes associated with the state, activity and communication of people - posture, facial expressions, intonation, etc.; individual movements and gestures; actions as larger acts of behavior that have a certain meaning; actions - even larger acts, usually having a social, social significance and related to norms of behavior, relationships, self-esteem, etc.

The unit of behavior analysis is the action. A person’s personality is revealed and formed in action. The implementation of an action is preceded by an internal plan of action, where a consciously developed intention is presented and there is a forecast of the expected result and its consequences. An act can be expressed: by action or inaction; position expressed in words; an attitude towards something, formalized in the form of a gesture, a look, a tone of speech, a semantic subtext; action aimed at overcoming physical obstacles and searching for truth.

Research by Russian psychologist L.S. Vygotsky differs in what he was looking for specific features human behavior that distinguishes it from animal behavior. His cultural-historical theory notes that a person himself controls the process of his own behavior and subordinates his actions to some goal. According to research by L.S. Vygotsky and A.R. Luria, the behavior of a cultured person is a product of evolutionary, historical and ontogenetic lines of development and can be scientifically understood and explained only with the help of three different ways, which make up the history of human behavior.

So, human behavior - directed personally or socially meaningful actions, the source of which is the person himself, who is also the author of his actions. Responsibility for the actions committed rests with the person. Behavior is closely related to mental functions such as memory, thinking, speech, perception. Human behavior is the interaction of mental and physiological processes, which is formed from hereditarily fixed reactions and a wide range of habits and skills acquired throughout life in the process of study.

2.2 Causes and forms of behavior disorders in children of primary school age

In the works of L.S. Vygotsky emphasizes the importance of instilling voluntary behavior in children, which is intended to understand the cause-and-effect relationships of their actions, compliance with behavioral standards, and conscious control over their behavior. The presence of voluntary behavior in a child indicates that he has developed important qualities personality: consistency, internal organization, responsibility, willingness and habits to obey one’s own goals (self-discipline) and social guidelines (laws, norms, principles, rules of behavior).

Involuntary behavior (various behavioral deviations) of children is still one of the pressing problems of modern psychology. Children with behavioral problems systematically break rules, do not obey internal regulations and the requirements of adults, are rude, and interfere with class or group activities.

Often, a child’s unquestioning obedience is classified as voluntary behavior, but such behavior without meaning can be a signal of deviation in mental development.

Speaking about psychopathologies in the behavior of children, C. Venar and P. Keurig note that children with behavioral disorders have a lot in common with normally functioning children.

The character of a junior schoolchild is distinguished by certain features: a tendency to act immediately under the influence of immediate impulses, motives, for random reasons, without thinking, without weighing all the circumstances. The reason for this phenomenon is clear: age-related weakness of volitional regulation of behavior, the need for active external release. Therefore, not all cases of violation by junior schoolchildren of internal rules at school should be explained by indiscipline.

The causes of deviations in the behavior of children are varied, but C. Venar and P. Kerig divide them according to the criteria of what is socially expected into two groups: behavioral deficit and behavioral excess.

In some cases, behavioral disorders have a primary condition, that is, they are determined by the characteristics of the individual, including neurodynamic, properties of the child: instability of mental processes, psychomotor retardation or, conversely, psychomotor disinhibition. These and other neurodynamic disorders reveal themselves predominantly in hyperexcitable behavior with emotional instability, ease of transition from increased activity to passivity and, conversely, from complete inaction to disordered activity.

In other cases, behavioral disorders are the result of a child’s inadequate (defensive) response to certain difficulties in school life or to an unsatisfactory style of relationships with adults and peers. The child’s behavior is characterized by indecisiveness, passivity or negativism, stubbornness, and aggression. The presence of negative experiences and affects inevitably leads to behavioral breakdowns and is a reason for conflicts with peers and adults.

Often, bad behavior arises not because the child specifically wanted to break discipline or something prompted him to do so, but from idleness and boredom, in an educational environment that is not sufficiently saturated with various types of activities. Violations in behavior are also possible due to ignorance of the rules of behavior.

As L.S. wrote Vygotsky, the ability to act voluntarily is formed gradually throughout primary school age. Like all higher forms of mental activity, voluntary behavior is subject to the basic law of their formation: new behavior first arises in joint activity with an adult, who gives the child the means to organize such behavior, and only then becomes his own in an individual way child's actions.

According to I. V. Dubrovina typical violations Children's behavior is hyperactive behavior (due to the neurodynamic characteristics of the child), as well as demonstrative, protest, aggressive, infantile, conformal and symptomatic behavior (in the occurrence of which the determining factors are the conditions of learning and development, the style of relationships with adults, the characteristics of family upbringing).

Hyperactivity and attention disorders are among the main symptoms of hyperkinetic disorders in childhood. Restlessness, lack of inhibition and hyperactivity - sometimes combined with social behavior disorders - are signs that are prominent in children at school. Of course, in different situations The degree of activity can vary considerably, and there are often situations in which children are calm.

Hyperactivity is often associated with attention deficit disorder. This is due to the fact that this syndrome is characterized by a number of behavior patterns associated with easy distractibility, difficulties in following instructions, and frequent switching from one unfinished activity to another. And hyperactivity with impulsiveness in behavior.

Doctors associate attention deficit hyperactivity disorder with minimal brain dysfunction, that is, very mild brain failure, which manifests itself in a deficiency of certain structures and impaired maturation of higher levels of brain activity. MMD is classified as a functional disorder that is reversible and normalized as the brain grows and matures. MMD is not a medical diagnosis in the literal sense of the word; rather, it is only a statement of the fact of the presence of mild disorders in the functioning of the brain, the cause and essence of which remains to be determined in order to begin treatment.

The development of certain aspects of the child’s psyche clearly depends on the maturity and usefulness of the corresponding brain regions. That is, for each stage of a child’s mental development, a complex of certain brain formations must be ready to support it.

Hyperactive children may have good general intelligence, but developmental disorders prevent it from fully developing. An uncompensated discrepancy between the level of development and intelligence manifests itself, on the one hand, in the somatic sphere, and on the other hand, in behavioral characteristics. Since the established patterns of such deviant behavior (due to the imperfection of the restraining centers) lead to the fact that these children retain them in adulthood, although they cease to be disinhibited and can already concentrate their attention.

I.V. Dubrovina notes that attention deficit disorder is considered one of the most common forms of behavior disorders among children of primary school age, and such disorders are recorded much more often in boys than in girls.

Deviant behavior manifests itself in the fact that children are aggressive, explosive, and impulsive. Impulsivity remains a through line. Such children are prone to delinquency and various forms of grouping, since it is easier to imitate bad behavior than good behavior. And since the will, higher emotions and higher needs have not matured, life develops in such a way that they are already personal problems.

C. Venar and P. Keurig associate behavioral disorder with patterns that manifest themselves as violations of the basic rights of other people, violation of rules and social norms, appropriate for age. Also considered behavioral disorders in childhood are patterns of negativistic, unfriendly behavior, which manifest themselves as emotional uncontrollable outbursts, arguments with adults and disobedience to their demands, deliberate irritation of other people, lies, and bullying behavior.

With demonstrative behavior, there is a deliberate and conscious violation of accepted norms and rules of behavior. Internally and externally, such behavior is addressed to adults.

Forms of protest behavior in children - negativism, obstinacy, stubbornness - are also deviations from the norm at primary school age. Negativism is the behavior of a child when he does not want to do something just because he was asked to do it; This is the child’s reaction not to the content of the action, but to the proposal itself, which comes from adults.

Stubbornness is a reaction of a child when he insists on something not because he really wants it, but because he demanded it... the motive for stubbornness is that the child is bound by his initial decision.

What distinguishes obstinacy from negativism and stubbornness is that it is impersonal, i.e. directed not so much against a specific leading adult, but against the norms of upbringing, against the way of life imposed on the child.

The child’s aggressiveness is indicated by the frequency of aggressive manifestations, as well as the intensity and inadequacy of reactions in relation to stimuli. Children who resort to aggressive behavior are usually impulsive, irritable, and quick-tempered; characteristic features of their emotional-volitional sphere are anxiety, emotional instability, weak ability for self-control, conflict, and hostility.

Infantile behavior is spoken of when the child’s behavior retains features characteristic of an earlier age. Such infantile manifestations of the child are regarded by the teacher as a violation of discipline.

A child who is characterized by infantile behavior, with normal and even accelerated physical and mental development, is characterized by the immaturity of integrative personal formations. This is expressed in the fact that, unlike his peers, he is unable to make a decision on his own, perform any action, experiences a feeling of insecurity, requires increased attention to his own person and the constant care of others about himself; his self-criticism is reduced.

So, behavioral disorders are associated with mental development in younger schoolchildren. The causes of behavioral deviations are varied, but they can all be classified into 4 groups: determined by individual characteristics, including the neurodynamic properties of the child; are a consequence of the child’s inadequate (protective) response to certain difficulties in school life or to a style of relationships with adults and peers that does not satisfy the child; from idleness and boredom, insufficiently saturated with various types of activity; due to ignorance of the rules of conduct.

Violation of behavior entails or deviant behavior in the future, or neurotic diseases.

CHAPTER 3. EMPIRICAL STUDY OF THE FEATURES OF MENTAL DEVELOPMENT OF JUNIOR SCHOOLCHILDREN WITH CONDUCT DISORDERS

3.1 Purpose, objectives and organization of the study

Purpose of the study: to study the characteristics of the mental development of junior schoolchildren with behavioral disorders.

Research objectives:

.Select methods for studying the mental development of children at primary school age.

.To study the mental development of children with and without behavior disorders.

.To analyze the features of the mental development of younger schoolchildren.

.To determine differences in mental development in children with behavioral disorders.

Object of study: behavioral disorders in younger schoolchildren.

Subject of the study: features of mental development in children with behavioral disorders at primary school age.

Hypothesis: younger schoolchildren with behavioral disorders have features in the development of mental functions: attention, memory, thinking.

To achieve the set objectives, a study was conducted of junior schoolchildren undergoing treatment in a children's psychiatric hospital in Vladivostok - an experimental group. To determine the characteristics of mental development in children with behavioral disorders, a control group was also taken, consisting of children with normal behavior, which was formed from students primary school No. 22, Vladivostok. The study was conducted with each child individually, during the daytime.

3.2 Description of research methods

The study of mental development was carried out using the following methods:

.Studying quick thinking.

.Studying flexibility of thinking.

.“Remember the pictures.”

.“Put down the icons.”

.“Remember and dot the points.”

The technique of “Studying the speed of thinking” allows you to determine the pace of implementation of the indicative and operational components of thinking. Can be used individually or in a group. Students are presented with a form with words in which letters are missing. When given a signal, they fill in the missing letters in words within 3 minutes. Each dash means one missing letter. Words must be nouns, common nouns, singular.

When processing the test, the number of correctly composed words is counted within 3 minutes. An indicator of the speed of thinking and at the same time an indicator of the mobility of nervous processes is the number of words composed. The registration form for the methodology is presented in Appendix 1.

The “Study of Thinking Flexibility” technique allows you to determine the variability of approaches, hypotheses, initial data, points of view, operations involved in the process of mental activity. Can be used individually or in a group. The subjects are presented with a form with anagrams (a set of letters) written on it. Within 3 minutes, they must form words from sets of letters, without missing or adding a single letter. Words can only be nouns. The registration form for the methodology is presented in Appendix 2.

The “Remember the Pictures” technique is designed to determine the volume of short-term visual memory. Children receive pictures presented in the application as incentives. They are given instructions that go something like this: “This picture shows nine different figures. Try to remember them and then recognize them in another picture, which I will show you now. On it, in addition to the nine previously shown images, there are six more that you have not seen before. Try to recognize and show in the second picture only those images that you saw in the first picture.”

The exposure time of the stimulus picture is 30 seconds. After this, this picture is removed from the child’s field of view and instead he is shown a second picture. The experiment continues until the child recognizes all the images, but no longer than 1.5 minutes. The registration form for the methodology is presented in Appendix 3.

The test task in the “Put the icons” method is intended to assess the switching and distribution of the child’s attention. Before starting the task, the child is shown a drawing and explained how to work with it. This work consists of putting in each of the squares, triangles, circles and diamonds the sign that is given at the top of the sample, i.e., respectively, a tick, line, plus or dot.

The child works continuously, completing this task for two minutes, and general indicator switching and distribution of his attention is determined by the formula:

where S is an indicator of switching and distribution of attention; is the number of geometric shapes viewed and marked with appropriate signs within two minutes;

n is the number of errors made during the task. Errors are considered to be incorrectly placed or missing signs, i.e. geometric shapes not marked with appropriate signs. The registration form for the methodology is presented in Appendix 4.

Using the “Remember and Dot the Dots” technique, the child’s attention span is assessed. For this purpose, the stimulus material shown in the figure, which shows squares with dots, is used. The sheet with dots is pre-cut into 8 small squares, which are then stacked in such a way that there is a square with two dots at the top, and a square with nine dots at the bottom (all the rest go from top to bottom in order with a successively increasing number of dots on them).

Before the experiment begins, the child receives the following instructions:

“Now we’ll play a game of attention with you. I will show you cards one by one with dots on them, and then you yourself will draw these dots in the empty cells in the places where you saw these dots on the cards.”

Next, the child is shown sequentially, for 1-2 seconds, each of the eight cards with dots from top to bottom in a stack in turn, and after each next card he is asked to reproduce the dots he saw in an empty card, which shows empty squares in 15 seconds. This time is given to the child so that he can remember where the dots he saw were located and mark them on a blank card.

The child’s attention span is considered to be the maximum number of dots that the child was able to correctly reproduce on any of the cards (the one from the cards on which the largest number of dots was accurately reproduced is selected). The registration form for the methodology is presented in Appendix 5.

3.3 Analysis and interpretation of research results

The results of the study of the mental development of children in the experimental group are presented in Table 1.

Table 1 - Results of mental development of children in the experimental group

№genderageThinkingMemoryAttentionFastnessFlexibilityVolume CPSwitching and distribution of attentionVolumeballurlevelballurlevelballurlevelballurlevelballurlevel1m715n5n5s4n5n2m916n12n4s5n4n3m814n9n7s4ns5n6m1021s19n7s7s7s7m818n17s7s5n5n8zh919n16s6s5n5n9zh716n6n4s3on4n10zh1022s18s6s7s6s11m718n8n5s5s6s14m923s10n5s6s5n15m1024s17s6s7s7sAv.18n12n6s5n5n

There are 6 girls and 9 boys in the control sample. All children are from orphanages. As we see, there are more boys among children with behavioral disorders. Of these, 5 children are aged 7 years, 3 people are aged 8 and 10 years old, 4 people are aged 9 years. According to average values, children with behavioral disorders have a low level of speed and flexibility of thinking, an average level of short-term memory capacity and low levels of switching, distribution and attention span.

The distribution of the results of the study of mental functions by level in the experimental group is presented in Table 2.

Table 2 - Distribution of the results of the study of mental functions by level in the experimental group

Mental functionProperties of mental functionsLevel very lowlowmediumhighvery highNumber of peopleThinkingSpeed010500Flexibility010500MemoryKP volume001500AttentionSwitching and distribution27600Volume110400

So, according to the results obtained in the experimental group, the level of speed and flexibility of thinking is low in 10 people, average in 5 people; The volume of visual short-term memory in all children is average; very low level of switching and distribution of attention in 2 people, low - in 7 people, average - in 6 people; attention span is very low in 1 person, low in 10 people, average in 4 people. As you can see, children with behavioral disorders do not have high levels of development of thinking, attention and memory.

The results of the study of mental functions of the control group are presented in Table 3.

Table 3 - Results of mental development of children in the control group

№genderageThinkingMemoryAttentionFastnessFlexibilityVolume of CPSwitching and distribution of attentionVolumeballurlevelballurlevelballurlevelballurlevelballurlevel1zh721s16v4s8v7s2m825s21v5s8v6s3m725s12s5s9v6s6m1036v18s6s7s10ov7m931v22v9v9v6s8m932v22v9v6s7s9zh722s12s8v6s9v10zh1035v23v9v7s9v11m723sv21v9v6s7s14m929s16s6s6s9v15m1032v25v7s7s8v16m821s15v9v6s9v17m934v17s9v9v8v18zh923s17s9v9v10ov18 on Wed. 28 from 18 from 8 on 8 on 8 on

So, in the control sample there are 9 girls and 11 boys. Children aged 7 years - 5 people, 8 years old - 4 people, 9 years old - 7 people, 10 years old - 4 people. As you can see, both groups are basically similar in composition (gender and age). According to the average values, children with normal behavior have an average level of speed and flexibility of thinking, high levels of short-term memory, switching, distribution and attention span.

The distribution of the results of the study of mental functions by level in the control group is presented in Table 4.

Table 4 - Distribution of mental function test results by level in the control group

Mental functionProperties of mental functionsvery lowlowmediumhighvery highNumber of peopleThinkingSpeed0010100Flexibility001190MemoryKP volume007130AttentionSwitching and distribution0010100Volume001082

So, according to the results obtained, the level of thinking speed is high in 10 people, average in 10 people; the level of thinking flexibility was high in 9 people, average in 11 people; the volume of visual short-term memory is average - in 7 people, high - in 13 people; the average level of switching and distribution of attention in 10 people, high - in 10 people; attention span is very high for 2 people, high for 8 people, average for 10 people. As you can see, children with normal behavior do not have very low and low levels of development of thinking, attention and memory.

To compare the results of the study of mental functions, we used j * Fisher's criterion, which evaluates the significance of differences. The Fisher test is designed to compare two samples according to the frequency of occurrence of the effect of interest to the researcher.

The criterion evaluates the reliability of differences between the percentages of two samples in which the effect of interest to us was recorded.

To do this, we will form hypotheses:: The proportion of individuals who exhibit the studied effect is no greater in the experimental sample than in the control sample.: The proportion of individuals who exhibit the studied effect is greater in the experimental sample than in the control sample.

Since the criterion has limitations, it can be noted right away that not all differences were calculated. Children in the experimental group did not have high or very high levels of expressiveness of speed and flexibility of thinking, the volume of visual memory and switching, distribution and volume of attention. Therefore, the criterion was calculated only for average values.

The results obtained are presented in Table 5.

Table 5 - Calculation of Fisher's criterion

Mental function Properties of mental functions Experimental group, % Control group, % j *ThinkingSpeedness33502.454Flexibility33553.161MemoryVisual CP volume10035-AttentionSwitching and distribution40501.438Volume27503.38

Critical values ?*0.05=1.64 ?*0.01=2.31.

Thus:

-?*emp for the average level of thinking speed is in the zone of significance, that is, H0 is rejected, the proportion of individuals with an average level of thinking speed in the experimental sample is greater than in the control sample;

-?*

-?*emp for the average level of visual short-term memory is in the zone of significance, that is, H0 is rejected, the proportion of individuals with an average level of visual short-term memory in the experimental sample is greater than in the control sample;

-?*emp for the average level of thinking flexibility is in the zone of significance, that is, H0 is rejected, the proportion of individuals with an average level of thinking flexibility in the experimental sample is greater than in the control sample;

-?*emp for the average level of switching and distribution of attention is in the zone of insignificance, that is, H1 is rejected, the proportion of individuals with an average level of switching and distribution of attention in the experimental sample is no greater than in the control sample;

-?*emp for the average level of attention span is in the zone of significance, that is, H0 is rejected, the proportion of individuals with an average level of attention span in the experimental sample is less than in the control sample.

So, the research conducted allows us to draw the following conclusions:

-children with behavioral disorders have a lower level of thinking speed than children with normal behavior;

-children with behavioral disorders have a lower level of thinking flexibility than children with normal behavior;

-in children with behavioral disorders, the volume of visual short-term memory is lower than in children with normal behavior;

-in children with behavioral disorders, the rate of switching and distribution of attention is lower than in children with normal behavior;

-Children with behavioral disorders have a lower attention span than children with normal behavior.

Thus, children with behavioral disorders have a lag in mental development compared to children with normal behavior.

CONCLUSION

The mental development of a person is associated with the development of the psyche, and it is characterized as a natural change in mental processes over time, expressed in their quantitative, qualitative and structural transformations.

The mental development of a child lies in the fact that, under the influence of living conditions and upbringing, the formation of the mental processes themselves, the assimilation of knowledge and skills, the formation of new needs and interests occurs.

The physiological basis for changes in a child’s psyche is the development of his nervous system, the development of higher nervous activity. The period of schooling is a qualitatively new stage in human mental development. Indeed, at this time, mental development is carried out mainly in the process of educational activity and, therefore, is determined by the degree of involvement of the student himself in it.

Primary school age, according to a number of researchers, is the most favorable period for the assimilation of social and moral norms and rules of behavior, the development of moral normativity, and the formation of a social orientation of the individual.

At primary school age, the foundation of moral behavior is laid, moral standards of behavior are learned, and the social orientation of the individual begins to form.

The behavior of a child of preschool and primary school age always reflects the characteristics of his mental development, both intellectual and emotional-personal.

The behavior of a child of preschool and primary school age always reflects the characteristics of his mental development, both intellectual and emotional-personal. In the behavior of younger schoolchildren, typological features of higher nervous activity are already more clearly and transparently manifested, compared to preschool age, which are later covered (masked, as psychologists say) by the usual forms of behavior that have developed in life. Shyness and isolation can be a direct manifestation of weakness of the nervous system, impulsiveness, lack of self-control - a manifestation of weakness of the inhibitory process, slowness of reaction and switching from one activity to another - a manifestation of low mobility of nervous processes.

The results of the study showed that children with behavioral disorders have features in mental development: thinking, attention and memory of such children have a lower level of development compared to children with normal behavior.

Based on the results of the study, the following recommendations can be given to psychologists working with such children: conduct correctional classes to develop memory, attention and thinking. Classes can be conducted in a playful way, since children have mental retardation, which means they get stuck in play activities.

To develop memory and attention, children can be recommended to engage in a variety of sports. Since in sports, in gaming activities, the development of volitional qualities and the adoption of normative rules occur.

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ANNEX 1

METHODOLOGY “STUDYING SPEED OF THINKING”

Instructions: At the signal, within 3 minutes you need to fill in the missing letters in the words. Each dash means one missing letter. Words must be nouns, common nouns, singular.

Processing the results

The number of correctly composed words is counted within 3 minutes. An indicator of the speed of thinking and at the same time an indicator of the mobility of nervous processes is the number of words composed:

less than 20 - low speed of thinking and mobility of nervous processes;

30 - average speed of thinking and mobility of nervous processes;

a word and more - high speed of thinking and mobility of nervous processes.

Sample formD-LOP-L-AZ-O-OKS-I-O-TK-SHAO-R-CHK-N-AK-S-A-NIKS-DAK-R-ONS-E-LOU-I-E-B -ZAZ-R-0K-Y-AA-E-INN-GAV-S-OKT-A-AS-A-C-YAM-US-G-OBK-U-KACH-R-I-AD-LYAV -T-AS-A-KAK-P-S-AK-NOP-D-AKS-A-AT-U-O-TB-DAP-R-AS-U-AS-E-O-ACH-DOB-L -ONP-E-AK-N-O-A

APPENDIX 2

METHODOLOGY “STUDYING FLEXIBILITY OF THINKING”

Instructions: Within 3 minutes you need to make words from sets of letters, without missing or adding a single letter. Words can only be nouns.

Processing the results

The number of correctly composed words is counted within 3 minutes. Number of words composed: indicator of flexibility of thinking:

Level of flexibilityAdultsStudents of grades 3-4Students of grades 1-2High26 and more20 and more15 and moreMedium21-2513-1910-14Low11-207-125-9

Registration form

YVOYAODLAITsPTUARDBZHOAEFMRSYLARUOTUARGSUAKKZHROAIKKRPSABLENOBOOSVLOOOARBDOAIDMYLASHRLUCTOALMSAAKKZSEEEVDDMOZVIAPPLBREORUUABDSEEDPMTRUCBAAPLOTMSHRAISLPKAAAALTPKIRMORSCHBOELSWEUZNKCOA YMLSTOTMOETLAASHLPUAPRGPAABDESASDOERMOESMTOOOLTZOATDRSOBLOCTSAILDNOECHLMAAAOSKBL

APPENDIX 3

METHODOLOGY “REMEMBER THE DRAWINGS”

Instructions: “This picture shows nine different figures. Try to remember them and then recognize them in another picture (Fig. 2 B), which I will show you now. On it, in addition to the nine previously shown images, there are six more that you have not seen before. Try to recognize and show in the second picture only those images that you saw in the first picture.”

Evaluation of results

10 points - the child recognized in picture 13 B all nine images shown to him in picture 13 A, spending less than 45 seconds on it. 8-9 points - the child recognized 7-8 images in picture 13 B in a time from 45 to 55 seconds. 6-7 points - the child recognized 5-6 images in a time from 55 to 65 seconds. 4-5 points - the child recognized 3-4 images in a time from 65 to 75 seconds. 2-3 points - the child recognized 1-2 images in time from 75 to 85 seconds. 0-1 point - the child did not recognize a single image in picture 13 B for 90 seconds or more.

Conclusions about the level of development

points - very high.

9 points - high.

7 points - average.

3 points - low.

1 point - very low.

Fig. 2. A set of figures for the “Memorize the pictures” technique

APPENDIX 4

METHODOLOGY “PUT ICONS”

Instructions: This work consists of putting in each of the squares, triangles, circles and diamonds the sign that is given at the top of the sample, i.e., respectively, a tick, a line, a plus or a dot.

Evaluation of results

10 points - S indicator is more than 1.00. 8-9 points - S indicator is in the range from 0.75 to 1.00. 6-7 points - indicator 5" is in the range from 0.50 to 0.75. 4-5 points - indicator S is in the range from 0.25 to 0.50.0-3 points - the S indicator is in the range from 0.00 to 0.25.

Conclusions about the level of development

points - very high.

9 points - high.

7 points - average.

5 points - low.

3 points - very low.

Worksheet for the “Put icons” technique

APPENDIX 5

METHODOLOGY “REMEMBER AND DOTS”

Instructions: “Now we will play an attention game with you. I will show you cards one by one with dots on them, and then you yourself will draw these dots in the empty cells in the places where you saw these dots on the cards.”

Evaluation of results

The results of the experiment are scored as follows:

10 points - the child correctly reproduced 6 or more dots on the card within the allotted time 8-9 points - the child accurately reproduced 4 to 5 dots on the card 6-7 points - the child correctly recalled from memory 3 to 4 dots. 4-5 points - child correctly reproduced from 2 to 3 dots. 0-3 points - the child was able to correctly reproduce no more than one dot on one card.

Conclusions about the level of development

points - very high.

9 points - high.

7 points - average.

5 points - low.

3 points - very low.

Rice. 9 - Stimulus material for the task “Remember and dot the dots”

Rice. 10 - Matrices for the task “Remember and dot the dots”

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Many children come to class, and the teacher must work with everyone. This determines the rigor of the teacher’s demands and strengthens the child’s mental orientation. Before school, the child’s individual characteristics could not interfere with natural development, since these characteristics were accepted and taken into account by loved ones. At school, standardization of the child’s living conditions comes, as a result of which many deviations from the intended are revealed

Pathways of development, hyperexcitability, hyperdynamia, severe retardation. These deviations form the basis of children's fears, reduce volitional activity, and cause depression. The child will have to overcome the trials that have befallen him. You cannot leave your child alone with the tests that the school has prepared for him. The duty of parents, teachers and psychologists is to help the child successfully overcome these challenges with the least harm to the health of the first grader.

Causes of behavior disorders in younger schoolchildren

Classical teachers (L. S. Vygotsky, P. P. Blonsky, A. S. Makarenko, S. T. Shatsky, V. A. Sukhomlinsky) emphasized the importance of instilling voluntary behavior in children. When implementing voluntary behavior, the child, firstly, understands why and why he performs certain actions, acts one way and not another. Secondly, the child himself actively strives to comply with the norms and rules of behavior, without waiting for orders, showing initiative and creativity. Thirdly, the child knows how not only to choose the right behavior, but also to stick to it to the end, despite difficulties, and also in situations where there is no control from adults or other children.

If a child constantly implements voluntary behavior, it means that he has developed important personality qualities: self-control, internal organization, responsibility, readiness and habit of obeying his own goals (self-discipline) and social guidelines (laws, norms, principles, rules of behavior).

The behavior of exclusively obedient children is often defined as “arbitrary.” However, the child’s obedience, often blind adherence to the rules or instructions of adults, cannot be unconditionally accepted and approved. Blind (involuntary) obedience is devoid of important characteristics of voluntary behavior - meaningfulness, initiative. Therefore, a child with such “convenient” behavior also needs correctional help aimed at overcoming the negative personal formations that determine such behavior.

Involuntary behavior (various deviations in behavior) of children is still one of the pressing problems of modern pedagogy and pedagogical practice. Children with behavioral problems systematically break rules, do not obey internal regulations and the requirements of adults, are rude, and interfere with class or group activities.

The causes of deviations in the behavior of children are varied, but they can all be classified into two groups.

In some cases, behavioral disorders have primary conditioning that is, they are determined by the characteristics of the individual, including neurodynamic, properties of the child: instability of mental processes, psychomotor retardation or, conversely, psychomotor disinhibition. These and other neurodynamic disorders reveal themselves predominantly in hyperexcitable behavior with emotional instability characteristic of such behavior, ease of transition from increased activity to passivity and, conversely, from complete inaction to disordered activity.

In other cases, behavioral violations are a consequence of the child’s inadequate (protective) response to certain difficulties in school life or to the child’s unsatisfactory style of relationships with adults and peers. The child’s behavior is characterized by indecisiveness, passivity or negativism, stubbornness, and aggression. It seems that children with this behavior do not want to behave well and deliberately violate discipline. However, this impression is wrong. The child is truly unable to cope with his experiences. The presence of negative experiences and affects inevitably leads to behavioral breakdowns and is a reason for conflicts with peers and adults.

Prevention of behavioral disorders in children classified in this group is quite easy to implement in cases where adults (teacher, educator, parents) pay attention to the first such manifestations. It is also necessary that all, even the most minor conflicts and misunderstandings be resolved immediately. The importance of a quick response from an adult in these cases is explained by the fact that, once they arise, these conflicts and misunderstandings immediately become the cause of the emergence of incorrect relationships and negative emotions, which deepen and develop on their own, although the initial reason could be insignificant.

Prevention and correction of such behavior is possible if we purposefully formulate the child’s cognitive activity, including him in various types activities, specify the rules in accordance with the conditions of a given school, class, family and comply unified system requirements for compliance with these rules. For children to learn the rules of behavior, the requirements coming not only from adults, but also from peers and from the children's team are also of great importance.

Typical behavior disorders at this age are hyperactive behavior(due, as already mentioned, mainly to the neurodynamic characteristics of the child), and also demonstrative, protest, aggressive, infantile, conformist and symptomatic behavior(in the occurrence of which the determining factors are the conditions of learning and development, the style of relationships with adults, and the characteristics of family upbringing).

Types of violations

3.1 Hyperactive behavior

Perhaps, the hyperactive behavior of children, like no other, causes complaints and complaints from parents, educators, and teachers.

Such children have an increased need for movement. When this need is blocked by rules of conduct, norms of school routine (i.e. in situations in which it is necessary to control and voluntarily regulate one’s motor activity), the child’s muscle tension increases, attention deteriorates, performance decreases, and fatigue sets in. The emotional release that occurs after this is a protective physiological reaction of the body to excessive overstrain and is expressed in uncontrollable motor restlessness, disinhibition, classified as disciplinary offenses.

The main signs of a hyperactive child are motor activity, impulsiveness, distractibility, and inattention. The child makes restless movements with his hands and feet; sitting on a chair, writhing, squirming; easily distracted by extraneous stimuli; has difficulty waiting his turn during games, classes, and other situations; often answers questions without thinking, without listening to the end; has difficulty maintaining attention when completing tasks or playing games; often moves from one unfinished action to another; cannot play calmly, often interferes with the games and activities of other children.

A hyperactive child begins to complete a task without listening to the instructions to the end, but after a while it turns out that he does not know what to do. Then he either continues aimless actions, or annoyingly asks what to do and how to do it. Several times during the task he changes the goal, and in some cases he may completely forget about it. Often distracted while working; does not use the proposed tools, therefore he makes many mistakes that he does not see and does not correct.

Children with hyperactive behavior have difficulty adapting to school, do not fit well into children's groups, and often have problems in relationships with peers. The maladaptive behavior of such children indicates insufficiently formed regulatory mechanisms of the psyche, primarily self-control as the most important condition and necessary link in the development of voluntary behavior.

3.2 Demonstrative behavior

With demonstrative behavior, there is a deliberate and conscious violation of accepted norms and rules of behavior. Internally and externally, such behavior is addressed to adults.

One of the options for demonstrative behavior is childish antics. Two of its features can be distinguished. Firstly, the child grimaces only in the presence of adults (teachers, educators, parents) and only when they pay attention to him. Secondly, when adults show a child that they do not approve of his behavior, the antics not only do not decrease, but even intensify. As a result, a special communicative act unfolds in which the child, in non-verbal language (through actions), tells adults: “I’m doing something that you don’t like.” Similar content is sometimes expressed directly in words, for example, many children from time to time declare: “I am bad.”

What prompts a child to use demonstrative behavior as a special way of communication?

Often this is a way to attract the attention of adults. Children make this choice in cases where parents communicate with them little or formally (the child does not receive the love, affection, and warmth he needs during communication), and also if they communicate exclusively in situations where the child behaves badly and should be scolded , punish. Lacking acceptable forms of contact with adults (joint reading and work, play, sports activities), the child uses a paradoxical, but the only form available to him - a demonstrative prank, which is immediately followed by punishment. “Communication” took place.

But this reason is not the only one. If all cases of antics were explained this way, then this phenomenon should not exist in families where parents communicate quite a lot with their children. However, it is known that in such families children act no less. In this case, the child’s antics and self-denigration “I’m bad” are a way to get out from under the power of adults, not to submit to their norms and not to give them the opportunity to condemn (since the condemnation - self-condemnation - has already taken place). Such demonstrative behavior is predominantly common in families (groups, classes) with an authoritarian parenting style, authoritarian parents, educators, teachers, where children are constantly condemned.

Occasionally, whims can arise as a result of overwork, overstimulation of the child’s nervous system with strong and varied impressions, as well as as a sign or consequence of an onset of illness.

Short description

Target:
based on scientific literature, to study the causes and types of behavior disorders in primary schoolchildren.
Tasks:
1) study psychological and pedagogical literature on the problem of behavioral disorders in children of primary school age;
2) determine the age and psychological and pedagogical characteristics of children of primary school age;
3) identify the causes of behavioral disorders in children of primary school age
4) identify the main types of behavioral disorders in children of primary school age.

Table of contents

INTRODUCTION 3
CHAPTER 1. PERSONALITY OF A CHILD OF PRIMARY SCHOOL AGE 5
CHAPTER 2. CAUSES OF CONDUCT DISORDERS
JUNIOR SCHOOL CHILDREN HAVE 9
CHAPTER 3. TYPES OF VIOLATIONS 12
3.1. Hyperactive behavior 12
3.2. Demonstrative behavior 13
3.3. Protest behavior 15
3.4. Aggressive behavior 18
3.5. Infantile behavior 21
3.6. Conformal behavior 22
3.7. Symptomatic behavior 23
CONCLUSION 26
REFERENCES 27