Analytical languages. Koltsova O.N.
In the typological characteristics of inflectional languages, a special place is occupied by the determination of the proportion of synthetic and analytical forms of the language, the role of function words in the formation of word forms, phrases and sentences. The Russian language has a synthetic structure, while English has an analytical structure.
Analytical system involves a wider use of function words, as well as phonetic means and word order for the formation of word forms and phrase forms. The analytical languages are English, French, Hindustani, Persian, and Bulgarian. Affixation, for example, in English is used mainly for word formation (past tense suffix ed). Nouns and adjectives are characterized by a poverty of inflectional forms; on the contrary, the verb has a developed system of tense forms, which are formed almost exclusively analytically. Syntactic constructions are also distinguished by analyticity, since the main role in the expression of syntactic meanings belongs to function words, word order and intonation.
Synthetic system characterized by a greater role of word forms formed with the help of affixes - inflections and formative suffixes and prefixes. Synthetic languages are Russian, Polish, Lithuanian and most other Indo-European languages; All ancient written Indo-European languages, such as Latin, Greek, and Gothic, were synthetic.
Morphological types of languages:
1. Insulating (root-insulating, amorphous) type (aging). These languages are characterized by a complete or almost complete absence of inflection and, as a consequence of this, a very high grammatical significance of the word order (subject - definition of the subject - definition of the predicate - predicate), each root expresses one lexical meaning, a weak opposition of significant and auxiliary roots. Root-isolating languages include Chinese, Vietnamese, Dungan, Muong and many more etc. Modern English is evolving towards root isolation.
2. Agglutinating (agglutinative) type. Languages of this type are characterized by a developed system of inflection, but each grammatical meaning has its own indicator, the absence of grammatical alternations in the root, the same type of inflection for all words belonging to the same part of speech (i.e., the presence of a single type of declension for all nouns and a single type for all verbs of conjugation type), the number of morphemes in a word is not limited. This includes Turkic, Tungus-Manchu, Finno-Ugric languages, Kartvelian, Andamanese and some other languages. The principle of agglutination is also the basis of the grammar of the artificial language Esperat.
For example, let’s take the instrumental case of the plural of the Komi-Permyak word “sin” (eye) – “sinnezon”. Here the morpheme “nez” is an indicator of the plural, and the morpheme “on” is an indicator of the instrumental case.
3. Inflectional (inflectional, fusional). Languages of this type are characterized by a developed system of inflection (various types of declensions and conjugations: in Russian there are three declensions and two conjugations, in Latin there are five declensions and four conjugations) and the ability to convey the entire range of grammatical meanings with one indicator:
Internal inflection, that is, with grammatically significant alternation in the root (Semitic languages),
External inflection (ending), fusion, that is, with the simultaneous expression of several grammatical meanings with one affix (for example, in the Russian word “at home” the ending of the word “-a” is simultaneously a sign of both the masculine gender and the plural and nominative case).
Also in these languages, one affix can express different meanings (suffix -tel-: person teacher, device switch, abstract factor, substance blood substitute), the number of morphemes in one word is limited (no more than six; the exception is the German language), the presence of proper and common nouns, the presence of different types of stress.
This includes Slavic, Baltic, Italic, some Indian and Iranian languages.
4. A number of typologists also highlight incorporating (polysynthetic) languages where there are “word-sentences”, complex complexes: the verb form includes (sometimes in truncated form) nominal stems corresponding to the object and circumstances, the subject, as well as some grammatical indicators. These include languages Chukotka-Kamchatka family, some languages of the Indians of North America.
The peculiarity of this type of language is that the sentence is constructed as a complex word, that is, unformed root words are agglutinated into one common whole, which will be both a word and a sentence. Parts of this whole are both elements of a word and members of a sentence. The whole is a word-sentence, where the beginning is the subject, the end is the predicate, and additions with their definitions and circumstances are incorporated (inserted) into the middle. Using the Mexican example: ninakakwa, Where ni- "I", naka- “ed-” (i.e. “eat”), a kwa- object, "meat-". In Russian there are three grammatically formed words I eat meat, and, conversely, such a fully formed combination as ant-eater, does not make a sentence.
In order to show how it is possible to “incorporate” in this type of language, we give another example from the Chukchi language: you-ata-kaa-nmy-rkyn- “I kill fat deer”, literally: “I-kill-deer-fat-do”, where is the skeleton of the “body”: you-nwe-ryn, into which it is incorporated kaa- “deer” and its definition ata- “fat”; The Chukchi language does not tolerate any other arrangement, and the whole is a word-sentence, where the above order of elements is observed.
Some analogue of incorporation in the Russian language can be replacing the sentence “I fish” with one word – “fishing”. Of course, such constructions are not typical for the Russian language. They are clearly artificial in nature. Moreover, in the Russian language, only a simple uncommon sentence with a personal pronoun as the subject can be represented as a complex word. It is impossible to “condense” the sentence “The boy is fishing” or “I am catching good fish” into one word. In incorporating languages, any sentence can be represented only as one complex word. So, for example, in the Chukchi language the sentence “We protect new networks” will look like “Mytturkupregynrityrkyn”. We can say that in incorporating languages the boundary between word formation and syntax is blurred to a certain extent.
Speaking about the four morphological types of languages, we must remember that just as there is no chemically pure, unadulterated substance in nature, there is not a single completely inflected, agglutinative, root-isolating or incorporating language. Thus, the Chinese and Dungan languages, which are predominantly root-isolating, contain some, albeit insignificant, elements of agglutination. There are elements of agglutination in inflectional Latin (for example, the formation of forms of the imperfect or future first tense). Conversely, in agglutinative Estonian we encounter elements of inflection. So, for example, in the word töötavad (work), the ending “-vad” denotes both the third person and the plural.
This typological classification of languages, fundamentally morphological, cannot be considered final, mainly because of its inability to reflect all the specifics of an individual language, taking into account its structure. But it contains in implicit form the possibility of clarifying it by analyzing other spheres of language. For example, in isolating languages such as classical Chinese, Vietnamese, and Guinean, the monosyllabic nature of a word equal to a morpheme, the presence of polytony, and a number of other interrelated characteristics are observed.
Russian language is inflectional language of synthetic structure .
There are several types of languages according to their grammatical structure. The most common and well-known: synthetic and analytical. For example, Russian is a synthetic language. This means that different grammatical meanings - tense, gender, number - are expressed within one word: prefixes, suffixes, endings are added. To change the meaning grammatically, you need to change the word itself.
English is an analytical language. Its grammar is built according to different laws. In such languages, grammatical meanings and relationships are conveyed not through word changes, but through syntax. That is, prepositions, modal verbs and other individual parts of speech and even other syntactic forms are added. For example, in English, word order also has grammatical meaning.
Of course, English cannot be called an absolutely analytical language, just as Russian is not completely synthetic. These are relative concepts: there are simply much fewer inflections (endings, suffixes and other parts of a word that change it) in English than in Russian. But in a “real” analytical language they should not exist at all.
One of the main features of English analyticism
- words can move from one part of speech to another in the same form. Only the context and word order help to understand that what is meant is not a noun, but a verb.
Compare:
The air
is polluted in this area.
– The air in this area is polluted. 
We have to air the room. - We need to ventilate the room.
In analytical English, you can make complex words from several words without changing the constituent parts, without using connecting parts of the word. Sometimes such “composites” can consist of five to seven or even more words.
For example:
HeisanannoyingI-know-everything-in-the-worldstudent. “He’s one of those annoying students who thinks he knows everything.”
Each analytical language has its own developmental characteristics.
For example, in English, unlike other European languages, verbs are more susceptible to analyticity, rather than adjectives or nouns. To change the tense of a verb, you often have to use auxiliary verbs and function words rather than inflections: havebeendoing , waseating , willcall .
Linguists say that over time, analytical languages become synthetic, and vice versa. Probably, in a few hundred years the English language will acquire an extensive system of inflections and get rid of auxiliary verbs and prepositions. But for now we have to learn a complex system of tenses, numerous phrasal verbs and not forget about word order in the English language.
Analytical languages- languages in which grammatical meanings are mainly expressed outside the word, in the sentence: English, French, and all isolating languages, for example, Vietnamese. In these languages, a word is a transmitter of lexical meaning, and grammatical meanings are transmitted separately: by the order of words in a sentence, function words, intonation, etc.
Examples
Phrase in Russian - "father loves son". If you change the word order - “father loves son”, then the meaning of the phrase will not change, the word “son” and the word “father” change the case ending. Phrase in English - "the father loves the son". When changing the word order to "the son loves the father" the meaning of the phrase changes exactly the opposite - "son loves father", since there are no case endings, and the word son sounds and is written the same both if it corresponds to the nominative case of the Russian language and to the indirect cases. Therefore, the meaning of a sentence depends on the order of words in the sentence. The same phenomenon is observed if we consider the French phrase "le père aime le fils" with the same meaning.
see also
Links
- // Encyclopedic Dictionary of Brockhaus and Efron: In 86 volumes (82 volumes and 4 additional ones). - St. Petersburg. , 1890-1907.
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- Cham language. Oral dialects of the eastern dialect, N.F. Alieva, Bui Khanh The. This monograph is devoted to the Cham language - a little-studied ancient written language of the people living in the Socialist Republic of Vietnam and Kampuchea. It is an Austronesian language that was lost in...
Analytical languages The brothers Friedrich and August Schlegel gave this name to the new Indo-European languages in their classification of languages. All languages that have a more or less developed grammatical structure, allowing one word, with a slightly modified form, to always express the same concept, but not the same grammatical relation, are called organic by the Schlegels. Thus, each of the Indo-European languages can be called organic, where a certain number of forms that change the ending express the same concept, but in different respects of case, number, person and tense, voice, etc. For example, the Latin forms lupus, lupi, lupo, lupum, etc. express one concept "wolf", but in a sentence each of these forms expresses a special relationship to other forms logically related to it. Such a grammatical relationship can be expressed in different ways: either through special changes at the end, middle or beginning of the word, i.e. the so-called. inflection, or through descriptive expressions. On this basis, the Schlegels divided all organic languages into synthetic and analytical. The first are of the nature that they express grammatical relations through internal changes in the word, i.e. inflection, while the analytical ones are predominantly based on the external immobility of forms and at the same time on addition. This difference will seem obvious if we compare the Latin caballi and the French de cheval, Latin. caballo and fr. à cheval, dat. amabo and fr. j"aimerai (I will love): we see here that the same grammatical expression in the first case is expressed by one simple word, in the second - by two simple or complex words. From the history of languages it is clear that all languages tend to acquire an analytical character: with each new era the number of characteristic features of the analytical class increases. The ancient language of the Vedas was almost completely purely synthetic, classical Sanskrit had already developed a little more new analytical elements; the same thing happened with all other languages: in the ancient world they all had a strong synthetically in nature, for example, the languages of Greek, Latin, Sanskrit, Zend, etc. On the contrary, the new languages took on an analytical character, and the language that moved most of the European languages in this direction was English, which left only insignificant remnants of declensions and conjugations. not in the French language either, but there are still conjugations left there, which are also quite strongly developed in the German language, where the declension is preserved to a wider extent than in the Romance languages. This fate befell almost all other new Indo-European languages, eg; New Indian like Pali, Pahlavi, Afghani, or Pashto, New Persian dialects, New Armenian, etc. All these languages, in comparison with the languages of ancient times, are of a rather strong analytical nature. However, two groups of new languages differ from all of them: Slavic and Lithuanian. Synthetic features still predominate here; this conservatism is almost equally inherent in the Slavic and Lithuanian groups and is very pronounced when comparing these two groups with the rest of the languages of the Indo-European family. Grammatical forms of declensions and conjugations flourish in these two related groups, and it is difficult to decide which side has the upper hand. If it seems that the current declension of Lithuanian nouns and especially adjectives is richer than the Slavic one, then there is no doubt that the Slavic conjugation is richer than the Lithuanian one. In any case, the fact is that the Slavic-Lithuanian group is synthetic in nature, while other new Indo-European languages gave precedence to the analytical principle.
Encyclopedic Dictionary F.A. Brockhaus and I.A. Efron. - S.-Pb.: Brockhaus-Efron. 1890-1907 .
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Literary encyclopedia
A type of languages in which grammatical meanings are expressed not by word forms (as in synthetic languages), but mainly by function words, word order, intonation, etc. Analytical languages include English, French,... ... Big Encyclopedic Dictionary
Analytical languages- ANALYTICAL LANGUAGES. And I. as opposed to the synthetic ones. languages in which the relationship between the words included in a phrase (see) is indicated only by the forms of the entire phrase, such as, for example, the order of words, the intonation of the whole... ... Dictionary of literary terms
A type of languages in which grammatical meanings are expressed not by word forms (as in synthetic languages), but mainly by function words, word order, intonation, etc. Analytical languages include English, French, Bulgarian and... ... encyclopedic Dictionary
Languages in which grammatical meanings (relationships between words in a sentence) are expressed not by the forms of the words themselves (cf. synthetic languages), but by function words for significant words, the order of significant words, and the intonation of the sentence. TO… … Dictionary of linguistic terms
analytical languages- Languages in which grammatical meanings are expressed outside the word (in a sentence) through: 1) word order; 2) intonation; 3) service words, etc. A.Ya. are: English, French, Italian, Spanish and all isolating languages... Dictionary of linguistic terms T.V. Foal
A type of languages in which grammatical relations are expressed by function words, word order, intonation, etc., and not by inflection, that is, not by grammatical alternation of morphs within a word form, as in synthetic languages. To A. I.… … Great Soviet Encyclopedia
analytical languages- And I. as opposed to the synthetic ones. languages in which the relationship between the words included in the phrase (see) is indicated only by the forms of the entire phrase, such as, for example, word order, intonation of the whole phrase, ... ... Grammar Dictionary: Grammar and linguistic terms
Analytical languages- Analytical languages, see Typological classification of languages... Linguistic encyclopedic dictionary
- ... Wikipedia
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- The figure of concealment. Selected works. In 2 volumes, Senderovich Savely Yakovlevich. This publication contains the works of a professor of Russian literature and medieval studies at Cornell University (Ithaca, New York), dedicated to the clarification of individual texts, special...
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Analytical languages- languages in which grammatical relations tend to be conveyed mainly through syntax, that is, through individual function words (prepositions, modal verbs, etc.) through a fixed word order, context and/or intonation variations, rather than through inflection with using dependent morphemes (endings, suffixes, prefixes, etc.). In other words, the synthetic way of expressing relationships between words lies within the framework of one morpheme, which is part of one word, and in analytical languages these relationships are taken outside the word forms, that is, there is a specialization of labor between grammatically significant function words (prepositions, auxiliary verbs) and lexically significant units that remain unchanged in shape or change slightly. If a language is isolating (only one morpheme per word), then it will by definition be “extremely analytical” (but not all analytic languages are isolating: most words in modern Chinese (官话) are compound, two-morpheme, although its grammar remains analytical). Languages with a strong tendency towards analyticity traditionally include Afrikaans, English, Dutch, New Persian, Macedonian and Bulgarian. Moreover, the ancestors of all these languages were of a well-documented inflectional nature. A pronounced tendency toward analyticism appears in all Romance languages, including French, which represents it most fully, demonstrating the greatest contrast with inflectional Latin. Although some analytical constructions appeared in Russian and German, these languages, however, retain a predominantly inflectional structure.
11. Agglutinative languages(from lat. agglutinatio - gluing) - languages that have a structure in which the dominant type of inflection is agglutination (“gluing”) of various formants (suffixes or prefixes), and each of them carries only one meaning.
The agglutinative system is the opposite of the inflectional one, in which each formant carries several inseparable meanings at once (for example, case, gender, number, etc.). More importantly, in agglutinative languages, formants do not form indivisible structures and do not change under the influence of other formants.
Synthetic languages in which word change occurs in a non-agglutinative manner are called inflectional. Their peculiarity is the property of formants to “stick together” into an indivisible whole with a certain set of different meanings, often changing significantly.
Sometimes the concept of agglutination extends to all synthetic languages, which is incorrect. When used in this way, the term would also include inflected languages and, in general, all languages that have inflection. In general, it is often difficult to determine the dominant principle of inflection in a language. Synthetic languages, for example, can include some agglutinative elements while remaining generally inflectional.
Usually agglutinative languages contain many suffixes/morphemes in one word. However, exceptions are usually minimal. For example, in Japanese there are only two irregular verbs (which are “slightly” irregular), in Turkish there is one, and in Quechua there are no irregular verbs at all.
Agglutinative languages - Turkic, some Finno-Ugric, Mongolian, Tungus-Manchu, Korean, Japanese, Georgian, Basque, Abkhaz-Adyghe, Dravidian, part of the Indian and some African languages. The Sumerian language (the language of the ancient Sumerians) also belonged to agglutinative languages.
Many artificial languages, including most planned ones (Esperanto, Ido), are agglutinative.
Many languages have developed under conditions of convergent evolution. It is believed that there is a general tendency towards the transition of agglutinative languages into inflected ones, which then turn into non-synthetic languages, which further develop into isolating languages, returning over time to agglutinative ones. However, these are only assumptions described in the theory of grammaticalization and general linguistic processes (especially word-final apocope and elision). See language drift for more details.
12. Inflectional system(from lat. flectivus“flexible”) is a structure of a synthetic type language in which inflection using inflections dominates - formants that combine several meanings at once. The inflectional system is the opposite of the agglutinative one, in which each formant carries only one meaning.
Classic examples of inflectional languages are Latin, German, and Russian. We can say that all stable Indo-European languages are inflectional. Another large group of inflected languages are the Semitic languages. Inflectional formants are widely used in Sami languages.
An example is the word “good”, where the ending -й indicates the nominative case, singular, masculine gender. In various word forms, the ending -й is replaced by another.
A feature of inflectional languages is the presence of irregular forms (this cannot be the case in agglutinative languages, since each formant can only have one meaning). It is assumed that the inflectional system developed from the agglutinative system, but at the moment there is no evidence to confirm this hypothesis. [ source not specified 623 days] At the same time, inflected languages tend to lose inflections as they develop—some more quickly, some more slowly. For example, Slovenian, Lithuanian, and Armenian languages have largely retained the inflectional system of the Proto-Indo-European language, while English and Afrikaans are almost analytical languages.
Another typical feature of inflected languages is their declensional systems. For example, in German, the definite and indefinite articles are changed according to gender, number and case. The declension system for the definite article looks like this:
Nominative case: der(male), die(female), das(s.r.), die(plural)
Genitive: des(male), der(female), des(s.r.), der(plural)
Dative: dem(male), der(female), dem(s.r.), den(plural)
Accusative: den(male), die(female), das(s.r.), die(plural)
Adjectives usually change according to the noun they describe. In Germanic languages, an adjective can occupy a position between a noun and a definite article ("weak" declension), and an indefinite article ("mixed declension") or without an article ("strong" declension).
For example:
Der Hamster(German) hamster- noun, male, eminent)
Des Hamsters(German) hamster- noun, male, born)
When introducing an adjective klein- German small.
Einklein er Hamster(“one little hamster” - mixed declension, eminent)
Derklein e Hamster(“this little hamster” - weak declension, eminent)
Ich sehe den klein en Hamster(“I see this little hamster” - weak. declension, vinit.p.)
Mit klein em Hamster(“together with the little hamster” - no article; strong declension, dative).
Analytical languages that developed from inflectional languages (eg English) retain some rudiments of the old inflectional system, especially in the area of personal pronouns. Ex: You see me. (vinit.p.) - “You see me».
6. Wilhelm von Humboldt (1767-1835), “one of the greatest men of Germany” (according to
according to V. Thomsen), is considered the founder of general linguistics and philosophy
W. Humboldt was the first among linguists who consciously based his concept on the linguistic principle of activity: “Language should not be considered as a dead product. But as a creative process, Humboldt was one of the first in the history of linguistics to substantiate the systemic nature of language. The problem of the relationship between language and thinking is one of the central ones in Humboldt’s linguistic concept. In a short article specially dedicated to him (“On Thinking and Speech”), Humboldt sees the essence of thinking in reflection, i.e. e. in distinguishing between the thinker and the object of thought. According to his theory, a person is looking for a sign with the help of which he could imagine the whole as a set of unities. In his work “On the difference in the structure of human languages and its influence on the spiritual development of mankind,” Humboldt puts forward the thesis: “Language is not a product of activity, but an activity.” The form of language is considered as something “constant and uniform in this activity of the spirit.” In his linguistic studies Humboldt touched upon important problems of a socio-philosophical nature related to the identification of the concepts of “people” and “language”. Humboldt considers the “nation” to be a form of “individualization of the human spirit” that has a “linguistic” status. Considering the nation to be a spiritual form of humanity that has linguistic certainty"
