History of the creation of genetically modified organisms and products. Genetically modified food sources
Achievements modern science allow the transfer of genes of any organism into a recipient cell to obtain a plant, animal or organism with recombinant genes and, accordingly, new properties.
Genetically modified foods(GMP) are products obtained through the use of genetic engineering technologies. Man, using transgenic modification, creates useful varieties of plants and animals, strains of microorganisms with high productivity, increased content proteins, essential amino acids, fats, carbohydrates, vitamins, biologically active substances resistant to adverse natural conditions, diseases, viruses, herbicides with great savings in costs and material resources.
The first GMP - a resistant tomato brand Fiar Savr (Calgene, Inc., USA) was created in the USA and appeared on the food market in 1994 after 10 years of preliminary tests. In subsequent years, the number of GMFs approved for use in the USA, Canada, Japan and the countries of the European Union has become significantly larger - these are corn, potatoes, soybeans, pumpkin, papaya, and sugar beets. In 1999, genetically modified soybean line 40-3-2 (Monsanto Co, USA) was registered in Russia. To date, hundreds of genetically modified food sources have been created and approved for use in food, the number of which continues to grow. All over the world, the volume of acreage occupied by transgenic crops is rapidly increasing. In recent years alone, the area of cultivated crops of transgenic plants, including rapeseed, soybeans, tomatoes, and potatoes, has increased more than 25 times, and this trend is progressing in both developed and developing countries(USA, Argentina, China, Canada, South Africa, Mexico, EU countries).
Insecticide-resistant corn has been developed by Swiss and Dutch specialists. Herbicide-resistant rapeseed has been created by Belgian scientists. In Austria, grapes were obtained from which wine with improved organoleptic properties is produced. In many countries (EU countries, Australia, New Zealand, etc.) registration of GMF is mandatory.
The widespread use of products or food components obtained from genetically modified sources requires an assessment of their quality and safety for the population. For very short term During the process of evolution (several decades), the human body is not able to adapt to the expansion of many new gene combinations in OAB, which can lead to the emergence of various diseases.
Analytical and experimental studies indicate possible undesirable consequences genetic engineering activities: allergenic, toxic and anti-alimentary manifestations, as well as the impact on the technological and external consumer properties of the finished product based on genetically modified sources. The root cause of such consequences is recombinant DNA and the possibility on its basis of the expression of new proteins that are not inherent in this type of protein. It is new proteins that can exhibit or induce allergenic properties and toxicity of genetically modified food sources. However, most of the new GMPs are not allergenic or toxic.
Legal basis the safety of genetic engineering activities is contained in the Law of the Republic of Belarus “On the safety of genetic engineering activities” (2006), food safety in general – in the Law of the Republic of Belarus “On the quality and safety of food raw materials and food products for human life and health” (2003 ).
Social ecology is an integral part human ecology is an association of scientific branches that study the connection between social structures and the natural and social environment of their residence. This association includes population ecology(environmental demography) and ecology of human populations. At the same time, both the influence of the environment on society and society on the environment and the biosphere as a whole are studied.
Over the past four centuries, the world's population has grown according to a hyperbolic law. In the 20th century He gained character population explosion – an increase in the Earth's population almost 4 times.
In the second half of the 20th century. With each decade, the average annual population growth increased by about 10 million, reaching in the mid-1960s. 2.2% per year. The world's population reached the first billion in 1820 (it took more than 500,000 years). To increase the planet's population to 2 billion it took 107 years (from 1820 to 1927), to 3 billion - 32 years (1959), to 4 billion - 15 years (1974), to 5 billion - 13 years (1987), to 6 billion – 12 years (was achieved in 1999).
Nothing similar is observed in nature among higher mammals. Their species abundance outside of cases of human intervention throughout long periods relatively stable over time. The demographic explosion is due to the fact that, starting from the middle of the 20th century. The decline in mortality has significantly outpaced the decline in fertility in many countries around the world, most significantly in developing countries.
Modern society involves a huge amount of substances and energy in production and consumption, which is hundreds of times greater than the purely biological needs of humans.
The main reason for modern ecological crisis consider quantitative expansion human society – an exorbitant level and rapid increase in the total anthropogenic (technogenic) load on nature.
One of the most characteristic features of the development of modern society is the rapid growth of cities and the continuous increase in the number of their inhabitants - urbanization.
Urbanization(from lat. urbanus– urban) is the process of increasing the role of cities in the life of society. Special urban relations cover the socio-professional and demographic structure of the population, its way of life, the location of production and settlement.
The prerequisites for urbanization are: the growth of industry, the deepening of the territorial division of labor, the development of the political and cultural functions of cities.
The urbanization of cities is characterized by an influx of rural population into cities and an increasing pendulum movement of people from the rural environment and nearby small towns to large ones (to work, for cultural and everyday needs).
Cities have existed since ancient times, but urban civilization developed rapidly only in the 20th century. If the population of the planet as a whole doubles in an average of 35 years, then the urban population doubles in 11 years. Moreover, the largest centers are growing twice as fast as small cities. At the beginning of the 19th century. Only 29.3 million people (3% of the world’s population) lived in cities around the world, and in 1900 - already 224.4 million (13.6%), in 1950 - 729 million (28.8%), in 1980 – 1821 million (41.1%).
When it comes to pollutants (contaminants), it is appropriate to clearly distinguish harmful products nutrition. The substances they contain can lead to the development serious illnesses. Therefore, the presence of such food in the diet should be avoided, and if impossible, minimized.
There are 3 safety criteria according to which it is possible to identify clearly harmful products:
Biological (viruses, fungi, etc.);
Chemical ( heavy metals, pesticides, etc.);
Radiation (radionuclides).
Therefore, when preparing food, you should carefully follow the recommendations for both temperature and duration of heat exposure.
Along with microbiological safety, chemical safety of food products is also extremely important today. In the manufacture of agricultural products, both in crop production and in animal husbandry, they are increasingly used chemical compounds that negatively affect human health. Such substances - xenobiotics - are foreign to our body and often contribute to the development dangerous diseases. The expansion of their use in the production and storage of food products determines the main ways in which elements that are unusual for it enter food.
Of particular danger to human health are heavy metals, pesticides, radionuclides, nitrates, nitrites, nitrosamines, aromatic carbohydrates, medicines etc.
It has now been proven that xenobiotics from the environment enter the body mainly with food: nitrates - mainly with vegetables and potatoes (about 79% of the daily intake of these substances), the remaining 30% - with water, meat and other products. The intake of radionuclides occurs partially with water (5%) and with inhaled air (1%), but mainly with food products of animal and plant origin (about 94%).
The use of pesticides for the purpose of intensification Agriculture increases the risk of their accumulation in food raw materials and food products (especially in greenhouse crop products). It is characteristic that the organoleptic properties of food - smell, appearance - when contaminated with pesticides, as a rule, do not change, although harmful products may contain them in significant quantities.
In our country, the production and use of mineral fertilizers in agriculture has increased in recent years. Uncontrolled use of nitrogenous compounds has led to the accumulation of nitrates, which have toxic properties, which has significantly reduced the safety of plant-based foods. In addition, these substances are precursors for the formation of nitroso compounds, including nitrosamines, which have carcinogenic effect. In various regions of the country, cases of digestive diseases associated with the consumption of vegetables, most often melons, with a high content of nitrates are periodically recorded.
When consuming safe food, you should avoid smoked meats - one of the main causes of the formation of carcinogenic nitrosamines in the body. Some researchers claim that wide use Stomach cancer among the Japanese is explained not only by the fact that their food contains remnants of asbestos fibers used to clean rice, but primarily by the habit of eating smoked fish soaked in nitrites.
Safe food products should not contain toxic metals, which, unfortunately, are not so rare in our diet today. According to FAO/WHO reports, lead, cadmium, mercury and arsenic pose the most real danger and significant threat to human health due to the ability to accumulate in the body and cause diseases that develop gradually, without pronounced symptoms.
Food safety largely depends on the use of antibiotics in livestock production and medical practice. This leads to an increase in the number of antibiotic-resistant strains of microorganisms, which significantly complicates the use of these drugs for the treatment of humans, as well as to rapid growth number of allergic diseases.
Safe food products are also tested for the content of mycotoxins - waste products of certain types of microscopic fungi that are highly toxic. In addition, many of them have mutagenic and carcinogenic effects. Currently, more than 250 species are known molds, producing about 100 toxic compounds that can cause mycotoxicosis in humans and farm animals. The annual damage in the world from the uncontrolled development of molds on agricultural products and industrial food raw materials exceeds $30 billion.
Nowadays they talk a lot and willingly about “genetically modified” food - they are spoken by politicians and government officials, specialists in the field of biotechnology, medicine and ecology, representatives of the clergy, cultural and artistic figures... “Edible” fruits genetic engineering regularly, for a long time and “with appetite” are exaggerated by almost all means mass media. The “sparkling” information flow that hits the modern consumer special terms such as “genetically modified sources” and “transgenic products” (as well as somewhat pretentious definitions like “food of the 3rd millennium” and “Frankenstein food”), is quite impressive, but... not particularly useful.
There is too much emotion in the current education of the average person about the advantages and disadvantages of genetically modified food products - and too few dispassionate facts. Facts, knowledge of which will allow a supermarket visitor who sees the inscription “contains modified starch” on the packaging of a product suitable for his “food basket” to make a purchase or refuse one without the painful Hamletian “to be or not to be”, the rollicking native “was - was not!” and an uncompromising “I don’t believe it!” a la Stanislavsky. And therefore it makes sense to look for these facts.
"As long as we call everything by its proper name..."
In order to better navigate the flow of conflicting information about “genetically modified” food products, it would not hurt for a potential buyer to acquire a “basic” acquaintance with some biotechnological terms - otherwise the above-mentioned flow will easily and naturally turn into a real flood. In which he will perish irrevocably true picture of things.
Today, to characterize the “Frankenfood problem,” the media widely uses the terms “genetically modified sources"(abbreviated as GMI), "genetically modified organisms" (GMOs) and "transgenic plants/animals". Moreover, there is often a sort of equal sign between these terms - which, in fact, is not true. Transgenic organisms are always genetically modified - this is a fact But the fact that genetically modified organisms are always transgenic is not at all a fact.
The fact is that you can genetically modify the original genome (a set of genetic material contained in the cells of a living organism) of any organism in different ways - you can, for example, artificially introduce foreign genetic information into it. Or you can simply artificially “turn off” or “strengthen” some genes 1 of the original genome (as happens during the usual mutation process provided by nature, the results of which breeders have been working with quite legally for a long time). In the latter case, biotechnologists do not use specific genetic engineering constructs containing “foreign” DNA that can be actively integrated into the genome of the original organism - and it is precisely with these very constructs that opponents of “Frankenfood” most often “scare” the consumer.
Thus, transgenic are organisms in which an additional section of DNA is built into the genome, and genetically modified are transgenic organisms, as well as organisms, some of whose own genes are “turned off” or “enhanced.”
In addition to transgenic organisms and mutants artificially created by geneticists, the category of genetically modified organisms sometimes the products obtained by not molecular but cellular biotechnologies (transfer of certain parts - organelles - cells: mitochondria, chloroplasts) - chlibridization (chloroplast transfer), mibridization (mitochondria transfer), protoplast fusion or somaclonal variation. It seems that there is no point in going into the details of these technologies in detail - suffice it to say that there is practically nothing really threatening the genetic “inviolability” of the consumer of the fruits of these biotechnological delights. Although such “Michurin” crops (in the opinion of opponents of everything unnatural) can look very intimidating - imagine, for example, carrots with tops... parsley. This is exactly the plant that was once obtained by biotechnologists by merging the protoplasts of the two above-mentioned plants.
The thorny path of the “forbidden fruit”
Already 30 years ago, discussing safety measures when using the newly emerged recombinant DNA technology, scientists decided to extremely strictly limit the “freedom” of future transgenic organisms - to the point of creating a genetic impossibility for the latter to survive in the outside world. Outside the laboratories, that is. But ten years later, when it became clear that transgenic organisms were not as terrible as the press might “paint” them, the recombinant prisoners received their first “relaxations” - and were released into the world. New World, mainly.
It took a lot of time to pass through the powerful "filters" of federal agencies that control the use of drugs and food, environmental protection and national health care - but it took even longer to develop public tolerance for "genetic monsters." The North American continent of the mid-80s remembers mass protests, scandalous media campaigns, and even the physical destruction of experimental fields by conservative citizens... All this happened.
However, it has passed - and now the USA is the undisputed world leader in the production of genetically modified food products (this state accounts for up to 70% of their total production). Canada and a number of countries are confidently developing the above-mentioned production Latin America. And also Europe - France, for example. China is also doing this, of course. The number of “edible” species that have undergone genetic modification currently amounts to many dozens - soybeans, potatoes, beets, rapeseed, corn, tomatoes, bananas, sweet potatoes, papaya... The number of food products that contain GMOs and GMIs, is calculated in completely different orders. GM products are sold in many countries around the world (in Russia - since 1999; at least officially), they are consumed by hundreds of millions of people on the planet - this is today's reality.
The properties acquired by agricultural crops as a result of genetic engineering modification are, without exaggeration, extremely valuable. Resistance to the action of herbicides and pesticides, an unusually wide range of ambient temperatures, at which the safety of the fruit is ensured and the yield is not reduced; The yield indicators themselves... All this is impressive. As well as the pronounced beneficial properties of some products - such as, for example, the fatty acid profile optimized for the prevention of atherosclerosis and excess weight in some varieties of genetically modified corn and soybeans, high content the famous lecopene in GM tomatoes, the special properties of starch in potatoes (which, in particular, do not allow the latter to absorb a lot of fat during frying). However, this does not make the mistrust of a significant part of the global population towards genetically modified food products any less - despite the fact that, perhaps, no type of raw material for food products is subjected to such stringent safety testing as GMOs. And the basis of this mistrust is undoubtedly fear.
What are we afraid of...
We are mainly afraid of the potential harm that genetically modified organisms can have on our own organisms. And yet - potentially dangerous influence what GMOs can do to the environment.
The threats “emanating” from GMOs can be divided into two categories - potential (hypothetical, or postulated) and... attributed. As for the latter, this includes allergic reactions mentioned by irreconcilable opponents of GM food products (including perverted reactions to the administration of certain antibiotics) and certain hormonal changes(feminization of boys and premature puberty in girls). The ability to cause a decrease in potency in men, allegedly discovered in genetically modified soybeans, also belongs to this category. None of the above effects of GMOs have currently been confirmed by objective methods of evidence-based medicine - and this means that all these statements can be considered virtually unfounded.
The situation is more complicated with potential threats - i.e. those that may come from transgenic foods, for example. As follows from the very definition of “potential”, there is currently no convincing evidence in favor of a real harmful effect of transgenic products. But this could (theoretically) appear years later. According to the enemies of “Frankenstein food”, since genetic engineering constructs containing foreign (even “alien”) DNA “know how” to introduce themselves, say, into the genome of a tomato, then why not assume that, having been freed from a tomato digested by a person, they will they be able to penetrate the genome, for example, of epithelial cells (cells that line the inside of the intestine) of the human intestine? Thus replacing the natural “vertical” order of gene transmission from ancestors to descendants with a completely atypical “horizontal” order - with possibly dangerous consequences? In the form of toxic, immunopathological reactions or carcinogenesis (provoking oncological diseases), For example?
To be fair, it is worth noting here that the “horizontal” (i.e., not from ancestors to descendants, but as if “from the outside”) transfer of genetic information is not an invention genetic engineers- it exists in nature for many millions of years. From time immemorial to the present day, the human genome has been “horizontally” modified, for example, by viruses - there are more than enough “adopted” fragments of their genetic information in the DNA of any of us. How sufficient, in general, are internal means of protection against the “horizontal” flow of foreign genes --in particular, a significant part of the nucleic acid “aliens” is mercilessly “cut” into functionally useless pieces by the numerous special enzymes we have called restriction enzymes. And if such an “alien” turns out to be an artificial genetic engineering construct used to modify a tomato, then it cannot count on leniency from the aforementioned Cerberus enzymes.
Of course, about the 100% guaranteed safety of transgenic organisms for human health There is no need to say the same for now, if only because current genetic engineering is by no means perfect. However, the likelihood of such a negative effect is clearly assessed as low.
...And how are we saved?
Each of us has the right to fight this postulated “transgenic” threat on a voluntary basis - ignoring genetically modified (and specifically transgenic) food products. True, for this it is necessary to be able to accurately distinguish such products from products that have escaped the above-mentioned “presumption of guilt.” That is, from products of “natural” origin. And ideally, you need to be able to distinguish them not only on store shelves and racks, but also, say, in a plate of delicacy just served by the waiter.
To ensure effective anti-GMO “navigation” in stores in those countries whose economic status is in in perfect order, and the population is not particularly favorable to “Frankenstein food”, local legislation provides for mandatory labeling of food products containing certain amounts of GM components - for Europe, for example, this amount is 0.9%. For the absence of such labeling or underestimation of the GMI content, the manufacturer will certainly be subject to serious penalties. As for the problem of “expertise on a plate”, the latter is also being solved in the above-mentioned countries, at the very least - on the basis of miniature DNA testers being developed that allow express analysis of food right on the spot, quickly and reliably.
As for us, here, as usual, everything is not so simple... Firstly, special labeling of food products containing GM components above 0.9% is not mandatory in Russia - for now this is a purely voluntary matter . And despite the fact that the above-mentioned content threshold, mandatory for labeling, has been mentioned in a number of domestic regulations since June 2004, the State Duma has not yet “legalized” this provision - although it “approached” the issue in November of this year. However, legislators promise to try again at the very beginning of 2005.
Secondly, it is much more difficult to catch a manufacturer cheating in Russia than in Europe, due to the fact that the laboratory base of the departments monitoring the problem of GM products is rather weak: there is clearly a lack of equipment for the quantitative analysis of GM components, and even the qualitative determination of such in products leaves wish for better.
And, finally, thirdly: the amount of the fine currently provided for violators of existing laws (20 thousand rubles) cannot, even if desired, characterize the penalty as any serious. And that means effective.
Conclusion
Genetically modified food products have already become a reality today - and they are unlikely to disappear from the global market tomorrow. The key to this is both the constantly improving unique qualities of the products themselves and the solid economic interest of their manufacturers. The contradictory information about the safety of GMOs will apparently also continue for many more years - “Frankenstein food” has many serious opponents; Suffice it to remember that the transatlantic “GM war” between the United States and Europe, which continues to this day, began in the last century. And in war, of course, as in war, all information is verified primarily ideologically. The truth in this case, as usual, is somewhere nearby. Near the golden mean between the polar opinions of the parties. And therefore, for a future mother facing the question of whether genetically modified food products should “be or not” be in her diet, it probably makes sense to be guided by the words of the great philosopher from the Middle Kingdom, who wisely noted that “ careful man rarely makes mistakes."
IN Lately appeared fundamentally new way changes in food raw materials - genetic modification.
As a result of human intervention in the genetic apparatus of microorganisms, agricultural crops and animal breeds, it became possible to increase the resistance of agricultural crops and animals to diseases, pests and adverse environmental factors, increase product yield, and obtain qualitatively new food raw materials with specified properties (organoleptic indicators, nutritional value , stability during storage, etc.).
Genetically modified food sources (GMI)– these are food products (components) obtained from genetically modified organisms used for human consumption in natural or processed form.
Genetically modified organism- an organism or several organisms, any non-cellular, unicellular or multicellular formations capable of reproducing or transmitting hereditary genetic material, other than natural organisms, obtained using genetic engineering methods and containing genetically engineered material, including genes, their fragments or a combination genes.
Transgenic organisms- organisms that have undergone genetic transformation.
To create transgenic organisms, techniques have been developed that make it possible to cut out the necessary fragments from DNA molecules, modify them accordingly, reconstruct them into a single whole and clone - multiply in a large number of copies.
The first step towards the creation of genetically modified products was taken by American engineers who, in 1994, after 10 years of testing, released a batch of tomatoes that were unusually shelf-stable on the US market. In 1996, producers of genetically modified foods sold seeds to Europe for the first time. In 1999, the first genetically modified soybean line 40-3-2 (“Monsanto Co” USA) was registered in Russia.
Currently genetically modified plants are considered as bioreactors, intended for the production of proteins with a given amino acid composition, oils with a fatty acid composition, as well as carbohydrates, enzymes, food additives and others (Rogov I. A., 2000). Thus, in Texas, they created dark burgundy carrots with a high content of b-carotene, anthocyanins, antioxidants, as well as carrots rich in lycopene; in Switzerland, a variety of rice with a high content of iron and vitamin A, etc. was developed. Currently, genes for storage proteins in soybeans, peas, beans, corn, and potatoes have been cloned.
New technologies for producing transgenic agricultural crops are becoming important. animals And birds. The ability to use the specificity and targeting of integrated genes allows you to increase productivity, optimize individual parts and tissues of carcasses (carcasses), improve consistency, taste and aromatic properties meat,. change the structure and color of muscle tissue, the degree and nature of fat content, pH, hardness, water-holding capacity, as well as increase its manufacturability and industrial suitability, which is especially important in conditions of shortage of meat raw materials.
The production of crops and food products using genetic engineering methods is one of the fastest growing segments of the global agricultural market.
There is a clear understanding in the international scientific community that due to the growth of the Earth's population, which is projected to reach 9-11 billion people by 2050, there is a need to double or even triple global agricultural production, which is impossible without the use of transgenic organisms .
In 2000 alone, the turnover of the world market for food products using genetic technologies amounted to about $20 billion, and over the past few years, the area under transgenic plants (soybeans, corn, potatoes, tomatoes, sugar beets) has increased more than 20 times. and amounted to over 25 million hectares. This trend is progressively increasing in many countries: the USA, Argentina, China, Canada, South Africa, Mexico, France, Spain, Portugal, etc.
Currently, more than 150 types of genetically modified sources are produced in the United States. According to American biotechnologists, in the next 5-10 years all food products in the United States will contain genetically modified material.
However, there is ongoing debate around the world about the safety of genetically modified food sources. Academician of the Russian Academy of Agricultural Sciences I.A. Rogov (2000) points out the unpredictability of the behavior of genetically modified proteins in model systems and finished products. But to date, detailed studies have not been carried out regarding the safety of these products for the human body. The accumulation of experimental material will require decades, which is why there is not sufficient information in the literature about how much a person can consume this kind of food daily; what proportion should it occupy in the diet; how it affects the human genetic code and most importantly, there is no objective information about its harmlessness.
There is some evidence (Braun K.S., 2000) that genetically modified foods may contain toxins, harmful hormonal substances (rBGH) and pose a threat to human health. Analytical and experimental studies also indicate possible allergenic, toxic and anti-alimentary manifestations, the cause of which is recombinant DNA and the possibility on its basis of the expression of new proteins that are not inherent in this type of product. It is new proteins that can independently exhibit or induce the allergenic properties and toxicity of GMI. One more undesirable effect GMI is the ability to transform transferred genetic material.
Regulation of the production of genetically modified sources in the United States is under strict government control.
In EU member countries, since September 1998, mandatory GMI labeling on product labels has been adopted, and in April 1999, a moratorium on the distribution of new genetically modified crops was adopted due to the fact that their harmlessness to human health has not been conclusively proven.
In Russia, taking into account the increasing volumes of production and supply of products obtained from genetically modified sources, on the basis of the Federal Law “On the Sanitary and Epidemiological Welfare of Public Health”, the Chief State Sanitary Doctor of the Russian Federation adopted a letter dated May 2, 2000 “Requirements for labeling of food products obtained using genetically modified sources”, Resolution: No. 14 of 08.11.2000 “On the procedure for sanitary and epidemiological examination of food products obtained from genetically modified sources”, No. 149 of 09.16.2003 “On conducting microbiological and molecular -genetic examination of genetically modified microorganisms used in food production.”
The list of products obtained from genetically modified sources containing protein or DNA, and subject to mandatory labeling include: soybeans, corn, potatoes, tomatoes, sugar beets and their processed products, as well as certain food additives and dietary supplements.
The approximate list of products obtained using genetically modified microorganisms, subject to sanitary and epidemiological examination, includes: food products obtained using lactic acid bacteria - enzyme producers; dairy products and smoked sausages obtained using “starter” cultures; beer and cheeses produced using modified yeast; probiotics containing genetically modified strains.
6.8.2. Genetically modified food sources
Genetically modified food sources(GMI food) are food products (components) used by humans for food in natural or processed form, obtained from genetically modified raw materials and/or organisms. They belong to the group of the most significant new food products produced using modern biotechnological techniques.
Traditional biotechnological methods of food production have been known for a very long time. These include bread baking, cheese making, wine making, and brewing. Modern biotechnology is based on genetic engineering techniques that make it possible to obtain final products with very precise specified properties, while conventional selection associated with linked gene transfer does not allow achieving such results.
The technology for creating GMI plants includes several stages:
obtaining target genes responsible for the manifestation of a given trait;
creation of a vector containing the target gene and factors of its functioning;
transformation of plant cells;
regeneration of a whole plant from a transformed cell.
Target genes, for example those providing resistance, are selected among various objects of the biosphere (in particular, bacteria) through a targeted search using gene libraries.
Vector creation is the process of constructing a carrier of the target gene, carried out, as a rule, on the basis of plasmids, which subsequently ensure optimal insertion into the plant genome. In addition to the target gene, a promoter and transcription terminator and marker genes are also introduced into the vector. A transcription promoter and terminator are used to achieve the required level of expression of the target gene. The 35S promoter of cauliflower mosaic virus is currently most often used as a transcription initiator, and NOS from Agrobacterium tumefaciens is used as a terminator.
For the transformation of plant cells - the process of transferring a constructed vector, two main technologies are used: agrobacterial and ballistic. The first is based on the natural ability of bacteria of the Agrobacterium family to exchange genetic material with plants. Ballistic technology is associated with micro-bombardment of plant cells with metal (gold, tungsten) particles associated with DNA (target gene), during which the mechanical insertion of genetic material into the genome of the plant cell occurs. Confirmation of the insertion of the target gene is carried out using marker genes represented by antibiotic resistance genes. Modern technologies provide for the elimination of marker genes at the stage of obtaining a GMI plant from a transformed cell.
Making plants resistant to herbicides is carried out by introducing genes that express enzyme proteins (analogs of which are targets of pesticides) that are not sensitive to a given class of herbicides, for example, glyphosate (Roundup), chlorsulfuron and imidazoline herbicides, or that provide accelerated degradation of pesticides in plants, for example glufosinate ammonium, dalapon.
Resistance to insects, in particular to the Colorado potato beetle, is determined by the insecticidal effect of expressed entomotoxin proteins that specifically bind to receptors of the intestinal epithelium, which leads to disruption of local osmotic balance, swelling and lysis of cells and death of the insect. A target gene for resistance to the Colorado potato beetle was isolated from the soil bacterium Bacillus thuringiensis (Bt). This entomotoxin is harmless to warm-blooded animals, humans and other insects. Preparations based on it are widely used in developed countries as insecticides.
With the help of genetic engineering technology, enzymes, amino acids, vitamins, food proteins are already being obtained, new varieties of plants and animal breeds, and strains of microorganisms are being produced. Genetically modified products
Food sources of plant origin are currently the main GMI actively produced in the world. Over the eight years from 1996 to 2003, the total area sown with GM crops increased 40 times (from 1.7 million hectares in 1996 to 67.7 million hectares in 2003). The first genetically modified food to be widely marketed in the United States in 1994 was a tomato that is shelf stable by slowing down the degradation of pectin. Since that time, a large number of GMI foods of the so-called first generation have been developed and grown - providing high yields due to resistance to pests and pesticides. The next generations of GMI will be created in order to improve the taste properties, nutritional value of products (high content of vitamins and microelements, optimal fatty acid and amino acid composition, etc.), increase resistance to climatic factors, extending shelf life, increasing the efficiency of photosynthesis and nitrogen utilization.
Currently, the vast majority (99%) of all GM crops are grown in six countries: the USA (63%), Argentina (21%), Canada (6%), Brazil (4%), China (4%) and South Africa ( 1 %). The remaining 1% is produced in other European countries (Spain, Germany, Romania, Bulgaria), Southeast Asia (India, Indonesia, Philippines), South America(Uruguay, Colombia, Honduras), Australia, Mexico.
In agricultural production, the most widely used crops are those that are resistant to herbicides - 73% of the total cultivation area, resistant to insect pests - 18%, and those with both characteristics - 8%. Among the main GMI plants, the leading positions are occupied by: soybean - 61%, corn - 23% and rapeseed - 5%. The share of GMI of potatoes, tomatoes, zucchini and other crops accounts for less than 1%. Along with increasing productivity, an important advantage of GMI plants from a medical point of view is: more low content they contain residual amounts of insecticides and less accumulation of mycotoxins (as a result of reduced insect damage).
At the same time, there are potential dangers (medical and biological risks) of using GMI food associated with possible pleiotropic (multiple unpredictable) effects of the built-in gene; allergic effects of an atypical protein; toxic effects of atypical protein; long-term consequences.
In the Russian Federation, a legislative, regulatory and methodological framework has been created and is functioning to regulate the production, import from abroad and circulation of food products obtained from GMI. The main objectives in this area are: ensuring the safety of food products produced from
genetically modified materials; protection of the ecological system from the penetration of alien biological organisms; predicting genetic aspects of biological safety; creation of a system of state control over the turnover of genetically modified materials. The procedure for conducting sanitary and epidemiological examination of food products obtained from GMI for their state registration includes medical-biological, medical-genetic and technological assessments. The examination is carried out by an authorized federal body with the involvement of leading scientific institutions in the relevant field.
Medical and biological assessment of food products obtained from GMI is carried out at the Research Institute of Nutrition of the Russian Academy of Medical Sciences (and other leading research institutes medical profile) and includes research:
compositional equivalence (chemical composition, organoleptic properties) of GMI products to their species analogues;
morphological, hematological and biochemical parameters;
allergenic properties;
influence on immune status;
influence on reproductive function;
neurotoxicity;
genotoxicity;
mutagenicity;
carcinogenicity;
10) sensitive biomarkers (activity of enzymes of the 1st and 2nd phases of xenobiotic metabolism, activity of enzymes of the antioxidant defense system and lipid peroxidation processes).
Technological assessment is aimed at studying physicochemical parameters that are significant in food production, for example, the possibility of using traditional methods of processing food raw materials, obtaining familiar food forms and achieving normal consumer characteristics. For example, for GMI potatoes, the possibility of preparing potato chips, mashed potatoes, semi-finished products, etc. is assessed.
Issues of environmental safety of GMI attract special attention. From these positions, the possibility of horizontal transfer of the target gene is assessed: from a GMI crop to a similar natural form or weed, plasmid transfer in the intestinal microbiocenosis. From an ecological point of view, the introduction of GMI into natural biosystems should not lead to a decrease in species diversity, the emergence of new species of plants and insects resistant to pesticides, or the development of antibiotic-resistant strains of microorganisms that have
pathogenic potential. In accordance with internationally recognized approaches to the assessment of new food sources (WHO, EU directives), food products obtained from GMI, identical in terms of nutritional value and safety to their traditional counterparts, are considered safe and approved for commercial use.
At the beginning of 2005, in the Russian Federation, 13 types of food raw materials from GMI that are resistant to pesticides or pests have undergone a full cycle of all necessary studies, registered in the prescribed manner and approved by the Ministry of Health and Social Development of Russia for import into the country, use in the food industry and sale to the public without restrictions. : three soybean lines, six corn lines, two potato varieties, one sugar beet line and one rice line. All of them are used both directly for food and in the production of hundreds of types of food products: bread and bakery products, flour confectionery, sausages, semi-finished meat products, culinary products, canned meat and vegetable and fish products, baby food, food concentrates, instant soups and cereals, chocolate and other sweet confectionery products, chewing gum.
In addition, there is a wide range of food raw materials that have genetically modified analogues, permitted for sale on the world food market, but not declared for registration in the Russian Federation, which could potentially enter the domestic market and are subject to control for the presence of GMI. For this purpose, the Russian Federation has established a procedure and organization of control over food products obtained using raw materials of plant origin that have genetically modified analogues. Control is carried out in the order of ongoing supervision when placing products into production, their production and turnover.
State sanitary and epidemiological supervision of food products obtained from raw materials of plant origin that have genetically modified analogues is carried out by territorial bodies and institutions authorized to carry it out, in the order of ongoing examination: documents and product samples. Based on the results of the examination of food products, a sanitary and epidemiological conclusion of the established form is issued. If a GMI food registered in the federal register is detected, a positive conclusion is issued. If an unregistered GMI is detected, a negative conclusion is issued, on the basis of which this product is not subject to import, production and circulation on the territory of the Russian Federation.
Standardized laboratory research, used as identification for the presence of GMI, include:
screening studies (determining the presence of genetic modification - genes of promoters, terminators, markers) - by PCR method;
identification of a transformation event (presence of a target gene) - by PCR method and using a biological microchip;
quantitative analysis of recombinant DNA and expressed protein - using the PCR method (real time) and the quantitative enzyme immunoassay method.
In order to exercise the rights of consumers to receive complete and reliable information about the technology of production of food products obtained from GMI, mandatory labeling of this type of product has been introduced: on labels (labels) or inserts of packaged food products (including those not containing deoxyribonucleic acid and protein ), information in Russian is required: “genetically modified products” or “products obtained from genetically modified sources” or “products contain components from genetically modified sources” (for food products containing more than 0.9% GMI components).
The system for assessing the safety of GMI food products, adopted in the Russian Federation, involves post-registration monitoring of the circulation of these products. At the stage of development or implementation there are such GM foods as barley, sunflower, peanuts, Jerusalem artichoke, sweet potato, cassava, eggplant, cabbage (various cabbage varieties, cauliflower, broccoli), carrots, turnips, beets, cucumbers, lettuce, chicory, onions, leeks, garlic, peas, sweet peppers, black olives, apples, pears, quinces, cherries, apricots, cherries, peaches, plums, nectarines, sloe, lemons, oranges, tangerines, grapefruits, limes, persimmons, grapes, kiwi, pineapple, dates, figs, avocado, mango, tea, coffee.
When producing food products that have genetically modified analogs, production control programs must include control over GMI. In addition to plant GMIs, GMMs are developed for use in food production for technological purposes, which are widely used in the starch and baking industries, production of cheeses, alcoholic beverages (beer, ethyl alcohol) and dietary supplements. In these food industries, GM M is used as starter cultures, bacterial concentrates, starter cultures for fermented products and fermentation products, enzyme preparations, food additives (preservative E234 - nisin), vitamin preparations(riboflavin, (3-carotene).
In the Russian Federation, sanitary-epidemiological, microbiological and molecular genetic examinations of food products obtained using GMM are carried out in a manner similar to similar examinations for GMO plants.
The possibilities of using genetic engineering in the production of agricultural products of animal origin are being considered, for example, to increase the gross yield of livestock products due to genetic potentiation of growth as a result of intensive production of growth hormone. In the foreseeable future, provided that genetic modification technologies are proven safe, the amount of GMI food will steadily increase, which will maintain agricultural productivity at an acceptable level and create a scientific and practical basis for the development of the artificial food industry.
Genetically modified food sources(GMI food) are food products (components) used by humans in food in natural or processed form, obtained from genetically modified raw materials and/or organisms. They belong to the group of the most significant new food products produced using modern biotechnological techniques.
Traditional biotechnological methods of food production have been known for a very long time. These include bread baking, cheese making, wine making, and brewing. Modern biotechnology is based on genetic engineering techniques that make it possible to obtain final products with very precise specified properties, while conventional selection associated with linked gene transfer does not allow achieving such results.
The technology for creating GMI plants includes several stages:
Obtaining target genes responsible for the manifestation of a given trait;
Creation of a vector containing the target gene and factors of its functioning;
Transformation of plant cells;
Regeneration of a whole plant from a transformed cell.
Target genes, for example those providing resistance, are selected among various objects of the biosphere (in particular, bacteria) through a targeted search using gene libraries.
Vector creation is the process of constructing a carrier of the target gene, carried out, as a rule, on the basis of plasmids, which subsequently ensure optimal insertion into the plant genome. In addition to the target gene, a promoter and transcription terminator and marker genes are also introduced into the vector. A transcription promoter and terminator are used to achieve the required level of expression of the target gene. The 35S promoter of cauliflower mosaic virus is currently most often used as a transcription initiator, and NOS from Agrobacterium tumefaciens is used as a terminator.
For the transformation of plant cells - the process of transferring a constructed vector, two main technologies are used: agrobacterial and ballistic. The first is based on the natural ability of bacteria of the Agrobacterium family to exchange genetic material with plants. Ballistic technology is associated with micro-bombardment of plant cells with metal (gold, tungsten) particles associated with DNA (target gene), during which the mechanical insertion of genetic material into the genome of the plant cell occurs. Confirmation of the insertion of the target gene is carried out using marker genes represented by antibiotic resistance genes. Modern technologies provide for the elimination of marker genes at the stage of obtaining a GMI plant from a transformed cell.
Making plants resistant to herbicides is carried out by introducing genes that express enzyme proteins (analogues of which are targets of pesticides) that are not sensitive to a given class of herbicides, for example, glyphosate (Roundup), chlorsulfuron and imidazoline herbicides, or that provide accelerated degradation of pesticides in plants, for example glufosinate ammonium, dalapon.
Resistance to insects, in particular to the Colorado potato beetle, is determined by the insecticidal action of expressed entomotoxin proteins that specifically bind to receptors of the intestinal epithelium, which leads to disruption of local osmotic balance, swelling and lysis of cells and death of the insect. A target gene for resistance to the Colorado potato beetle was isolated from the soil bacterium Bacillus thuringiensis (Bt). This entomotoxin is harmless to warm-blooded animals, humans and other insects. Preparations based on it have been widely used in developed countries as insecticides for more than half a century.
With the help of genetic engineering technology, enzymes, amino acids, vitamins, food proteins are already being obtained, new varieties of plants and animal breeds, and technological strains of microorganisms are being created. Genetically modified food sources of plant origin are currently the main GMOs actively produced in the world. Over the eight years from 1996 to 2003, the total area sown with GM crops increased 40 times (from 1.7 million hectares in 1996 to 67.7 million hectares in 2003). The first genetically modified food to be widely marketed in the United States in 1994 was a tomato that is shelf stable by slowing down the degradation of pectin. Since that time, a large number of GMI foods of the so-called first generation have been developed and grown - providing high yields due to resistance to pests and pesticides. The next generations of GMI will be created in order to improve the taste properties, nutritional value of products (high content of vitamins and microelements, optimal fatty acid and amino acid composition, etc.), increase resistance to climatic factors, extend shelf life, increase the efficiency of photosynthesis and nitrogen utilization.
Currently, the overwhelming majority (99%) of all GM crops are grown in six countries: the USA (63%), Argentina (21%), Canada (6%), Brazil (4%), China (4%). %) and South Africa (1%). The remaining 1% is produced in other European countries (Spain, Germany, Romania, Bulgaria), Southeast Asia (India, Indonesia, Philippines), South America (Uruguay, Colombia, Honduras), Australia, Mexico.
In agricultural production, the most widely used crops are those that are resistant to herbicides - 73% of the total cultivation area, resistant to insect pests - 18%, and those with both traits - 8%. Among the main GMI plants, the leading positions are occupied by: soybean - 61%, corn - 23% and rapeseed - 5%. The share of GMI of potatoes, tomatoes, zucchini and other crops accounts for less than 1%. Along with increasing productivity, an important advantage of GMI plants from a medical point of view is: a lower content of residual amounts of insecticides and less accumulation of mycotoxins (as a result of a decrease in the degree of insect damage).
At the same time, there are potential dangers (medical and biological risks) of using GMI food associated with possible pleiotropic (multiple unpredictable) effects of the built-in gene; allergic effects of an atypical protein; toxic effects of atypical protein; long-term consequences.
In the Russian Federation, a legislative, regulatory and methodological framework has been created and is functioning to regulate the production, import from abroad and circulation of food products obtained from GMI. The main objectives in this area are: ensuring the safety of food products produced from
genetically modified materials; protection of the ecological system from the penetration of alien biological organisms; predicting genetic aspects of biological safety; creation of a system of state control over the circulation of genetically modified materials. The procedure for conducting sanitary and epidemiological examination of food products obtained from GMI for their state registration includes medical-biological, medical-genetic and technological assessments. The examination is carried out by an authorized federal body with the involvement of leading scientific institutions in the relevant field.
Medical and biological assessment of food products obtained from GMI is carried out at the Research Institute of Nutrition of the Russian Academy of Medical Sciences (and other leading medical research institutes) and includes research:
1) compositional equivalence (chemical composition, organoleptic properties) of GMI products to their species analogues;
2) morphological, hematological and biochemical parameters;
3) allergenic properties;
4) influence on immune status;
5) influence on reproductive function;
6) neurotoxicity;
7) genotoxicity;
8) mutagenicity;
9) carcinogenicity;
10) sensitive biomarkers (activity of enzymes of the 1st and 2nd phases of xenobiotic metabolism, activity of enzymes of the antioxidant defense system and lipid peroxidation processes).
Technological assessment is aimed at studying physicochemical parameters that are significant in food production, for example, the possibility of using traditional methods of processing food raw materials, obtaining familiar food forms and achieving normal consumer characteristics. For example, for GMI potatoes, the possibility of preparing potato chips, mashed potatoes, semi-finished products, etc. is assessed.
Issues of environmental safety of GMI attract special attention. From these positions, the possibility of horizontal transfer of the target gene is assessed: from a GMI crop to a similar natural form or weed, plasmid transfer in the intestinal microbiocenosis. From an environmental point of view, the introduction of GMI into natural biosystems should not lead to a decrease in species diversity, the emergence of new pesticide-resistant plant and insect species, or the development of antibiotic-resistant strains of microorganisms with pathogenic potential. In accordance with internationally recognized approaches to the assessment of new food sources (WHO, EU directives), food products obtained from GMI, identical in terms of nutritional value and safety to their traditional counterparts, are considered safe and approved for commercial use.
At the beginning of 2005, in the Russian Federation, 13 types of food raw materials from GMI that are resistant to pesticides or pests have undergone a full cycle of all necessary studies, registered in the prescribed manner and approved by the Ministry of Health and Social Development of Russia for import into the country, use in the food industry and sale to the public without restrictions. : three soybean lines, six corn lines, two potato varieties, one sugar beet line and one rice line. All of them are used both directly for food and in the production of hundreds of types of food products: bread and bakery products, flour confectionery products, sausages, semi-finished meat products, culinary products, canned meat and vegetable and fish vegetable products, baby food, food concentrates, soups and cereals instant cooking, chocolate and other sweet confectionery products, chewing gum.
In addition, there is a wide range of food raw materials that have genetically modified analogues, permitted for sale on the world food market, but not declared for registration in the Russian Federation, which could potentially enter the domestic market and are subject to control for the presence of GMI. For this purpose, the Russian Federation has established a procedure and organization of control over food products obtained using raw materials of plant origin that have genetically modified analogues. Control is carried out in the order of ongoing supervision when placing products into production, their production and turnover.
State sanitary and epidemiological supervision of food products obtained from raw materials of plant origin that have genetically modified analogues is carried out by territorial bodies and institutions authorized to carry it out, in the order of ongoing examination: documents and product samples. Based on the results of the examination of food products, a sanitary and epidemiological conclusion of the established form is issued. If a GMI food registered in the federal register is detected, a positive conclusion is issued. If an unregistered GMI is detected, a negative conclusion is issued, on the basis of which this product is not subject to import, production and circulation on the territory of the Russian Federation.
Standardized laboratory tests used as identification for the presence of GMI include:
Screening studies (determining the presence of genetic modification - promoter genes, terminators, markers) - by PCR method;
Identification of a transformation event (presence of a target gene) - by PCR method and using a biological microchip;
Quantitative analysis of recombinant DNA and expressed protein - by PCR (real time) and quantitative enzyme immunoassay.
In order to exercise the rights of consumers to receive complete and reliable information about the technology of production of food products obtained from GMI, mandatory labeling of this type of product has been introduced: on labels (labels) or inserts of packaged food products (including those not containing deoxyribonucleic acid and protein ), information in Russian is required: “genetically modified products” or “products obtained from genetically modified sources” or “products contain components from genetically modified sources” (for food products containing more than 0.9% GMI components).
The system for assessing the safety of GMI food products, adopted in the Russian Federation, involves post-registration monitoring of the circulation of these products. At the stage of development or implementation there are such GM foods as barley, sunflower, peanuts, Jerusalem artichoke, sweet potato, cassava, eggplant, cabbage (various cabbage varieties, cauliflower, broccoli), carrots, turnips, beets, cucumbers, lettuce, chicory, onions, leeks, garlic, peas, sweet peppers, black olives, apples, pears, quinces, cherries, apricots, cherries, peaches, plums, nectarines, sloe, lemons, oranges, tangerines, grapefruits, limes, persimmons, grapes, kiwi, pineapple, dates, figs, avocado, mango, tea, coffee.
When producing food products that have genetically modified analogs, production control programs must include control over GMI. In addition to plant GMIs, GMMs are developed for use in food production for technological purposes, which are widely used in the starch and baking industries, production of cheeses, alcoholic beverages (beer, ethyl alcohol) and dietary supplements. In these food industries, GMMs are used as starter cultures, bacterial concentrates, starter cultures for fermented products and fermentation products, enzyme preparations, food additives (preservative E234 - nisin), vitamin preparations (riboflavin, β-carotene).
In the Russian Federation, sanitary-epidemiological, microbiological and molecular genetic examinations of food products obtained using GMM are carried out in a manner similar to similar examinations for GMO plants.
The possibilities of using genetic engineering in the production of agricultural products of animal origin are being considered, for example, to increase the gross yield of livestock products due to genetic potentiation of growth as a result of intensive production of growth hormone. In the foreseeable future, provided that genetic modification technologies are proven safe, the amount of GMI food will steadily increase, which will maintain agricultural productivity at an acceptable level and create a scientific and practical basis for the development of the artificial food industry.
