Mineral resources of the lithosphere. Provision of mineral waters in the territory of the former USSR

Environmental Geology

Topic 2
Ecological functions
lithosphere (part 1)

Resource ecological function of the lithosphere and its transformation under the influence of technogenesis

Part 1
RESOURCE ECOLOGICAL FUNCTION
LITHOSPHERE AND ITS TRANSFORMATION UNDER
INFLUENCE OF TECHNOGENESIS

Definition, meaning and structure of the resource ecological function of the lithosphere

By resource ecological function of the lithosphere we understand how
already
shown
previously,
role
mineral,
organic,
organomineral resources of the lithosphere, as well as its geological
spaces for life and activity of biota both in quality
biocenosis, as well as the human community as a social
structures.
The object of study with this approach is the features of the composition and
structures of the lithosphere with all their components influencing
the possibility and quality of the existence of biota, and the subject is knowledge about
raw material potential of the lithosphere, the suitability of its space for
residence of biota (including humans as a biological species) and
development of humanity as a social structure.
The resource ecological function of the lithosphere takes the lead,
position in relation to geodynamic, geochemical and
geophysical functions. It not only determines comfort
"living biota", but also the very possibility of its existence and
development.

Lithosphere resources necessary for biota life

Lithosphere resources necessary for biota life
including
person
How
biological
view,
represented by four components:
rocks containing elements
biophilic series - soluble elements, vital
necessary for organisms and called biogenic
elements;
kudyurites - mineral substance of kudyurs,
being the mineral food of animals - lithophages;
table salt;
underground waters.

Biophilic elements of the lithosphere

Elements and their compounds required by biota in large
quantities are called macrobiogenic (carbon, oxygen,
nitrogen, hydrogen, calcium, phosphorus, sulfur), and in small quantities -
microbiogenic.
For plants, these are Fe, Mg, Cu, Zn, B, Si, Mo, CI, V, Ca, which
provide the functions of photosynthesis, nitrogen metabolism and
metabolic function.
For animals, both the listed elements are required (except
boron), and additionally selenium, chromium, nickel, fluorine, iodine and
tin.
Despite the small quantities, all these elements are necessary
For
vital activity
biosystems,
For
implementation
biogeochemical functions of living matter

Average chemical composition of proteins, fats and carbohydrates, %

Average chemical composition of plants and humans, % dry matter

Mineral biogenic complexes-kudurites

Lithophagy, or stone-eating (“lithos” – stone, “phagos” –
devouring), has been known for a long time. In the animal world this phenomenon is so
same normal as traditional food.
In addition to food and medicinal salts in nature, there is a large
a group of aluminosilicate and silicate minerals that eat
birds, animals and people.
-On the slopes of the hills. Sumatra folded zeolitized and
tuffs, caves measuring 3.5 × 7.5 m are described, which were “scraped out”
elephants, extracting white stone pumice (a product of tuff weathering,
enriched
minerals
With
high
sorption
And
ion exchange properties). With these elephant excavations
Other animals were also used - orangutans, gibbons, deer and even
proteins.
–In many areas of Africa there are entire industries for
preparing mineral food. Thus, in the settlement of Anfoeda (Ghana)
two thousand workers extract clay and make cakes from it
for sale, and the villagers of Uzalla (Nigeria) eat it every year
400-500 tons of “edible” clay.
–Within active tectonic faults, on oil and gas bearing and
coal-bearing areas where relatively
intensive outflow of CO2 from the subsurface, vegetation significantly
different from zonal. She is more "lush" and more "southern".

The nature of lithophagy

Lithophagy is a natural need of wild animals for
balancing the salt composition of the body, especially in
periods of seasonal food changes.
Lithophagy is based on lithotherapy aimed at
regulation of the body's salt balance. As a menu
animals choose mineral mixtures that have
high ion exchange and sorption properties.
The latter received the name kudyurites in Altai from the word
"kudur" - solonetz soil, solonchak, solonetz, which
since ancient times used by primordial pastoralists - Altaians, Mongols,
mandzhurs, etc.
In recent years, kudurites have begun to be used as
additives in pet food, which is essential
increased their growth and improved their physical condition.

Salt

Table salt is a typical mineral formation,
consumed by biota and, first of all, by humans. Towards
all of them are lithophages.
The inhabitants of the Earth consume it in the amount of 8-10 kg per person per year.
From a resource point of view, this mineral formation is
an exception to the general rule, since to a certain extent
belongs to the category of renewable resource. Table salt
obtained either from brines in the salt deposit zone, or collected in
places where salty sea water naturally evaporates. Bye
natural reserves of table salt are special in resource terms
do not cause alarm.
It should be recalled that this mineral resource is necessary for humans
as a biological species. Table salt activates some
enzymes, maintains acid-base balance, it
necessary for the production of gastric juice. Lack or deficiency
salt in the body leads to various disorders: decreased
blood pressure, muscle cramps, increased heart rate
and other negative consequences.
It should be noted that, despite the practically unlimited reserves
table salt, in the late 80s the population's need for it
Northern Eurasia was only 90% satisfied. Same situation
has survived to this day.

Groundwater as a lithosphere resource necessary for the life of biota

From these positions, the ecological significance of freshwater
groundwater does not require any special explanation.
V.I. Vernadsky showed that living matter during
only 1 million years passes through such an amount
water, which is equal in volume and quantity to the World
ocean.
Underground
water,
suitable
For
drinking
water supply, account for 14% of all fresh water
planets. However, they are significantly superior in
quality of surface waters and in contrast to them
are much better protected from contamination, contain
micro- and macroelements necessary for the body
humans, do not require expensive cleaning. Exactly
this determines their significance as the most important
source of drinking water supply, i.e. ensure
water for humans as a biological species.

Groundwater availability

Currently, more than 60% of cities in the Russian Federation have
centralized water supply sources. In terms of resources
groundwater use is significantly below potential
opportunities and is about 5% (for water supply) of potential resources, estimated at 230 km3/year. However, the estimates made
are valid only for Russia as a whole and change significantly with
transition to individual regions.
The shortage of drinking water is basically due to three main factors:
factors:
–lack of sufficient groundwater resources due to natural reasons (permafrost zone, widespread development of relatively
anhydrous strata - Karelia, Murmansk, Kirov and Astrakhan regions);
–intensive exploitation and depletion of main aquifers
(Middle Urals, areas of large urban agglomerations);
– technogenic pollution of aquifers used for
drinking water supply.

Examples of groundwater shortages

The most impressive example of such catastrophic technogenic impacts is the Crimean Plain artesian basin. Intensive exploitation of groundwater for irrigation, as well as
the construction and commissioning of the North Crimean Canal led to the salinization of fresh groundwater. Over 30
years of exploitation of aquifers, about 10 km3 of fresh water became brackish.
The impossibility of using groundwater for domestic and drinking water supply as a result
pollution is observed in solid waste storage areas. For example, in the area of the landfill
Solid waste from Shcherbinka, Moscow region, contaminated groundwater exceeding the maximum permissible concentration for a number of components in
penetrated 100-130 times into the Podolsk-Myachkovsky aquifer of coal deposits. As a result
this in the waters of the horizon the content of chlorides increased by 3-7 times, sulfates more than doubled, it was noted
the presence of chromium and cadmium.
Development of solid mineral deposits leads to depletion of operational reserves
groundwater, which is associated not only with the selection of pumped water at the developed field, but also
with the failure of existing groundwater intakes. The largest funnel-depressions
are formed in cases where aquifers with
regional distribution. Thus, the long-term operation (since 1956) of the water reduction system around
KMA deposits led to the closure of depression craters around the Lebedinsky quarry and the mine named after.
Gubkina. The levels of the Cretaceous aquifer were reduced by 20-25 m, due to which construction
The next Stoilensky quarry was carried out at the first stage in practically dehydrated rocks. IN
Currently, the groundwater regime of the mining area is disrupted along the Upper Cretaceous horizon within a radius
40 km, and according to the Precambrian - within a radius of 80 km, which makes it economically unfeasible to use
groundwater in this area for water supply to the population.

Mineral resources, their structure and human society

Mineral resources are represented by the totality of those identified in the subsurface
accumulations (deposits) of various minerals, in which
chemical elements and the minerals they form are in sharp
increased concentration compared to clarke contents in
the earth's crust, which makes it possible
their industrial
use.
All natural resources represent natural bodies and substances (or their
totality), as well as types of energy that at a particular stage of development
productive forces are used or can be technically used
For
efficient
satisfaction
various
needs
human society.
The structure of mineral resources is determined by the intended purpose of their use.
There are five main categories of mineral resources:
– fuel and energy (oil, condensate, combustible gas, hard and brown coals, uranium,
bituminous shale, peat, etc.),
–ferrous and alloying metals (ores of iron, manganese, chromium, titanium, vanadium, tungsten and
molybdenum),
– non-ferrous metals (ores of copper, cobalt, lead, zinc, tin, aluminum, antimony and mercury),
– non-metallic minerals (various types of mineral salts (phosphate,
potassium, sodium), construction (crushed stone, granite and sand) and other materials (native
sulfur, fluorite, kaolin, barite, graphite, asbestos-chrysotile, magnesite, fire clay)),
-The groundwater.

Schematic diagram of the use of natural resources of the lithosphere in the sphere

The role and place of mineral resources in socio-economic and environmental issues of development of the material base of modern society

The role and place of mineral resources in socio-economic and environmental development issues
material base of modern society

On reserves of mineral resources of the upper horizons of the lithosphere

Analysis of the assessment of the provision of fuel and energy resources shows that the most
Oil is a scarce fuel; its proven reserves are sufficient, according to various sources.
sources, for 25-48 years. Then, in 35-64 years, the reserves of combustible gas and uranium will be depleted. Better
This is the case with coal, its reserves in the world are large, and the supply life is 218-330 years.
It should be taken into account that the global supply of liquid energy carriers is
significant reserves associated with productive oil and gas deposits on the World shelf
ocean. Russia's prospects are connected with the development of the shelf of the Arctic seas, where, according to estimates,
specialists contain over 100 billion tons of hydrocarbons in oil equivalent.
Among ferrous and alloying metals, titanium ores have the lowest supply (65
years) and tungsten (from 10 to 84 years according to various sources).
The global supply of non-ferrous metals in general is significantly lower than that of ferrous and
alloying. Reserves of cobalt, lead, zinc, tin, antimony and mercury will last for 10-35 years.
Russia's supply of copper, nickel, and lead reserves is 58-89%, and antimony – only 17-18%
from the world average. Against this background, the exception is aluminum reserves: with modern
level of consumption and production, its reserves will last for another 350 years.
The global resource supply of non-metallic minerals averages
50-100 years and above. The most scarce are chrysotile asbestos (world supply 54
years) and fluorite (worldwide 42 years).

World supply of human society with mineral resources

Fresh groundwater withdrawal by main economic regions of Russia in km3/year as of January 1, 1992.

1 – total quantity;
2 – household and drinking water
water supply;
3 – mine and quarry
drainage;
4 – water discharge without
use (loss
water at
transportation, dumping
water from wells,
self-discharge from wells,
drainage spillway
water);
5 – technical
water supply;
6 – land irrigation and
watering of pastures

Groundwater as a resource of the lithosphere

The availability of groundwater resources in Russia as a whole is quite high. Due to
Of particular importance, let us consider in more detail the supply of fresh water,
mineral, thermal and industrial waters.
Fresh groundwater. In accordance with GOST 2874-82, these include groundwater
with a dry residue of up to 1 g/dm3 (in some cases – up to 1.5 g/dm3).
When calculating the availability of groundwater resources, unclaimed
groundwater reserves that can be used up within 50 years. Thus, if we assume that
over the next 50 years, the total withdrawal of groundwater will double and amount to
approximately 35-40 km3/year, then we can assume that the total operational resources
groundwater in Russia, amounting to about 230 km3/year, as a result of selection
non-renewable reserves will decrease by approximately 15-20 km3/year.
There is no doubt that the bulk of fresh groundwater is spent for drinking
water supply. However, a certain share of fresh groundwater is spent on technical
needs, irrigation of arable land and watering of pastures.

Provision of mineral waters in the territory of the former USSR

Thermal waters

Thermal waters include underground waters confined to
natural geothermal energy reservoirs and presented
natural heat carriers (water, steam and steam-water mixtures).
For practical use thermal waters
are divided into several classes:
– low-potential (with a heating temperature of 20-100°C)
heating needs,
– medium potential – for heat supply,
–high potential (more suitable for generating electricity.
are used
For
Thermal waters with a higher temperature (150-350°C) due to
technical difficulties in handling them have not yet found their application.
Russia's supply of thermal water reserves is very high. From the general
amount of deep heat released by thermal springs in
atmosphere, 86% falls on the Kuril-Kamchatka region, about 7% - on
area of the Baikal rift and only 8% - to all other mobile areas
continental crust.
Environmental aspects of geothermal resource development are associated with
probability of thermal and chemical contamination of surface layers
lithosphere, since thermal waters, in addition to high temperature,
are also characterized by increased mineralization. To avoid this
pollution, a technology for exploiting aquifers has been developed with
by reinjecting used thermal waters into them.

Industrial waters

Industrial waters include highly mineralized groundwater from deep (15,000 to 3,000 m) aquifers. From them, elements such as
sodium, chlorine, boron, iodine, bromine, lithium or their compounds (for example, table salt).
Interest in the industrial use of deep aquifer waters as
mineral raw materials is determined by the expanding need for rare elements in various
sectors of economic activity and the depletion of traditional ore raw materials. In the world
extracted from industrial waters 90% of the total production of bromine, 85% - iodine, 30% - table water
salt, sodium sulfide, lithium, 25% magnesium, bromine, etc.
Russia's supply of underground industrial water is quite high. They're like
As a rule, they are confined to the deep parts of large artesian basins, etc.
areas promising for iodine and bromine within the East European, West Siberian and
Siberian platform regions.
Environmental aspects of industrial water development are associated with the problem of disposal
waste water and the likelihood of contamination of host rocks and the day surface in
the process of their extraction and processing.

Definition and structure of geological space resources

By resource of geological space we mean
geological space necessary for settlement and
existence of biota, including for life and activity
person.
In the general taxonomy of the ecological functions of the lithosphere, the structure
resources of geological space includes: habitat of biota,
place of human settlement, receptacle of above-ground and underground
structures, waste disposal and storage sites, including
highly toxic and radioactive.
A different approach to structuring resources of geological space
is based on an approach that allows us to consider the lithosphere as
habitats and settlements of various representatives of flora and
fauna, including humans as a biological species, and as
space actively being developed by humanity as a social
structure.

General structure of geological space resources

Resources of geological space and expansion of engineering and economic activities of mankind

When considering the lithosphere as an engineering and economic environment
human activity, two ways of assessing resources are clearly distinguished
geological space: assessment of the “areal” surface resource
lithospheric space and assessment of the underground geological resource
space for various types of development. In each case there may be
many assessment options in relation to various types of engineering activities.
The first of them is that the “areal” resources of geological space have already become
huge deficit. Currently, humanity has mastered about 56%
land surface with a tendency to further increase this process. And if
For a number of countries with large land resources, the problem of placement
industrial, agricultural and residential facilities have not yet become acute
relevant, then for small states with a large population
population, it has become the most important environmental factor of social
development.
The most striking example is Japan, which was forced to accommodate
industrial facilities and recreation areas fill up the coastal parts of the sea
water areas and carry out construction on bulk soils.

Geological space resources and urbanization

Particularly acute, even in relatively prosperous countries from the point of view of overall territorial
security in countries, there is the issue of a shortage of space in urbanized areas. How
As a rule, this applies to capitals and large industrial centers.
The following figures speak eloquently about the pace of urbanization: at the beginning of the 19th century. in cities around the world
lived 29.3 million people (3% of the world's population), by 1900 - 224.4 million (13.6%), by 1950 - 729 million
(28.8%), by 1980 - 1821 million (41.1%), by 1990 - 2261 million (41%).
The urban population of the Russian Federation by the beginning of 1990 was about 74%.
The share of the urban population in Europe is more than 73%, in Asia - 31, Africa - 32, North
America – 75, Latin America – 72, Australia and Oceania – 71%.
In total, there are about 220 millionaire cities in the world (more than 1 million inhabitants), the largest of which
of which - Mexico City (9.8 million). In Greater London, 6.8 million people live in
with an area of more than 1800 km2, about 9 million people live in Moscow on an area of 1000 km2.
With such a population density, a specific resource picture is created, in which
Territories with complex engineering, geological and environmental conditions (territories of former landfills, slag and ash dumps, etc.) are beginning to be considered suitable for development.

Resources of geological space and complex civil and industrial objects

Resources of geological space for the placement of most complex
engineering structures exerting high pressure on the ground (0.5 MPa
and more), in particular, such objects as thermal power plants (TPP),
metallurgical plants, television towers, skyscrapers, defined
the presence of favorable engineering and geological conditions in the area
proposed construction. These structures, due to their specificity, as
As a rule, they are located in well-developed territories, often within
city or in its immediate vicinity. This presents special
requirements for their stability and safety not only from engineering, but also from
environmental positions.
The main resource (as well as geochemical environmental) problem,
related to thermal power plants - placement of ash dumps, which is close to the problem
disposal of waste from mining, processing and mining industries
industry discussed below.
The main restrictions when choosing a site for nuclear power plants
power plants (NPP):
–high seismicity (more than 8 points on the MSK-64 scale);
– the presence of thick (more than 45 m) layers of subsidence, water-soluble and
liquefying soils;
– the presence of active faults, karst and other potentially dangerous
exogenous geological processes;
–high groundwater level (less than 3 m);
– the presence of well-filtering soils and soils with low sorption
with a capacity of more than 10 m.
The main environmental hazard of nuclear power plants is the possibility
radioactive contamination of large areas in emergency situations.
These territories fall out of any use for hundreds, even thousands
years.

Resources of geological space and hydraulic engineering

Pronounced specificity from the point of view
necessary
resource
geological
space
has
hydraulic
construction. Space resource first
the queue is determined by the presence of watercourses and
areas with favorable engineering and geological conditions.
Large hydraulic engineering construction in
significant
measure
exhausted
resource
geological space suitable for
these goals, even in Russia, rich in water and
territorial resources.
The flow of many large rivers in our country
regulated

Flood areas and number of buildings moved for selected large reservoirs of the former USSR

Resources of the geological space of mining regions

Resources of the geological space of mining regions
There is an acute issue of shortage of geological space in development areas
mining and mining industries.
The most capacious in relation to the alienation of natural geological
space are coal industry enterprises: production 1 million tons
fuel is accompanied by the alienation of an average of about 8 hectares of land.
In mining areas, significant violation of territorial
resource occurs due to the subsidence of the earth's surface above the underground
workings. The magnitude of subsidence in the Moscow coal basin reaches 3
m on an area of km2, in Donbass – 7 m on an area of more than 20 km2. Precipitation may
continue for 20 years and sometimes fail.
Significant damage to the resource potential of territories is caused by changes in
hydrogeological conditions as a result of boundary water depression, mining
and quarry drainage. Formation of large depression craters
with an area of up to 300 km2 can not only violate the accepted system
water supply to the territory and lead to subsidence of the earth’s surface, but also
cause activation of karst, suffusion and failure processes.

Resources of geological space and disposal of waste from human society

The diversity of waste from human activities takes up huge
area. In Russia alone, their total area (1997) is more than 500 thousand hectares, and
the negative impact of waste on the environment is manifested in the territory, 10 times
exceeding the specified area.
Most waste actively interacts with the environment (lithosphere,
atmosphere, hydrosphere and biosphere). Duration of "aggressive" (active)
the existence of waste depends on its composition. During storage, all waste undergoes
changes caused by both internal physical and chemical processes and
influence of external conditions. As a result, waste storage and disposal sites
new environmentally hazardous substances may be formed, which, when penetrating into
lithosphere will pose a serious threat to biota.
Cities are the largest producers of waste. Statistics show that in
conditions of modern technology at a higher level of economic development
The country within its borders generates a larger amount of waste per capita.
The average rate of waste accumulation in developed countries ranges from 150-170 (Poland) to
700-1100 kg/person. per year (USA). In Moscow, 2.5 million tons of solid household waste are generated annually
waste (MSW), and the average rate of “production” of solid waste per person per year reaches
approximately 1 m3 in volume and 200 kg in weight (for large cities the recommended standard
1.07 m3/person in year).

Classification of waste by origin

Radius of negative impact of solid waste landfills

The main aspects of the impact of solid waste landfills are environmental and human components

Radius of the negative impact of landfills for storing waste from the mining and mining industries

Radius of negative impact of landfills
storage of waste from mining and processing industries

Even in ancient times, people learned to use some of these resources for their needs, which was expressed in the names of historical periods of human development: “Stone Age”, “Bronze Age”, “Iron Age”. Today, more than 200 different types of mineral resources are used. According to the figurative expression of Academician A.E. Fersman (1883–1945), now the entire periodic system of Mendeleev is laid at the feet of humanity.

Minerals are mineral formations of the earth's crust that can be effectively used in the economy; accumulations of minerals form deposits, and in large areas of distribution - pools.

The distribution of minerals in the earth's crust is subject to geological (tectonic) laws (Table 7.4).

Fuel minerals are of sedimentary origin and usually accompany the cover of ancient platforms and their internal and marginal troughs. So the name “pool” reflects their origin quite accurately – “sea pool”.

More than 3.6 thousand are known on the globe. coal basins and deposits, which together occupy 15% of the earth's land area. The bulk of coal resources are in Asia, North America and Europe and are concentrated in the ten largest basins of China, the USA, Russia, India, and Germany.

Oil and gas bearing More than 600 basins have been explored, 450 are being developed. The total number of oil fields reaches 35 thousand. The main reserves are located in the Northern Hemisphere and are deposits of the Mesozoic. The main part of these reserves is also concentrated in a small number of the largest basins of Saudi Arabia, the USA, Russia, and Iran.

Ore minerals are usually confined to the foundations (shields) of ancient platforms, as well as to folded areas. In such areas they often form huge ore (metallogenic) belts, associated by their origin with deep faults in the earth's crust. Geothermal energy resources are especially large in countries and areas with increased seismic and volcanic activity (Iceland, Italy, New Zealand, the Philippines, Mexico, Kamchatka and the North Caucasus in Russia, California in the USA).

For economic development, the most advantageous are territorial combinations (clusters) of mineral resources, which facilitate the complex processing of raw materials.

Extraction of mineral resources closed(mine) method on a global scale is carried out in foreign Europe, the European part of Russia, the USA, where many deposits and basins located in the upper layers of the earth's crust have already been heavily developed.

If minerals lie at a depth of 20–30 m, it is more profitable to remove the top layer of rock with a bulldozer and mine open way. For example, iron ore is mined in the open-pit method in the Kursk region and coal in some deposits of Siberia.

In terms of reserves and production of many mineral resources, Russia ranks among the first in the world (gas, coal, oil, iron ore, diamonds).

In table Figure 7.4 shows the relationship between the structure of the earth’s crust, relief and distribution of minerals.

Table 7.4

Mineral deposits depending on the structure and return of a section of the earth's crust and landforms

Hydrosphere

Hydrosphere(from Greek. hydro– water and sphaira- ball) - the water shell of the Earth, which is a collection of oceans, seas and continental water basins - rivers, lakes, swamps, etc., groundwater, glaciers and snow covers.

It is believed that the water shell of the Earth formed in the early Archean, that is, approximately 3800 million years ago. During this period in the history of the Earth, a temperature was established on our planet at which water could be largely in a liquid state of aggregation.

Water as a substance has unique properties, which include the following:

♦ ability to dissolve many substances;

♦ high heat capacity;

♦ being in a liquid state in the temperature range from 0 to 100 °C;

♦ greater lightness of water in the solid state (ice) than in the liquid state.

The unique properties of water allowed it to play an important role in the evolutionary processes occurring in the surface layers of the earth's crust, in the cycle of matter in nature, and to be a condition for the emergence and development of life on Earth. Water begins to fulfill its geological and biological functions in the history of the Earth after the emergence of the hydrosphere.

The hydrosphere consists of surface water and groundwater. Surface water hydrospheres cover 70.8% of the earth's surface. Their total volume reaches 1370.3 million km 3, which is 1/800 of the total volume of the planet, and the mass is estimated at 1.4 h 1018 tons. Surface waters, that is, waters covering land, include the World Ocean and continental water basins and continental ice.

World Ocean includes all the seas and oceans of the Earth.

Seas and oceans cover 3/4 of the land surface, or 361.1 million km 2. The bulk of surface water is concentrated in the World Ocean - 98%. The world's oceans are conventionally divided into four oceans: the Atlantic, Pacific, Indian and Arctic. It is believed that the current sea level was established about 7,000 years ago. According to geological studies, ocean level fluctuations over the past 200 million years have not exceeded 100 m.

The water in the World Ocean is salty. The average salt content is about 3.5% by weight, or 35 g/l. Their qualitative composition is as follows: the cations are dominated by Na +, Mg 2+, K +, Ca 2+, the anions are Cl -, SO 4 2-, Br -, CO 3 2-, F -. It is believed that the salt composition of the World Ocean has remained constant since the Paleozoic era, the time when life began to develop on land, that is, for approximately 400 million years.

Continental water basins They are rivers, lakes, swamps, and reservoirs. Their waters make up 0.35% of the total mass of surface waters of the hydrosphere. Some continental bodies of water - lakes - contain salt water. These lakes are either of volcanic origin, isolated remnants of ancient seas, or formed in an area of thick deposits of soluble salts. However, continental water bodies are mostly fresh.

Fresh water from open reservoirs also contains soluble salts, but in small quantities. Depending on the content of dissolved salts, fresh water is divided into soft and hard. The less salts dissolved in water, the softer it is. The hardest fresh water contains salts no more than 0.005% by weight, or 0.5 g/l.

Continental ice make up 1.65% of the total mass of surface waters of the hydrosphere; 99% of the ice is found in Antarctica and Greenland. The total mass of snow and ice on Earth is estimated to be 0.0004% of the mass of our planet. This is enough to cover the entire surface of the planet with a layer of ice 53 m thick. According to calculations, if this mass melts, the ocean level will rise by 64 m.

The chemical composition of surface waters of the hydrosphere is approximately equal to the average composition of sea water. The predominant chemical elements by weight are oxygen (85.8%) and hydrogen (10.7%). Surface waters contain significant amounts of chlorine (1.9%) and sodium (1.1%). There is a significantly higher content of sulfur and bromine than in the earth's crust.

Groundwater of the hydrosphere contain the main supply of fresh water. It is assumed that the total volume of groundwater is approximately 28.5 billion km 3 . This is almost 15 times more than in the World Ocean. It is believed that groundwater is the main reservoir that replenishes all surface water bodies. The underground hydrosphere can be divided into five zones.

Cryozone. Ice area. The zone covers the polar regions. Its thickness is estimated to be within 1 km.

Liquid water zone. Covers almost the entire earth's crust.

Vapor water zone limited to a depth of 160 km. It is believed that the water in this zone has a temperature of 450 °C to 700 °C and is under pressure up to 5 GPa.

Below, at depths of up to 270 km, is located zone of monomeric water molecules. It covers layers of water with a temperature range from 700 °C to 1000 °C and pressures up to 10 GPa.

Dense water zone supposedly extends to depths of 3000 km and encircles the entire mantle of the Earth. The water temperature in this zone is estimated to range from 1000° to 4000 °C, and the pressure is up to 120 GPa. Water under such conditions is completely ionized.

The Earth's hydrosphere performs important functions: it regulates the temperature of the planet, ensures the circulation of substances, and is an integral part of the biosphere.

Direct impact on temperature regulation The hydrosphere exerts its influence on the surface layers of the Earth due to one of the important properties of water - high heat capacity. For this reason, surface waters accumulate solar energy and then slowly release it into the surrounding space. The equalization of temperature on the Earth's surface occurs solely due to the water cycle. In addition, snow and ice have a very high reflectivity: it exceeds the average for the earth's surface by 30%. Therefore, at the poles the difference between absorbed and emitted energy is always negative, that is, the energy absorbed by the surface is less than emitted. This is how the thermoregulation of the planet occurs.

Security circulation of substances- another important function of the hydrosphere.

The hydrosphere is in constant interaction with the atmosphere, the earth's crust and the biosphere. The water of the hydrosphere dissolves air in itself, concentrating oxygen, which is subsequently used by aquatic living organisms. Carbon dioxide in the air, which is formed mainly as a result of the respiration of living organisms, fuel combustion and volcanic eruptions, has high solubility in water and accumulates in the hydrosphere. The hydrosphere also dissolves heavy inert gases - xenon and krypton, the content of which in water is higher than in air.

The waters of the hydrosphere, evaporating, enter the atmosphere and fall in the form of precipitation, which penetrates rocks, destroying them. This is how water participates in processes weathering rocks. Rock fragments are carried by flowing waters into rivers, and then into seas and oceans or into closed continental reservoirs and are gradually deposited at the bottom. These deposits later turn into sedimentary rocks.

It is believed that the main cations of sea water - cations of sodium, magnesium, potassium, calcium - were formed as a result of weathering of rocks and the subsequent removal of weathering products by rivers into the sea. The most important anions of seawater - chlorine, bromine, fluorine, sulfate ion and carbonate ion - probably originate from the atmosphere and are associated with volcanic activity.

Some of the soluble salts are systematically removed from the hydrosphere through their precipitation. For example, when carbonate ions dissolved in water interact with calcium and magnesium cations, insoluble salts are formed, which sink to the bottom in the form of carbonate sedimentary rocks. Organisms inhabiting the hydrosphere play an important role in the deposition of certain salts. They extract individual cations and anions from seawater, concentrating them in their skeletons and shells in the form of carbonates, silicates, phosphates and other compounds. After the death of organisms, their hard shells accumulate on the seabed and form thick layers of limestone, phosphorites and various siliceous rocks. The overwhelming majority of sedimentary rocks and such valuable minerals as oil, coal, bauxite, various salts, etc., were formed in past geological periods in various reservoirs of the hydrosphere. It has been established that even the most ancient rocks, the absolute age of which reaches about 1.8 billion years, represent highly altered sediments formed in an aquatic environment. Water is also used in the process of photosynthesis, which produces organic matter and oxygen.

Life on Earth began in the hydrosphere approximately 3500 million years ago. The evolution of organisms continued exclusively in the aquatic environment until the beginning of the Paleozoic era, when approximately 400 million years ago the gradual migration of animal and plant organisms to land began. In this regard, the hydrosphere is considered a component of the biosphere (biosphere- sphere of life, area of habitat of living organisms).

Living organisms are distributed extremely unevenly in the hydrosphere. The number and diversity of living organisms in individual areas of surface water is determined by many reasons, including a complex of environmental factors: temperature, water salinity, light, pressure. With increasing depth, the limiting effect of illumination and pressure increases: the amount of incoming light decreases sharply, and the pressure, on the contrary, becomes very high. Thus, the seas and oceans are inhabited mainly by littoral zones, that is, zones no deeper than 200 m, most warmed by the sun's rays.

Characterizing the functions of the hydrosphere on our planet, V.I. Vernadsky noted: “Water determines and creates the entire biosphere. It creates the main features of the earth’s crust, right down to the magma shell.”

Atmosphere

Atmosphere(from Greek. atmosphere– steam, evaporation and sphaira– ball) – the shell of the Earth consisting of air.

Part air includes a number of gases and particles of solid and liquid impurities suspended in them - aerosols. The mass of the atmosphere is estimated at 5.157 × 10 15 tons. The air column exerts pressure on the Earth's surface: the average atmospheric pressure at sea level is 1013.25 hPa, or 760 mm Hg. Art. The pressure is 760 mmHg. Art. equated to an off-system unit of pressure - 1 atmosphere (1 atm.). The average air temperature at the Earth's surface is 15 °C, with temperatures varying from approximately 57 °C in subtropical deserts to -89 °C in Antarctica.

The atmosphere is heterogeneous. The following layers of the atmosphere are distinguished: troposphere, stratosphere, mesosphere, thermosphere And exosphere, which differ in the characteristics of temperature distribution, air density and some other parameters. The parts of the atmosphere occupying an intermediate position between these layers are called tropopause, stratopause And mesopause.

Troposphere– the lower layer of the atmosphere with a height of 8-10 km in polar latitudes and up to 16–18 km in the tropics. The troposphere is characterized by a drop in air temperature with height; with every kilometer removed from the Earth's surface, the temperature decreases by about 6 °C. Air density decreases quickly. About 80% of the total mass of the atmosphere is concentrated in the troposphere.

Stratosphere located at altitudes on average from 10–15 km to 50–55 km from the Earth’s surface. The stratosphere is characterized by an increase in temperature with height. The increase in temperature occurs due to the absorption of short-wave radiation from the Sun, primarily UV (ultraviolet) rays, by the ozone located in this layer of the atmosphere. At the same time, in the lower part of the stratosphere to a level of about 20 km, the temperature changes little with altitude and may even decrease slightly. Higher up, the temperature begins to increase - slowly at first, but from a level of 34–36 km much faster. In the upper part of the stratosphere at an altitude of 50–55 km, the temperature reaches 260270 K.

Mesosphere– a layer of the atmosphere located at altitudes of 55–85 km. In the mesosphere, the air temperature decreases with increasing altitude - from approximately 270 K at the lower boundary to 200 K at the upper boundary.

Thermosphere extends at altitudes from approximately 85 km to 250 km from the Earth's surface and is characterized by a rapid increase in air temperature, reaching 800-1200 K at an altitude of 250 km. The increase in temperature occurs due to the absorption of corpuscular and X-ray radiation from the Sun by this layer of the atmosphere; This is where meteors slow down and burn up. Thus, the thermosphere serves as the Earth's protective layer.

Above the troposphere is exosphere, the upper boundary of which is arbitrary and is marked at an altitude of approximately 1000 km above the Earth’s surface. From the exosphere, atmospheric gases are dispersed into space. This is how a gradual transition from the atmosphere to interplanetary space occurs.

Atmospheric air near the Earth's surface consists of various gases, mainly nitrogen (78.1% by volume) and oxygen (20.9% by volume). Air also contains the following gases in small quantities: argon, carbon dioxide, helium, ozone, radon, water vapor. In addition, air may contain various variable components: nitrogen oxides, ammonia, etc.

In addition to gases, air contains atmospheric aerosol, which is very small solid and liquid particles suspended in the air. Aerosol is formed during the life of organisms, human economic activity, volcanic eruptions, the rise of dust from the surface of the planet and from cosmic dust falling into the upper layers of the atmosphere.

The composition of atmospheric air up to a height of about 100 km is generally constant over time and homogeneous in different regions of the Earth. At the same time, the content of variable gaseous components and aerosols is not the same. Above 100–110 km, partial decomposition of oxygen, carbon dioxide and water molecules occurs. At an altitude of about 1000 km, light gases - helium and hydrogen - begin to predominate, and even higher the Earth's atmosphere gradually turns into interplanetary gas.

water vapor- an important component of air. It enters the atmosphere through evaporation from the surface of water and moist soil, as well as through transpiration by plants. The relative content of water vapor in the air varies at the earth's surface from 2.6% in the tropics to 0.2% in polar latitudes. With distance from the Earth's surface, the amount of water vapor in the atmospheric air quickly decreases, and already at an altitude of 1.5–2 km it decreases by half. In the troposphere, due to a decrease in temperature, water vapor condenses. When water vapor condenses, clouds form, from which precipitation falls in the form of rain, snow, and hail. The amount of precipitation that fell on the Earth is equal to the amount of water that evaporated from the Earth's surface. Excess water vapor over the oceans is transported to the continents by air currents. The amount of water vapor transported in the atmosphere from the ocean to the continents is equal to the volume of river runoff flowing into the oceans.

Ozone concentrated 90% in the stratosphere, the rest of it is in the troposphere. Ozone absorbs UV radiation from the Sun, which negatively affects living organisms. Areas with low levels of ozone in the atmosphere are called ozone holes.

The greatest variations in the thickness of the ozone layer are observed at high latitudes, so the likelihood of ozone holes occurring in areas close to the poles is higher than near the equator.

Carbon dioxide enters the atmosphere in significant quantities. It is constantly released as a result of the respiration of organisms, combustion, volcanic eruptions and other processes occurring on Earth. However, the content of carbon dioxide in the air is low, since most of it is dissolved in the waters of the hydrosphere. However, it is noted that over the past 200 years, the content of carbon dioxide in the atmosphere has increased by 35%. The reason for this significant increase is active human economic activity.

The main source of heat for the atmosphere is the Earth's surface. Atmospheric air transmits the sun's rays to the earth's surface quite well. Solar radiation reaching the Earth is partially absorbed by the atmosphere - mainly by water vapor and ozone, but the overwhelming majority reaches the earth's surface.

The total solar radiation reaching the Earth's surface is partially reflected from it. The magnitude of reflection depends on the reflectivity of a particular area of the earth's surface, the so-called albedo. The average albedo of the Earth is about 30%, while the difference between the albedo value is from 7–9% for black soil to 90% for freshly fallen snow. When heated, the earth's surface releases heat rays into the atmosphere and heats its lower layers. In addition to the main source of thermal energy of the atmosphere - the heat of the earth's surface, heat enters the atmosphere as a result of condensation of water vapor, as well as by absorption of direct solar radiation.

Uneven heating of the atmosphere in different regions of the Earth causes unequal pressure distribution, which leads to the movement of air masses along the Earth's surface. Air masses move from areas of high pressure to areas of low pressure. This movement of air masses is called by the wind. Under certain conditions, wind speed can be very high, up to 30 m/s or more (more than 30 m/s is already Hurricane).

The state of the lower layer of the atmosphere in a given place and at a given time is called weather. Weather is characterized by air temperature, precipitation, wind strength and direction, cloudiness, air humidity and atmospheric pressure. The weather is determined by atmospheric circulation conditions and the geographic location of the area. It is most stable in the tropics and most variable in the middle and high latitudes. The nature of the weather and its seasonal dynamics depend on climate in this territory.

Under climate the most frequently repeated weather features for a given area that persist over a long period of time are understood. These are characteristics averaged over 100 years - temperature, pressure, precipitation, etc. The concept of climate (from the Greek. climate– tilt) originated in Ancient Greece. Even then it was understood that weather conditions depended on the angle at which the sun's rays hit the Earth's surface. The leading condition for establishing a certain climate in a given territory is the amount of energy per unit area. It depends on the total solar radiation falling on the earth's surface and on the albedo of this surface. Thus, in the region of the equator and at the poles, the temperature changes little throughout the year, and in subtropical regions and mid-latitudes the annual temperature range can reach 65 °C. The main climate-forming processes are heat exchange, moisture exchange and atmospheric circulation. All these processes have one source of energy - the Sun.

The atmosphere is an essential condition for all forms of life. The following gases that make up the air are of greatest importance for the life of organisms: oxygen, nitrogen, water vapor, carbon dioxide, ozone. Oxygen is necessary for respiration for the vast majority of living organisms. Nitrogen, absorbed from the air by some microorganisms, is necessary for the mineral nutrition of plants. Water vapor, condensing and falling out as precipitation, is the source of water on land. Carbon dioxide is the starting material for the process of photosynthesis. Ozone absorbs hard UV radiation harmful to organisms.

It is believed that the modern atmosphere is of secondary origin: it was formed after the completion of the formation of the planet about 4.5 billion years ago from gases released by the solid shells of the Earth. During the geological history of the Earth, the atmosphere, under the influence of various factors, has undergone significant changes in its composition.

The development of the atmosphere depends on the geological and geochemical processes occurring on Earth. After the emergence of life on our planet, that is, approximately 3.5 billion years ago, living organisms began to have a significant influence on the development of the atmosphere. A significant part of the gases - nitrogen, carbon dioxide, water vapor - arose as a result of volcanic eruptions. Oxygen appeared about 2 billion years ago as a result of the activity of photosynthetic organisms that initially arose in the surface waters of the ocean.

Recently, there have been noticeable changes in the atmosphere associated with active human economic activity. Thus, according to observations, over the past 200 years there has been a significant increase in the concentration of greenhouse gases: the content of carbon dioxide has increased by 1.35 times, methane by 2.5 times. The content of many other variable components in the air has increased significantly.

The ongoing changes in the state of the atmosphere - an increase in the concentration of greenhouse gases, ozone holes, air pollution - represent global environmental problems of our time.

Even in ancient times, people learned to use some of these resources for their needs, which was expressed in the names of historical periods of human development: “Stone Age”, “Bronze Age”, “Iron Age”. Today, more than 200 different types of mineral resources are used. According to the figurative expression of Academician A.E. Fersman (1883-1945), now the entire periodic system of Mendeleev is laid at the feet of humanity.

Minerals are mineral formations of the earth's crust that can be effectively used in the economy; accumulations of minerals form deposits, and in large areas of distribution - pools.

The distribution of minerals in the earth's crust is subject to geological (tectonic) laws (Table 7.4).

For economic development, the most advantageous are territorial combinations (clusters) of mineral resources, which facilitate the complex processing of raw materials.

If minerals lie at a depth of 20-30 m, it is more profitable to remove the top layer of rock with a bulldozer and mine open way. For example, iron ore is mined in the open-pit method in the Kursk region and coal in some deposits of Siberia.

In terms of reserves and production of many mineral resources, Russia ranks among the first in the world (gas, coal, oil, iron ore, diamonds).

In table Figure 7.4 shows the relationship between the structure of the earth’s crust, relief and distribution of minerals.

Table 7.4

Mineral deposits depending on the structure and return of a section of the earth's crust and landforms

Landforms	Structure and age of a section of the earth's crust	Characteristic minerals	Examples
Plains	Shields of Archean-Proterozoic platforms	Abundant iron ore deposits	Ukrainian shield, Baltic shield of the Russian platform
	Plates of ancient platforms, the cover of which was formed in Paleozoic and Mesozoic times	Oil, gas, coal, building materials	West Siberian Lowland, Russian Plain
Mountains	Young fold mountains of alpine age	Polymetallic ores, building materials	Caucasus, Alps
	Destroyed fold-block mountains of the Mesozoic, Hercynian and Caledonian folds	The richest structures in minerals: ores of ferrous (iron, manganese) and non-ferrous (chrome, copper, nickel, uranium, mercury) metals, placers of gold, platinum, diamonds	Kazakh small hill
	Rejuvenated mountains of Mesozoic and Paleozoic folding	Ores of ferrous and non-ferrous metals, primary and placer deposits of gold, platinum and diamonds	Ural, Appalachians, mountains of Central Europe
Continental shoal (shelf)	Edge deflections	Oil Gas	Gulf of Mexico
	Flooded part of slabs, platforms	Oil Gas	Persian Gulf
Ocean floor	Abyssal plains	Iron-manganese nodules	Bottom of the North Sea

Hydrosphere

Hydrosphere(from Greek. hydro- water and sphaira- ball) - the water shell of the Earth, which is a collection of oceans, seas and continental water basins - rivers, lakes, swamps, etc., groundwater, glaciers and snow covers.

Water as a substance has unique properties, which include the following:

♦ ability to dissolve many substances;

♦ high heat capacity;

♦ being in a liquid state in the temperature range from 0 to 100 °C;

♦ greater lightness of water in the solid state (ice) than in the liquid state.

The hydrosphere consists of surface water and groundwater. Surface water hydrospheres cover 70.8% of the earth's surface. Their total volume reaches 1370.3 million km 3, which is 1/800 of the total volume of the planet, and the mass is estimated at 1.4 x 1018 tons. Surface waters, that is, waters covering land, include the World Ocean and continental water basins and continental ice. World Ocean includes all the seas and oceans of the Earth.

The water in the World Ocean is salty. The average salt content is about 3.5% by weight, or 35 g/l. Their qualitative composition is as follows: the cations are dominated by Na +, Mg 2+, K +, Ca 2+, the anions are Cl-, SO 4 2-, Br -, CO3 2-, F -. It is believed that the salt composition of the World Ocean has remained constant since the Paleozoic era, when life began to develop on land, that is, for approximately 400 million years.

Groundwater of the hydrosphere contain the main supply of fresh water: It is assumed that the total volume of groundwater is approximately 28.5 billion km 3. This is almost 15 times more than in the World Ocean. It is believed that groundwater is the main reservoir that replenishes all surface water bodies. The underground hydrosphere can be divided into five zones.

Cryozone. Ice area. The zone covers the polar regions. Its thickness is estimated to be within 1 km.

Liquid water zone. Covers almost the entire earth's crust.

Vapor water zone limited to a depth of 160 km. It is believed that the water in this zone has a temperature of 450 °C to 700 °C and is under pressure up to 5 GPa 1.

Below, at depths of up to 270 km, is located zone of monomeric water molecules. It covers layers of water with a temperature range from 700 °C to 1000 °C and pressure up to 10 GPa.

The Earth's hydrosphere performs important functions: it regulates the temperature of the planet, ensures the circulation of substances, and is an integral part of the biosphere.

Direct impact on temperature regulation The hydrosphere provides the surface layers of the Earth due to one of the important properties of water - high heat capacity. For this reason, surface waters accumulate solar energy and then slowly release it into the surrounding space. The equalization of temperature on the Earth's surface occurs solely due to the water cycle. In addition, snow and ice are very reflective

ability: it exceeds the average for the earth's surface by 30%, Therefore, at the poles, the difference between absorbed and emitted energy is always negative, that is, the energy absorbed by the surface is less than emitted. This is how the thermoregulation of the planet occurs.

Security circulation of substances- another important function of the hydrosphere.

It is believed that the main cations of sea water - cations of sodium, magnesium, potassium, calcium - were formed as a result of weathering of rocks and the subsequent removal of weathering products by rivers into the sea. The most important anions of seawater - the anions of chlorine, bromine, fluorine, sulfate ion and carbonate ion - probably originate from the atmosphere and are associated with volcanic activity.

Some of the soluble salts are systematically removed from the hydrosphere through their precipitation. For example, when carbonate ions dissolved in water interact with calcium and magnesium cations, insoluble salts are formed, which sink to the bottom in the form of carbonate sedimentary rocks. Organisms inhabiting the hydrosphere play an important role in the deposition of certain salts. They extract individual cations and anions from seawater, concentrating them in their skeletons and shells in the form of carbonates, silicates, phosphates and other compounds. After the death of organisms, their hard shells accumulate on the seabed and form thick layers of limestone, phosphorites and various siliceous rocks. The overwhelming majority of sedimentary rocks and valuable minerals such as oil, coal, bauxite, various salts, etc., were formed in past geological periods in various reservoirs of the hydrosphere. It has been established that even the most ancient rocks, the absolute age of which reaches about 1.8 billion years, represent highly altered sediments formed in an aquatic environment. Water is also used in the process of photosynthesis, which produces organic matter and oxygen.

Life on Earth began in the hydrosphere approximately 3500 million years ago. The evolution of organisms continued exclusively in the aquatic environment until the beginning of the Paleozoic era, when approximately 400 million years ago the gradual migration of animal and plant organisms to land began. In this regard, the hydrosphere is considered a component of the biosphere (biosphere - sphere of life, area of habitat of living organisms).

Atmosphere

Atmosphere(from Greek. atmos- steam, evaporation and sphaira- ball) - the shell of the Earth consisting of air.

Part air includes a number of gases and particles of solid and liquid impurities suspended in them - aerosols. The mass of the atmosphere is estimated at 5.157 x 10 15 tons. The air column exerts pressure on the Earth's surface: the average atmospheric pressure at sea level is 1013.25 hPa, or 760 mm Hg. Art. The pressure is 760 mmHg. Art. equated to an off-system unit of pressure - 1 atmosphere (1 atm.). The average air temperature at the Earth's surface is 15 °C, with temperatures varying from approximately 57 °C in subtropical deserts to 89 °C in Antarctica.

Troposphere - the lower layer of the atmosphere with a height of 8-10 km in polar latitudes and up to 16-18 km in the tropics. The troposphere is characterized by a drop in air temperature with height - with every kilometer removed from the Earth's surface, the temperature decreases by approximately 6°C. Air density decreases quickly. About 80% of the total mass of the atmosphere is concentrated in the troposphere.

Stratosphere located at altitudes on average from 10-15 km to 50-55 km from the Earth's surface. The stratosphere is characterized by an increase in temperature with height. The increase in temperature occurs due to the absorption of short-wave radiation from the Sun, primarily UV (ultraviolet) rays, by the ozone located in this layer of the atmosphere. At the same time, in the lower part of the stratosphere to a level of about 20 km, the temperature changes little with altitude and may even decrease slightly. Higher up, the temperature begins to increase - slowly at first, but from a level of 34-36 km much faster. In the upper part of the stratosphere at an altitude of 50-55 km, the temperature reaches 260-270 K.

Mesosphere- a layer of the atmosphere located at altitudes of 55-85 km. In the mesosphere, the air temperature decreases with increasing altitude - from approximately 270 K at the lower boundary to 200 K at the upper boundary.

The composition of atmospheric air up to a height of about 100 km is generally constant over time and homogeneous in different regions of the Earth. At the same time, the content of variable gaseous components and aerosols is not the same. Above 100-110 km, partial decomposition of oxygen, carbon dioxide and water molecules occurs. At an altitude of about 1000 km, light gases - helium and hydrogen - begin to predominate, and even higher the Earth's atmosphere gradually turns into interplanetary gas.

water vapor- an important component of air. It enters the atmosphere through evaporation from the surface, water and moist soil, as well as through transpiration by plants. The relative content of water vapor in the air varies at the earth's surface from 2.6% in the tropics to 0.2% in polar latitudes. With distance from the Earth's surface, the amount of water vapor in the atmospheric air quickly falls, and already at an altitude of 1.5-2 km it decreases by half. In the troposphere, due to a decrease in temperature, water vapor condenses. When water vapor condenses, clouds form, from which precipitation falls in the form of rain, snow, and hail. The amount of precipitation that fell on the Earth is equal to the amount that evaporated from the surface. Lands of water. Excess water vapor over the oceans is transported to the continents by air currents. The amount of water vapor transported in the atmosphere from the ocean to the continents is equal to the volume of river runoff flowing into the oceans.

The greatest variations in the thickness of the ozone layer are observed at high latitudes, so the likelihood of ozone holes occurring in areas close to the poles is higher than near the equator.

The total solar radiation reaching the Earth's surface is partially reflected from it. The magnitude of reflection depends on the reflectivity of a particular area of the earth's surface, the so-called albedo. The average albedo of the Earth is about 30%, while the difference between the albedo value is from 7-9% for black soil to 90% for freshly fallen snow. When heated, the earth's surface releases heat rays into the atmosphere and heats its lower layers. In addition to the main source of thermal energy of the atmosphere - the heat of the earth's surface; heat enters the atmosphere as a result of condensation of water vapor, as well as by absorption of direct solar radiation.

Under, climate the most frequently repeated weather features for a given area that persist over a long period of time are understood. These are characteristics averaged over 100 years - temperature, pressure, precipitation, etc. The concept of climate (from Greek, klima- tilt) originated in Ancient Greece. Even then it was understood that weather conditions depended on the angle at which the sun's rays hit the Earth's surface. The leading condition for establishing a certain climate in a given territory is the amount of energy per unit area. It depends on the total solar radiation falling on the earth's surface and on the albedo of this surface. Thus, in the region of the equator and at the poles, the temperature changes little throughout the year, and in subtropical regions and mid-latitudes the annual temperature range can reach 65 °C. The main climate-forming processes are heat exchange, moisture exchange and atmospheric circulation. All these processes have one source of energy - the Sun.

Recently, there have been noticeable changes in the atmosphere associated with active human economic activity. Thus, according to observations, over the past 200 years there has been a significant increase in the concentration of greenhouse gases: the content of carbon dioxide has increased by 1.35 times, methane - by 2.5 times. The content of many other variable components in the air has increased significantly.

The ongoing changes in the state of the atmosphere - an increase in the concentration of greenhouse gases, ozone holes, air pollution - represent global environmental problems of our time.

65. ECOLOGICAL FUNCTIONS OF THE LITHOSPHERE: RESOURCE, GEODYNAMIC, GEOPHYSICAL-GEOCHEMICAL

Even in ancient times, people learned to use for their needs some of the resources of the lithosphere and other shells of the Earth, which was reflected in the names of historical periods of human development: “Stone Age”, “Bronze Age”, “Iron Age”. There are more than 200 different types of resources in use these days. All natural resources should be clearly distinguished from natural conditions.

Natural resources- these are bodies and forces of nature, which at a given level of development of productive forces and knowledge can be used to meet the needs of human society in the form of direct participation in material activity.

Under minerals refers to the mineral formations of the earth's crust that can be effectively used in human economic activity. The distribution of minerals in the earth's crust is subject to geological laws. The resources of the lithosphere include fuel, ore and non-metallic minerals, as well as the energy of the Earth's internal heat. Thus, the lithosphere performs one of the most important functions for humanity - resource - supplying humans with almost all types of known resources.

In addition to the resource function, the lithosphere also performs another important function - geodynamic. Geological processes are continuously taking place on Earth. All geological processes are based on different energy sources. The source of internal processes is heat generated during radioactive decay and gravitational differentiation of substances inside the Earth.

Various tectonic movements of the earth's crust are associated with internal processes, creating the main forms of relief - mountains and plains, magmatism, earthquakes. Tectonic movements manifest themselves in slow vertical vibrations of the earth's crust, in the formation of rock folds and tectonic faults. The appearance of the earth's surface is constantly changing under the influence of lithospheric and intraterrestrial processes. We can see only a few of these processes with our own eyes. These, in particular, include such dangerous phenomena as earthquakes and volcanism caused by seismic activity of intraterrestrial processes.

The diversity of the chemical composition and physicochemical properties of the earth’s crust is the next function of the lithosphere – geophysical and geochemical. Based on geological and geochemical data to a depth of 16 km, the average chemical composition of the earth's crust rocks was calculated: oxygen - 47%, silicon -27.5%, aluminum - 8.6%, iron - 5%, calcium, sodium, magnesium and potassium - 10 .5%, all other elements account for about 1.5%, including titanium - 0.6%, carbon - 0.1%, copper -0.01%, lead - 0.0016%, gold - 0 .0000005%. It is obvious that the first eight elements make up almost 99% of the earth's crust. The fulfillment of this function by the lithosphere, no less important than the previous ones, leads to the most effective economic use of almost all layers of the lithosphere. In particular, the most valuable in its composition and physical and chemical properties is the upper thin layer of the earth’s crust, which has natural fertility and is called soil.

65. ECOLOGICAL FUNCTIONS OF THE LITHOSPHERE: RESOURCE, GEODYNAMIC, GEOPHYSICAL-GEOCHEMICAL

Natural resources- these are bodies and forces of nature, which at a given level of development of productive forces and knowledge can be used to meet the needs of human society in the form of direct participation in material activity.

Under minerals refers to the mineral formations of the earth's crust that can be effectively used in human economic activity. The distribution of minerals in the earth's crust is subject to geological laws. The resources of the lithosphere include fuel, ore and non-metallic minerals, as well as the energy of the Earth's internal heat. Thus, the lithosphere performs one of the most important functions for humanity - resource - supplying humans with almost all types of known resources.