Development of sensations in professional activity. Feeling and perception and their role in the professional activities of a lawyer

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Introduction

perception sensation mental

The topic of this work is very relevant and interesting to study. After all, perception and sensation are very complex positive processes that form a unique picture of the world, depicted perceived and felt in colors and sounds, which can differ significantly from reality. With the help of various kinds of illusions. Recognizing the difference between the perceived world and the real world is essential to understanding organizational behavior. Not for nothing scientists: Maklakov A.G.; Nemov R.S.; Stolyarenko L.D.; Nikolaenko A.I. and others, worked on the study of perception and sensation from similarities and differences

The purpose of writing the work is to reveal the essence of the difference between perception and sensation as cognitive processes, its components, as well as factors influencing the perception and sensations of a person. To study the theoretical material on the topic and apply it in practice. At the same time, my tasks were the following: to show the relationship between sensation and perception, to consider perception and sensation as a cognitive process of receiving and processing information from the environment, to show what a person’s perception and sensation are made of, to point out possible errors and distortions in perception and sensation.

1. Feeling as a cognitive mental process

1.1 The concept of sensation

Sensations are the simplest mental process, as a result of which a person has the simplest image of the external and internal world. It is a reflection of the individual properties of objects with their direct impact on the senses. Sensation is a reflection of the individual properties of objects that directly affect our senses. Feelings are the source of our knowledge about the world and ourselves. The ability to sense is present in all living beings with a nervous system. Conscious sensations exist only in living beings that have a brain and a cerebral cortex. On the one hand, sensations are objective, since they always reflect an external stimulus, and on the other hand, sensations are subjective, since they depend on the state nervous system and individual characteristics of a person.

Objects and phenomena of reality that affect our senses are called stimuli. Stimuli cause excitation in the nervous tissue. Sensation arises as a reaction of the nervous system to a particular stimulus and, like any mental phenomenon, has a reflex character.

The physiological mechanism of sensation is the activity of special nervous apparatuses called analyzers. Analyzers receive the impact of certain stimuli from the external and internal environment and process them into sensations. In the process of any cognitive activity, the starting point is sensation, and the leading process is perception. Information, on the basis of which a holistic image is formed, comes to us through various channels: auditory (perception of auditory images), visual (perception of visual images), kinesthetic (perception of sensory images ..

Psychophysiological characteristics of sensations

A person is born with a ready-made apparatus for all those types of sensations that an adult has. At present, it has been experimentally proven that already in the womb, he begins to reflect the world around him at the level of sensations. Therefore, after birth, there is only an expansion of the range of sensations. The work of the physiological apparatus responsible for the transmission of one or another type of sensation has a special influence on the quality of sensation. So the intensity of sensation is related to the threshold of sensation. There are three types of thresholds: the lower threshold (or absolute) is the minimum strength of the stimulus that is necessary for the occurrence of a sensation (for example, 2–3 quanta of light are enough for a visual sensation, which corresponds to light from a burning candle located at a distance of 1 km from observer); upper threshold - the maximum strength of the stimulus, which still causes a feeling of this quality, without turning into pain sensation. discrimination threshold - the minimum change in the strength of the stimulus to which the sensation organ reacts in the form of a change in the latter (for example, the discrimination threshold for musicians and people who do not play music has a pronounced difference in the magnitude of the discrimination threshold). The second psychophysiological characteristic of sensations is adaptation. It is directly related to a change in the absolute threshold and is a change in the sensitivity of the sense organs under the influence of the stimulus: if there is a long-term exposure to a medium-strength stimulus, then the sensation of this modality may completely disappear (this is how we stop hearing a softly ticking clock, etc.); under the action of a weak stimulus, sensitivity increases (we begin to see some time after we entered a dimly lit room from a sunny street); under the action of a strong stimulus, the sensitivity of the organ is "blunted", the sensitivity of the organ decreases (it increases the lower threshold). The third feature of sensations is contrast. It is a change in the intensity and quality of sensations of a given type under the influence of a previous or concomitant stimulus (for example, the red color of strawberries against a green background of leaves feels more saturated than when viewed against the background of the same berries). The fourth psychophysiological characteristic of sensation is called sensitization - increased sensitivity as a result of the interaction of analyzers and / or exercises (for example, there is always an improvement in pitch hearing in children involved in music). And the last, fifth, psychophysiological characteristic is synesthesia. Synesthesia is the occurrence of sensation in an organ that does not experience this moment direct impact from the external environment, sensations under the influence of stimuli on another sense organ. It differs from all previous ones by a greater individualization of occurrence. The most common synesthesia is visual-audible. Thus, the emergence of any sensation is associated with the physiological capabilities of the organ through which information about the properties of the inner and outer world comes.

1.2 Types of sensation

Feelings can be classified in different ways. According to the leading modality (qualitative characteristics of sensations), the following sensations are distinguished: visual, auditory, olfactory, gustatory, tactile, motor, internal (sensations of the internal state of the body).

Visual sensations are a reflection of both achromatic (white, black and shades of gray intermediate between them) and chromatic (various shades of red, yellow, green, blue) colors. Visual sensations are caused by exposure to light, i.e. electromagnetic waves, radiated (or reflected) physical bodies to the visual analyzer. The outer perceiving "device" is the retina of the eye shell. Auditory sensations are a reflection of sounds of different heights (high - low), strength (loud - quiet) and different quality (musical sounds, noises). They are caused by the impact of sound waves created by the vibrations of the bodies. Olfactory sensations are a reflection of odors. Olfactory sensations arise due to the penetration of particles of odorous substances that spread in the air into the upper part of the nasopharynx, where they act on the peripheral endings of the olfactory analyzer embedded in the nasal mucosa. Taste sensations are a reflection of some chemical properties of flavoring substances dissolved in water or saliva. Taste sensations play an important role in the process of nutrition, when distinguishing between different types food. Tactile sensations are a reflection of the mechanical properties of objects that are detected when they are touched, rubbed against them, or hit. These sensations also reflect the temperature of environmental objects and external pain effects. These sensations are called exteroceptive and form a single group according to the type of analyzers located on the surface of the body or near it. Exteroceptive sensations are divided into contact and discant. Contact sensations are caused by direct contact with the surface of the body (taste, touch), distant sensations are caused by stimuli acting on the sense organs at some distance (vision, hearing). Olfactory sensations occupy an intermediate position between them.

The next group consists of sensations that reflect the movements and states of the body itself. They are called motor or proprioceptive. Motor sensations reflect the position of the limbs, their movement and the degree of effort applied. Without them, it is impossible to perform movements normally and coordinate them. Sensations of position (balance), along with motor sensations, play an important role in the process of perception (for example, stability). In addition, there is a group of organic sensations - internal (iteroceptive). These sensations reflect the internal state of the body. These include feelings of hunger, thirst, nausea, internal pain sensations, etc. According to the time of occurrence, sensations are relevant and irrelevant. Different types of sensations are characterized not only by specificity, but also by properties common to them. These properties include: quality - an essential feature of sensations, which makes it possible to distinguish one type of sensation from another (for example, auditory from visual), as well as various variations sensations within a given type (for example, by color, saturation); intensity is a quantitative characteristic of sensations, which is determined by the strength of the acting stimulus and the functional state of the receptor; duration is a time characteristic of sensations. It is determined by the functional state of the sense organs, the time of exposure to the stimulus and its intensity. The quality of sensations of all kinds depends on the sensitivity of the analyzers of the corresponding type.

2. Perception, its varieties and levels. Accounting for patterns of perception in professional activities

2.1 The concept of perception

Perception is a holistic reflection of objects, situations, phenomena arising from the direct impact of physical stimuli on the receptor surfaces of the sense organs .. Perception is a holistic reflection of objects and phenomena of the objective world with their direct impact at the moment on the sense organs. the process of reflecting objects and phenomena of reality in the aggregate of their various properties and parts with their direct impact on the senses. Perception is a reflection of a complex stimulus. There are four operations, or four levels, of perceptual action: detection, discrimination, identification and recognition. The first two relate to perceptual, the last - to identification actions. Detection is the initial phase of development of any sensory process. The next operation of perception is discrimination, or perception itself. Its end result is the formation of a perceptual image of the standard. When the perceptual image is formed, perhaps, the implementation of the identification action. For identification, comparison and identification are obligatory. Identification is the identification of a directly perceived object with an image stored in memory, or the identification of two simultaneously perceived objects. Recognition also includes categorization (assignment of an object to a certain class of objects perceived earlier) and extraction of the corresponding standard from memory. Thus, perception is a system of perceptual actions, mastering them requires special training and practice. Depending on the extent to which the activity of the individual will be purposeful, perception is divided into unintentional (involuntary) and intentional (voluntary). Unintentional perception can be caused both by the features of the surrounding objects (their brightness, unusualness), and by the correspondence of these objects to the interests of the individual. There is no predetermined goal in unintentional perception. There is also no volitional activity in it, which is why it is called involuntary. Walking down the street, for example, we hear the noise of cars, people talking, we see shop windows, we perceive various smells, and much more. Intentional perception from the very beginning is regulated by the task - to perceive this or that object or phenomenon, to get acquainted with it.

2.2 Types and properties of perception

tactile perception

Touch is a complex form of sensitivity, including both elementary and complex components. The first include sensations of cold, heat and pain, the second - the actual tactile sensations (touch and pressure). Peripheral apparatus for the sensation of heat and cold are "bulbs" scattered in the thickness of the skin. The apparatus of pain sensations is the free endings of thin nerve fibers that perceive pain signals, the peripheral apparatus of sensations of touch and pressure is a kind of nerve formations known as Leisner's bodies, Vater-Pacchini's bodies, also located in the thickness of the skin. The most complex forms of tactile sensitivity are the sensation of touch localization, distinctive sensitivity (a sense of the distance between two touches to close areas of the skin). right hand the position that is passively given to the left hand. In the implementation of these types of sensitivity, complex secondary zones of the postcentral sections of the cortex take part.

visual perception.

The analysis analyzer is a complex system physiological mechanisms. Observations show that human eyes never remain still. Continuous movement is a necessary condition for building an adequate image.

Perception of brightness and color. The human visual system is sensitive to electromagnetic waves, the wavelength of which lies in the range from 380 to 720 nanometers. This region of electromagnetic oscillations is called the visible part of the spectrum. The reception of light falling on the retina is only the first step in a complex chain of processes leading to a visual reflection of the world around us. The structure of the process of color perception varies depending on the optical properties of the surface of objects. These surfaces can glow by emitting more light than falls on them; shine, reflecting all the light falling on them; reflect only part of the incident light and be transparent, that is, do not provide significant obstacles to the light. Most of the objects around us partially absorb and partially reflect the light falling on them. The color of these objects is characterized by reflectivity. Therefore, in order to perceive the color of objects, the visual system must take into account not only the light reflected by the surface of the object, but also the characteristics of the light illuminating this surface. The same objects in different lighting conditions (in daylight, in an electric lamp, in an orange-red sunset) reflect light of a different spectral composition. However, charcoal on a sunny day throws off much more light than a piece of chalk at dusk, and yet we perceive charcoal as black and chalk as white. This indicates the constancy of color perception, which is of great importance for the correct orientation in the environment. Constant color perception is ensured by assessing the relative brightness of surfaces in the observer's field of view, taking into account the role of past experience.

Visual perception of simple forms occurs instantly and does not require long-term searches with the identification of identifying features and their further synthesis into one whole structure. Another takes place in the perception of complex objects of their images or entire situations. In these cases, only the simplest and most familiar objects are immediately perceived. The process of visual perception of complex objects is a complex and active perceptual activity, and although it proceeds incomparably more abbreviated than the process of identifying an object by touch, it still requires the participation of motor components, thereby approaching tactile perception. In order to ensure the possibility of long-term preservation of the image, eye movements are needed that move the image from one point of the retina to another. The study of eye movements, with the help of which the subject orients himself in the subject under consideration, has become one of the essential methods for studying the perception of complex objects and images. The facts have shown that the eye, considering a complex object, never moves uniformly over it, but always searches for and singles out the most informative points that attract the attention of the observer. It is well known that a normal subject perceives an object offered to him, highlighting many features in it, including it in various situations and generalizing it into one category with outwardly different, but essentially similar objects.

Auditory perception is fundamentally different from both tactile and visual perception. If tactile and visual perception reflects the world of objects located in space, then auditory perception deals with a sequence of stimuli occurring in time. Our hearing perceives tones and noises. Tones are regular rhythmic vibrations of the air, and the frequency of these vibrations determines the pitch, and the amplitude determines the intensity of the sound. Noises are the result of a complex of overlapping oscillations, and the frequency of these oscillations is in random, non-multiple relationships with each other. A person is able to distinguish sounds in the range from 20 to 20,000 hertz, and the range of intensities of sounds perceived by a person is on a scale from 1 dB to 130 dB. Speaking about the organization of tactile and visual sensitivity, it can be noted that the factors organizing them are the forms and objects of the external world. Their reflection leads to the fact that tactile and visual processes are encoded into known systems and turn into organized tactile and visual perception.

3. Development of social perception as a necessary condition for professional competence

Social perception is a figurative perception by a person of himself, other people and social phenomena of the surrounding world. The image exists at the level of feelings (sensations, perceptions, ideas) and at the level of thinking (concepts, judgments, conclusions).

The term " social perception» was first introduced by J. Bruner in 1947 and was understood as a social determination of perceptual processes.

Social perception includes interpersonal perception (perception of a person by a person), which consists of perception external signs person, their correlation with personal qualities, interpretation and prediction of future actions. As a synonym in domestic psychology often use the expression "knowledge of another person," says A. A. Bodalev. The use of such an expression is justified by the inclusion in the process of perception of another of his behavioral characteristics, the formation of ideas about the intentions, abilities, attitudes of the perceived, etc.

The process of social perception includes two sides: subjective (subject of perception - the person who perceives) and objective (object of perception - the person who is perceived). In the course of interaction and communication, social perception becomes mutual. At the same time, mutual knowledge is aimed primarily at understanding those qualities of a partner that are most significant for the participants in communication at a given time.

The difference in social perception: social facilities are not passive and indifferent in relation to the subject of perception. Social images always have semantic and evaluative characteristics. The interpretation of another person or group depends on the previous social experience of the subject, on the behavior of the object, on the system of value orientations of the perceiver, and other factors.

The subject of perception can be either an individual or a group. If an individual acts as a subject, then he can perceive:

1) another individual belonging to his group;

2) another individual belonging to a foreign group;

3) your group;

4) someone else's group.

If the group acts as the subject of perception, then, according to G. M. Andreeva, the following is added:

1) the group's perception of its own member;

2) perception by a group of a representative of another group;

3) the group's perception of itself;

4) perception by the group as a whole of another group.

In groups, individual ideas of people about each other are framed in group personality assessments, which act in the process of communication in the form of public opinion.

Ways to improve the professional competence of a social work specialist.

The concept of "competence" comes from the Latin word "competere", which means to fit, fit.

This term usually means:

1. general competence is the ability to apply knowledge, skills, successfully act on the basis of practical experience when solving problems of a general kind, also in a certain wide area;

2. professional competence - the ability to successfully act on the basis of practical experience, skills and knowledge in solving problems of a professional kind of activity;

3. competence (personnel management) is the personal ability of a specialist (employee) to solve a certain class of professional tasks. In personnel management, competence is more often understood as formally described requirements for the personal, professional and other qualities of a candidate for admission, an employee, or a group of company employees;

4. competence (legal term) - a set of legally established powers, rights and obligations of a particular body or official; determines its place in the system of state bodies (local self-government bodies);

5. intercultural competence - the ability to successfully communicate with representatives of other cultures;

6. competence is key, organizations are a set competitive advantage organization, its main trump card in competitive or hypercompetitive struggle http://ru.wikipedia.org/.

In our country under professional competence It is customary to understand the totality of professional knowledge, skills, work experience, attitude towards the company, loyalty to managers and colleagues, the ability to "fit" into the microclimate of the organization.

Such concepts as "competence" and "competence" in everyday life have the meaning of synonyms.

Some researchers do not agree with this position.

E.V. Zeer and E. Symanyuk designate the term competence - the integrative integrity and effectiveness of knowledge, skills, skills in general, and the term competence - the integrative integrity, the effectiveness of knowledge and experience in professional activities. S.Sh. Chernova believes that competence is understood as a characteristic of a person, meaning the possession of a set of certain competencies, and competence is the unity of knowledge, experience, ability to act and behavioral skills of an individual. I.L. Zimnyaya breeds these concepts - competence is a kind of program according to which competence develops, that is, the concept of competence is much broader.

In the countries of the European Union, a special place is given to the concepts of "key competencies" and "key classifications".

Key classifications include:

1. psychomotor skills, general labor qualities, cognitive abilities, individually oriented abilities, social abilities;

2. core skills (literacy, numeracy), life skills (self-management, professional and social development), key skills (communication), social and civic skills, entrepreneurial skills, managerial skills, ability to plan and analyze;

3. socio-professional and personal qualifications, professional cognitive abilities;

"Key competencies":

1. social competence (the ability to take responsibility, jointly develop a solution and participate in its implementation, tolerance for different ethnic cultures and religions, manifestation of the conjugation of personal interests with the needs of the enterprise;

2. communicative competence (proficiency in oral and written communication technologies in different languages, computer programming);

3. social information competence (knowledge of information technologies and a critical attitude to social information disseminated by the media);

4. cognitive competence (readiness for continuous improvement educational level, the need to update and realize their internal potential, the ability to self-development, the ability to independently acquire new knowledge and skills);

5. intercultural competence;

6. competence in the field of independent cognitive activity;

7. special competence (preparedness for self-fulfillment professional actions, evaluation of the results of their work).

According to the definition of O.V. Khovova, professional competence includes not only ideas about qualifications (professional skills, work experience, skills and knowledge), but also social and communicative and individual abilities that ensure the independence of professional activity

Within the framework of this work, the concept of competence is interpreted as a set of professional knowledge, skills and experience, a professionally significant quality necessary for the effective performance of job duties.

Professional competence in social work

A social work specialist carries out his professional activities in the “person-to-person” system. His job is to provide the necessary assistance to a person in need - a client (or a group of persons).

Since the clients of social work are not a homogeneous group - among them there are various categories of citizens in need - then the specialist is required to master a large amount of knowledge and master it.

It is also important that the client's situation is always individual. Therefore, within the competence of a social work specialist, such qualities as creativity of thinking and the ability to take responsibility should be present. Unfortunately, in our country, social work is represented by state social services, in which there is a strict vertical of power that does not allow a specialist to make decisions independently.

As part of the competence of a social work specialist, it is customary to single out:

1) special competence:

Understanding the purpose of the profession of a social work specialist;

Mastering the norms of professional activity, high efficiency;

Achievement high results in solving customer problems;

professional skill;

2) communicative competence:

Attributing oneself to a professional community;

Mastering the norms of professional communication, ethical standards of the profession;

Orientation of professional results for the benefit of clients;

Social responsibility for their professional actions;

The ability to arouse interest in the society in the results of their profession and direct it to solve the needs of clients;

3) personal competence:

Sustainable professional motivation;

The presence of a positive self-concept, self-worth;

switchability, versatility;

Creative attitude, conscious professional creativity in working with a client;

4) individual competence:

Holistic professional self-awareness, knowledge of the professiogram of one's profession;

Acceptance of oneself as a professional;

Self-development of professional abilities;

Internality as a vision in oneself of the reasons for success - failure;

Strong goal-setting, noise immunity;

Conclusion

Living and acting, resolving in the course of his life the practical tasks that confront him, a person perceives the environment. Perceiving, a person not only sees, but also looks, not only hears, but also listens, and sometimes he not only looks, but examines or peers, not only listens, but also listens. Perception is a form of knowledge of reality. But how to explain the fact that we all perceive the same thing? One might think that from birth, culture takes over the regulation of brain activity in such a way that the brain learns to make the same calculations that are characteristic of all members of a given group. Differences in the perception of the world, life, death, and so on different cultures would seem to confirm this. Pribram is of the opinion (Godefroy J) that this approach should fundamentally change our understanding of reality. This does not mean that old models will be discarded. They are likely to enter into a broader and richer vision of the world, which will allow us to explain the Universe, of which we ourselves are a part.

Thus, our perception of the environment is the result of the interpretation of signals picked up by antennas tuned to the outside world. These antennae are our receptors; eyes, ears, nose, mouth and skin. We are also sensitive to signals from our inner world, to mental images and to memories stored in memory on a more or less conscious level.

Bibliography

Maklakov A. G. General psychology M.-- 2001

Nemov R.S. " General Basics psychology "- M. 2003

Nikolaenko A.I. "Psychology and Pedagogy" - M. INFRA 2000

Stolyarenko L.D. Fundamentals of psychology. -- Rostov-on-Don, 2006

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One sensation may not be similar to another, even if they belong to the same modality (sight, hearing, etc.). The individual characteristics of each sensation are determined by the concept of "properties of sensations".
Each sensation can be characterized in its properties. Properties of sensations can be not only specific to a given modality, but also common to all types of sensations. The main properties of sensations, the most commonly used:
- quality,
- intensity,
- duration,
- spatial localization,
- absolute threshold,
- relative threshold.

Quality of feeling

Characteristics of not only sensations, but in general all characteristics can be divided into qualitative and quantitative. For example, the title of a book or its author are qualitative characteristics; the weight of a book or its length are quantitative. The quality of sensation is a property that characterizes the basic information displayed by a given sensation, which distinguishes it from other sensations. One can also say this: the quality of sensation is a property that cannot be measured with the help of numbers, compared with some kind of numerical scale.
For a visual sensation, the quality can be the color of the perceived object. For taste or smell, the chemical characteristic of an object: sweet or sour, bitter or salty, floral smell, almond smell, hydrogen sulfide smell, etc.
Sometimes the quality of sensation is understood as its modality (auditory sensation, visual or otherwise). This also makes sense, because often in a practical or theoretical sense one has to talk about sensations in general. For example, during the experiment, the psychologist can ask the subject general question: "Tell me about your feelings during ..." And then the modality will be one of the main properties of the described sensations.

Feeling intensity

Perhaps the main quantitative characteristic of sensation is its intensity. In fact, it is of great importance for us whether we listen to quiet music or loud, it is light in the room or we can hardly see our hands.
It is important to understand that the intensity of sensation depends on two factors, which can be described as objective and subjective:
- the strength of the acting stimulus (its physical characteristics),
- the functional state of the receptor, which is affected by this stimulus.
The more significant the physical parameters of the stimulus, the more intense the sensation. For example, the higher the amplitude of a sound wave, the louder the sound appears to us. And the higher the sensitivity of the receptor, the more intense the sensation. For example, being in a dark room after a long stay and going out into a moderately lit room, you can "go blind" from bright light.

Professional activity makes high demands on the sensory organization of law enforcement officers. Therefore, lawyers, especially prosecutors and investigators, need to be able to manage their feelings: to stimulate positive and strong-willed efforts to neutralize the impact on the psyche of negative feelings.

20. Perception: concept, features and types

Perception called the reflection in the mind of a person of objects and phenomena of the surrounding world with their direct impact on receptors in the form of integral images.

We perceive the game actions of football players who, in the fight for the ball, carry out the tactical combination they have conceived. The climber perceives objects and the spatial relationships between them when he looks at the mountain valley that has opened up to his gaze, sees trees and rocks nearby, a mountain river flowing a little further and distant peaks of mountains on the horizon. The student perceives the speech of the teacher giving a lecture. The athlete perceives his movements when he makes a high jump, hits the ball or strains his strength to be the first to reach the finish line.

These examples show that in the process of perception we get images of perceived things and phenomena of the surrounding world. Perceptual images are distinguished by the following features:

A) objectification. Perceiving some object (a tree, a book, etc.), we are aware of it not as our subjective mental experience, but as an objective object that exists outside of us.

b) integrity. Perception always has a holistic character: in the concrete images of objects obtained in the process of perception, external phenomena are reflected in their integrity, in the organic totality of their properties and qualities.

The image of perception is not a mechanical sum of parts or elements that make up the perceived object, but the image of the object itself in its entirety. From the very beginning, from the first moment of perception, we deal immediately, instantly with the image of a whole thing, and do not create it by summing up the elements. On the contrary, the dismemberment of the image into elements is a secondary process that complements and follows a holistic perception. First we see the house, and then we distinguish the floors and other parts of the building. First, we hear the melody in its entirety, and then we already highlight the chords and musical tones that make it up.

The holistic nature of perception is due to the innate ability of our brain to see in the perceived object that which makes up its peculiarity as a whole object, and then to single out the elements inherent in it. This ability has developed even in animals in the process of their adaptation to environmental conditions in which they have always encountered, and above all with objects and phenomena in their integrity and isolation. This ability was improved in a person in the process of labor: in order to work, a person had to deal with integral objects and tools of labor; but at the same time, labor forced a person to see in them their individual parts, in order to more effectively use these objects and tools in their production activities; thus, the ability to differentiate individual parts and elements of a whole thing has developed and improved.

In many cases, the specific nature of the parts and elements of an integral object is not essential for its perception and can be easily replaced by other specific features without losing the integrity of perception. Thus, we perceive a melody as holistically the same, despite the fact that it is played on different musical instruments or in different registers, which, as you know, completely changes the specific nature of its constituent elements. It is only necessary that during the performance, a certain ratio of the musical tones that make up the melody, which determines the integrity of the melody, be preserved. We always recognize any letter of the alphabet as such, despite a significant discrepancy in transcription. It is only necessary that, despite all these discrepancies, the ratio of parts that characterizes the integrity of the object should be preserved. For the letter A, these will be two inclined lines connected at an angle with a cross in the middle (Fig. 1).

V) mobility, lack of long-term fixation of certain parts, impossibility for any long time to preserve the constancy of the image, which is constantly in motion, change. Since the process of perception always takes place in time, the image of the perceived object is characterized by mobility, variability; it is not a frozen, static image, but always changing in its salient features. For example, when perceiving a tree in the mind of a person at any given moment, one or the other part of the object is predominantly reflected: now, in the perception of a tree, its peculiar trunk stands out most clearly; in a second, in the same image of a tree, its crown will be more clearly reflected;

G) constancy. For all their mobility and variability, the images of the objects we perceive are distinguished by a certain constancy (constancy), despite the significant variability of the conditions in which the process of perception takes place. So, we always perceive a sheet of writing paper as white, although its color can take on different shades due to changes in lighting conditions. The table is necessarily perceived by us as having a square or rectangular upper part, although at the moment we can see it from such an angle of view when its upper surface is hidden from us, etc.;

e) meaningfulness. Perceptual images always have a clearly defined semantic meaning (“I see a tree, a sea, a person”, etc.). We always attribute the observed object or phenomenon to a certain group or class of objects, and do not display them in our perception as something isolated, not related to other phenomena. The meaningfulness of perception is achieved primarily by the fact that we immediately designate a specific image of the perceived phenomenon with words (most often with the help of inner speech). Due to this (since the word always generalizes) we see in the perceived object not an isolated object, but always a representative of a certain type or class of phenomena.

The process of perception is very complex. It includes:

1. Various sensations that together form a more or less complex complex. Without sensations there can be no perception. However, perception cannot be considered as a simple sum of sensations. The latter participate in the process of perception in a connected or interdependent form, since the properties of objects reflected in sensations are always mutually connected and conditioned.

2.Representations preserved from previous experience. We saw many things like that, which we now perceive, saw them in different positions, with different parties, under different illumination, at different distances - the corresponding representations, emerging in memory, are included in the process of direct perception of a given object. In this regard, the image of the perceived object becomes much richer in content than the direct stimuli acting at the moment on the senses. Visually, we see only the whiteness of the snow covering the field. But this visual perception is joined by ideas that have surfaced in memory about its temperature, density and plasticity, that is, ideas about those features of the snow that are not felt at the moment, but which were felt earlier when we took the snow in our hands, squeezed it in lump, etc.

3. Recognition of objects and phenomena. A characteristic feature of recognition is the assignment of the perceived object to an already known class of phenomena. When looking at a stadium, we note not only the specific features of this stadium, but we recognize this building as a stadium, and not as a theater, noting in our perception those common features that are inherent in all stadiums.

Recognition is based on the connections formed and fixed in the process of previous experience between the type of an object and its purpose, including associations between individual properties and features of an object. Depending on the nature and degree of fixation of these connections, general and specific recognition are distinguished.

General recognition is based on very abstract and generalized connections: for the most part they have the character of subsuming the perceived object under a known genus or species. Often general recognition is characterized by vagueness and uncertainty, taking the form of a sense of familiarity.

Specific recognition characterized by a higher degree of certainty, it is based on very strong and extensive associations. For example, in our perception, we not only attributed this athlete to the number of skiers, but also recognized him as a certain personality, with all his individual characteristics.

The work was added to the site site: 2015-07-10

Feeling and perception in the professional activity of a lawyer.
As already noted, one of the content aspects of the personality is a substructure of mental forms of reflection, which includes mental, cognitive processes that have a pronounced individual character and, therefore, largely determine personality traits person. These primarily include perceptual processes: sensations, perception, with the help of which a person receives signals from the surrounding world, reflects properties, distinguishes signs of things, feels the state of his own body. 2.

Feel. Sensations are the simplest form of mental reflection.Sensation is an elementary mental cognitive process of direct reflection of individual properties of objects and phenomena of the material world, as well as the state of a person’s own body.

Cognitive, emotional and regulatory functions of the psyche are manifested in sensations. Feelings are always emotionally colored, since they are associated with the vital activity of the organism, signaling to a person about the nature and strength of the impacts. Sensations not only connect us with the outside world, are the main source of knowledge, but also act as the main condition for our mental development. For example, in artificially created conditions of sensory isolation, which deprives the subject of sensations, his mental life, consciousness are significantly disturbed, as a result of which hallucinations, obsessions and other mental disorders may appear. Currently there are a large number of various sensations, which are classified as follows:

Sensations reflecting the properties of objects, environmental phenomena (exteroceptive) as a result of the stimulus acting directly on the analyzer (contact) or at a distance from it (distant);

Sensations fixing the state of internal organs (interoceptive);

Sensations that reflect the position of our body (proprioceptive) and the nature of its movement (kinesthetic).

Contact exteroceptive sensations include, for example, taste, tactile sensations. Visual, auditory, olfactory are a kind of distant exteroceptive sensations.

Usually, individual sensations rarely appear in their pure form, since stimuli act on several analyzers at once, causing a whole range of various sensations. An example of such complex sensations can be vibration, temperature, pain sensations.

According to the strength and duration of exposure, weak, medium and strong sensations are distinguished, by measuring which one can generally judge the sensitivity of certain analyzers to certain stimuli, which is most directly related to assessing the testimony of witnesses about what and how they heard, saw, etc. .d.

In order to correctly assess the testimony of witnesses, other participants in the criminal, civil process, it is necessary to know about the basic patterns, properties of sensations that affect the formation of testimony. These properties of sensations include the following:

^ Analyzer sensitivity.This is the ability of the psyche to reflect the properties of objects, phenomena with greater or lesser accuracy. The sensitivity of the analyzer (visual, auditory, etc.) is determined by the minimum strength of the stimulus that a person distinguishes, as well as the minimum difference between two stimuli that can cause changes in sensation. The minimum strength of a stimulus that can cause a sensation is calledthe lower absolute threshold of sensitivity,which characterizes the level of absolute sensitivity of the analyzer to the stimulus. There is an inverse relationship between the absolute sensitivity and the threshold value: the lower the sensation threshold, the higher the sensitivity. Along with the lower one, there isupper absolute threshold of sensitivity,determined by the maximum strength of the stimulus, when the sensation occurs adequately to the acting stimulus. A further increase in the strength of the stimulus causes a sensation of pain. The lower and upper thresholds determineanalyzer sensitivity zoneto the corresponding stimulus. In addition, there isthreshold of sensitivity to discrimination (difference threshold),determined by the minimum value of the difference in strength (greater or lesser) of two stimuli. With an increase in the strength of the stimulus, the value of the discrimination threshold (difference threshold) increases.

In humans, these sensitivity thresholds (lower, upper, difference) are individual. Depending on age and other circumstances, they change. The severity of sensitivity increases with age, reaching a maximum by 2030 years. Temporary deviations of sensitivity from the usual norm are influenced by factors such as time of day, extraneous stimuli, mental state, fatigue, illness, pregnancy in a woman, etc. Assessing the quality of sensations of the witness, the accused, it is also necessary to find out whether the subject was exposed to side stimuli (alcohol, narcotic or similar pharmacological substances), which increase or sharply blunt the sensitivity of the analyzers. All this should be taken into account during interrogations, during investigative experiments conducted in order to test the quality of sensations. For example, by examining the vibrational sensitivity of a person suspected of feigning deafness, it is quite easy to convict him of a lie. It is enough to throw a small object on the floor behind the patient's back to check his simulative behavior. A really sick person with impaired hearing with intact vibrational sensitivity will respond to this stimulus. The simulator, if he does not know about the developed vibrational sensation of the deaf, will not react to this stimulus. Of course, after such a preliminary test, the suspect should be sent for a forensic psychological or complex medical and psychological examination3.

When analyzing testimonies based on sensations, it should be remembered that various distortions can be introduced into receptor activity by subthreshold stimuli, which, although they do not cause clear sensations due to their insignificant magnitude, nevertheless create, especially with repeated exposure, a focus of excitation in the cerebral cortex, capable of causing hallucinatory images, various associative connections with previously recorded sensations. Sometimes this is manifested by witnesses in the fact that the initial image, some kind of vague sensation, is subsequently transformed, as it were, into a real phenomenon. Moreover, such false images that have arisen, fuzzy sensations are so persistent that they begin to influence the formation of erroneous testimony. And the investigator (court) in such cases has to make considerable efforts to figure out what exactly corresponds to the truth, and what is a conscientious delusion of the interrogated. Possible distortions in sensations can also be influenced by the so-called touch effect,those. the background noise that happens periodically in every analyzer. This is a feeling by the sensory organ of oneself, regardless of whether any stimulus is acting on it at the moment or not. The value of the sensory effect increases under the influence of stimuli that have a small force, when it is difficult to distinguish the spontaneous sensory excitation of the analyzer from the sensation of any weak signal. In such cases, a situation of perceptual uncertainty arises, which most often predisposes to making erroneous decisions, especially in extreme situations in the human-machineｻ system that occur during incidents related to the operation of various technical devices, vehicles.

Adaptation. This pattern is expressed in changes in the sensitivity of the analyzer under prolonged exposure to a stimulus in the form of a decrease or increase in the threshold of sensitivity. As a result of adaptation, sensation may disappear completely, especially during prolonged action of the stimulus. Examples of this are: adaptation to the smell of the olfactory analyzer in a person who has been working with odorous substances for a long time; auditory adaptation to constantly affecting noises, etc. In some cases, as a result of adaptation, a dulling of sensations under the influence of a strong stimulus may occur, for example, a temporary decrease in the sensitivity of the visual analyzer, after we get from a dimly lit room into conditions of bright illumination (light adaptation). These types of adaptation are called negative, as they lead to a decrease in the sensitivity of the analyzers. Adaptation to light and dark has a negative effect, especially in dim lighting conditions. Under these conditions, the reaction time of motor vehicle drivers increases, the localization of moving objects worsens. Dark adaptation results in a delay in signal transmission from the darkened eye to the brain. A delay in signal transmission leads to the fact that a person sees an object as if with some delay, which sometimes contributes to emergency situations on roads with intense oncoming traffic.

movement 4.

However, the manifestation of adaptation is not always negative. Often, the sensitivity of the analyzer as a result of adaptation can not only decrease, but also significantly increase. For example, this happens when a weak stimulus is applied to the visual analyzer in a semi-dark room (with resistance to dark adaptation) or to the auditory analyzer in conditions of complete silence, when our auditory analyzer begins to record rather weak sound stimuli (auditory adaptation). In other words, the sensitivity of analyzers increases under the influence of weak stimuli, and decreases under the influence of strong stimuli.

This pattern must be taken into account in investigative (judicial) practice when assessing witness testimony, when, for example, an entity seeking to mislead the investigator (court) falsely claims that he did not see any objects, because it was darkｻ In fact, given the length of his stay in conditions of relative darkness and the appearance of dark adaptation in him, this may not be entirely true. It is known that a person who has got into a darkened room, after 35 minutes. begins to distinguish the light penetrating there, to see objects. After 2030 minutes, he already orients himself quite well in the dark. Staying in absolute darkness increases the sensitivity of the visual analyzer to light in 40 minutes by 200,000 times5.

The degree of adaptation of our analyzers is different. High adaptability in olfactory, tactile analyzers. Gustatory, visual sensations adapt somewhat more slowly.

^ Interaction of sensations.In everyday life, our receptors are affected by a mass of stimuli, under the influence of which we constantly experience various sensations. As a result of the interaction of different sensations, the sensitivity of the analyzers changes: either increases or decreases. This mechanism of interaction of sensations can affect the completeness and objectivity of the testimony, the quality of the investigative experiment. For example, under conditions of exposure to very strong aircraft engine noise, the light sensitivity twilight vision may fall to 20% of its previous level6. Also, visual sensitivity is significantly reduced when exposed to the olfactory receptor of an unpleasant odor. The latter circumstance should be borne in mind when examining the scene of the incident, a corpse with significant cadaveric changes, during exhumation. In such cases, you have to make additional efforts to perform the entire amount of work at the proper level, take breaks more often.

The general pattern of such phenomena is that weak stimuli of one analyzer system increase the sensitivity of other analyzers during the interaction of sensations, while strong stimuli lower it. This phenomenon is called sensitization.

In addition, in the process of interaction of sensations under the influence of one stimulus, sensations of a different modality may appear, which are characteristic of another stimulus that is not currently affecting the analyzer. This phenomenon called synesthesia.

In the interaction of sensations, a phenomenon called contrast of feelings.This occurs in those cases when the same stimulus is felt by the analyzer depending on the qualitative characteristics of another stimulus that acted on the same analyzer simultaneously or sequentially (for example, a consistent contrast of taste sensations). Sometimes contrasting phenomena lead to errors in sensations, and, consequently, in testimony.

^ Successive images.Often, with prolonged exposure to the analyzer, the stimulus continues to be felt even after it has ceased its action. For some time, a person still sees him, hears him, etc. These sensations in the form of sequential images are important in assessing decisions made in extreme conditions.

Knowledge of this pattern can be useful, for example, when assessing the actions of a driver who has lost control of the car at night in conditions of intense oncoming traffic.

^ Spatial localization of the stimulus.Spatial reception is carried out with the help of distant analyzers that sense the signal at a distance. Usually several analyzers with contact receptors are involved in this process. In some cases, distortions are possible as a result of the interaction of sensations, especially under the influence of the analyzer of the leading modality.

Perception. A more perfect form of reflection in comparison with sensations is perception.Perception is the mental process of reflecting objects and phenomena in the totality of their properties and signs with the direct impact of these objects on the senses.In the course of perception, a holistic image of various objects and phenomena arises in the human mind. Knowledge of the patterns of perception processes helps to better understand the mechanism for the formation of testimony, to identify the psychological origins of the errors of the investigator, the court and, on this basis, to make recommendations to improve the effectiveness of their law enforcement activities. Depending on the leading role of one or another analyzer, the following types of perception can be named: visual, auditory, olfactory, gustatory, kinesthetic. Based on the organization of perception processes, arbitrary (intentional) and involuntary perception are distinguished. As a rule, voluntary perception, also called observation, is most effective. A lawyer should develop in himself such a quality, derived from the given type of perception, as observation. The properties and patterns of perception include the following.Objectivity, integrity, structural perception.In everyday life, a person is surrounded by a variety of phenomena, objects endowed with various properties. Perceiving them, we study them as a whole. Such objective perception has a regulating effect on the cognitive activity of a person, on the development of his perceptual abilities.

Unlike sensations, as a result of perception, a holistic image of an object, a phenomenon, including such a complex one as a crime, is formed. Due to this pattern, a person usually, with a lack of information, seeks to fill in the missing elements of the perceived object himself, which sometimes leads to erroneous judgments. Therefore, when interrogating witnesses, it is necessary to find out not only what they, for example, saw or heard, but also on what their statements about certain properties of the object perceived by them are based.

^ Activity of perception.Usually the process of selection, synthesis of the features of an object is selective, purposeful search. In this process, an active organizing principle operates, subordinating the entire course of cognition to itself. Penetrating into the phenomenon under study, we group its sensory properties in different ways, highlight the necessary connections. This gives a deliberate, active character to perception. The activity of perception is expressed in the participation of the effector (motor) components of the analyzers: the movement of the hand during touch, the movement of the pupils of the eyes, the movement of the body in space relative to the object of knowledge being studied. When perceiving familiar objects, the perceptual process can be curtailed to some extent.

^ Meaningfulness of perception.A person's perception is closely related to his thinking, since perceptual images often have different semantic meanings. We not only perceive, but at the same time we study the subject of knowledge, we try to find an explanation of its essence. To consciously perceive an object means to mentally name it, i.e. to attribute the perceived object to a certain group, class of objects, to generalize it in a word. The meaningful nature of the perceived images can be illustrated by graphic drawings, which usually depict the so-called ambiguous two-dimensional figures, creating a kind of stereographic ambiguity effectｻ, giving the viewer the impression of volume, due to which the two-dimensional planar image turns into a three-dimensional object.

The active role of thinking in the processes of perception gave rise to the famous English psychologist R.L. Gregory, who devoted many years to studying the laws of visual perception, figuratively called our visual analyzer a rational eye, emphasizing the inseparable connection between visual perception and thinking and drawing attention to the regulation of perceptual activity by thought processes. Perception, he wrote, is a kind of thinking. And in perception, as in any kind of thinking, there are enough of its ambiguities, paradoxes, distortions and uncertainties. They lead even the most intelligent eye by the nose, since they are the causes of errors (and error signals) in both the most concrete and the most abstract thinkingｻ Due to this mechanism of perception, a person often, without even realizing it, sees what he wants to see, and not what objectively is actually. In a number of cases, this property of perception can explain many shortcomings in the search activity of the investigator during the inspection of the scene, when he sees far from everything that is necessary to establish the truth. This is confirmed by our analysis of unsolved murder cases. One of the reasons why some grave crimes turn out to be unsolved lies precisely in the lack of proper perceptual organization of vision, in the psychological unpreparedness of the investigator for such a multifaceted perception as the perception of the situation of the scene.

An essential side of the meaningfulness of perceptual activity is the verbalization of the perceived. ｫ Process the perception of an object is never carried out at the elementary level, it always includes the highest level mental activity in particular speechｻ

Apperception. This property is manifested in the special dependence of perception on the content of a person’s mental life, the characteristics of his personality, experience, knowledge, and interests. Throughout life, a person is constantly exposed to various stimuli (stimuli). Gradually, he accumulates a certain perceptual experience of interacting with them, as well as subject, intellectual experience in determining (recognizing) the quantitative and qualitative characteristics of various stimuli, a kind of bankperceptual hypotheses.allowing him to quickly respond to the actions of various stimuli, timely choosing from this, relatively speaking, bank of the hypotheses that best of all corresponds to the qualitative characteristics of the next stimulus. With the enrichment of perceptual experience, the process of determining the nature of the stimulus and developing a response to it, followed by decision-making, becomes more and more curtailed. And the richer such experience, the more diverse the accumulated perceptual hypotheses, the faster the perception and recognition of the stimulus occurs.

^ Constancy of perception.This property consists in the ability of the perceptual system to perceive objects with a certain, close to real, constancy of their shape, size, color, etc., regardless of the conditions in which this occurs. For example, no matter from what angle we look at the plate, regardless of its projection on the retina in the form of a circle or an ellipse, it is still perceived as round. A white sheet of paper is perceived as white both in bright light and in low light conditions. The constancy of perception is developed in the process of assimilation by a person of life, professional experience. It is a necessary condition for his life, having a feedback mechanism, with the help of which the perceptual system constantly adjusts to the desired object and the conditions of its perception. However, constancy is preserved only up to certain limits. With a sharp change in lighting, when the perceived object is exposed to a contrasting background color, the constancy can be violated, and this, in turn, can lead to individual errors in the testimony.

A state of emotional tension, such as affect, can have a destructive effect on constancy. Therefore, when interrogating a witness, it is advisable to find out not only the features of the object perceived by him, i.e. what he saw, heard, but also his state, as well as the conditions in which his perceptual activity proceeded, and only after that should his statements about the shape, size, color and other properties of an object be evaluated.

Illusions. The distortion of the perceived objects is one of the most interesting problems that the investigator faces during the conduct of investigative actions, in the process of assessing the testimony of witnesses. Since the participants in the criminal process receive a significant amount of information with the help of a visual analyzer, visual illusions become most relevant. The causes of illusions are both objective and subjective. The objective prerequisites for the appearance of illusions include: the lack of contrast between the object and the background, the effect of irradiation, leading to the fact that light objects look large compared to dark objects of the same size, etc. If illusions arise under the influence of really affecting sensory stimuli, but erroneously deciphered by our analyzers, then these are hallucinations - the result of pathological disturbances in perceptual processes, leading to the fact that the appearance of images is not due at the moment to the impact of any objects on the receptors.

The main factors influencing positively or negatively on the perception of complex objects, which, in particular, may be the scene of an accident, are: the perceptual task facing the investigator, which, in essence, forms the target setting of his forthcoming activity; plot comprehension by him of the situation that has arisen; objective and subjective (from the point of view of the investigator himself) the significance of individual features of the scene; and finally, the experience of the investigator (apperception) and the peculiarities of his thinking.

Analyzing the various events perceived by the witness, we also observe the impact on his perceptual processes of the above patterns, which sometimes leads to complete or partial distortions (illusions).

For example, in one criminal case about a car accident, a car was searched for, on which people were run over in the evening. An eyewitness to the event, one N., who was watching the car leaving the scene at high speed, claimed that it was a truck with a trailer in the form of a van covered with a tarpaulin. As a result of painstaking search work, a car was installed, on which a collision was actually made, but it did not have any trailer. Only due to the fact that the investigator was critical of the testimony of the witness, admitting the possibility of distorting her visual perception, the case did not reach a dead end. Not only trucks with trailers were inspected, but also vehicles of this type without trailers. Subsequently, the witness explained the error in her perception by the fact that the tent tarpaulin flapping in the wind behind the body of a fast-moving car created a distorted idea in her that the car was with a trailer. There are quite a few examples of this kind in investigative practice. These are, in essence, those amazing effects of visual distortions that do not increase, but appear instantly. They are extraordinarily realistic, virtually unchanged by repetition, and nearly identical to anyone who has ever observed them.

^ Motion perceptionthis is a reflection in the human mind of changes in the position of an object in space: its speed, acceleration and direction. Since the perception of movement is based on the perception of objects and space, the same analyzers (visual, auditory, kinesthetic, etc.) participate in it. Movement is perceived by us on the basis of direct perception and perception mediated by inference, when the speed of movement with certain perceptual abilities of a person cannot be perceived by him, and its parameters can be judged by the results of the movement of the object. In the latter case, in essence, it is not the speed itself that is perceived, but the result of the movement, and according to it, an estimate of the speed is already given. With this phenomenon

the investigator encounters when investigating car accidents. In such cases, witnesses, honestly deluded, sometimes judge the speed of the car by the results of the accident and the dynamic environment in which it occurred. Corpses, blood, deformed vehicles, squealing brakes, strong impacts can significantly distort the perception of speed, completely subordinate its assessment to erroneous conclusions. Therefore, finding out the speed of movement, one should ask: on the basis of what the witness came to this or that conclusion; what is it personal experience perception of moving objects. The answers to these questions will explain the reasons for his possible errors in the testimony of the speed of traffic.

1. The concept The role of sensations in human life and activity, about sensation We learn about the richness of the surrounding world, about sounds and colors, smells and temperature, size and much more thanks to the senses. With the help of the sense organs, the human body receives in the form of sensations a variety of information about the state of the external and internal environment.
Sensation is the simplest mental process, consisting in the reflection of individual properties of objects and phenomena of the material world, as well as internal states organism under the direct action of stimuli on the corresponding receptors.
The sense organs receive, select, accumulate information and transmit it to the brain, which receives and processes this huge and inexhaustible stream every second. As a result, there is an adequate reflection of the surrounding world and the state of the organism itself. On this basis, nerve impulses are formed that come to the executive organs responsible for regulating body temperature, the functioning of the digestive organs, organs of movement, endocrine glands, for tuning the sense organs themselves, etc. And all this is extremely hard work, consisting of many thousands of operations per second, is performed continuously.
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The sense organs are the only channels through which the outside world enters human consciousness. They give a person the opportunity to navigate in the world around him. If a person lost all senses, he would not know what is happening around him, he could not communicate with people around him, find food, and avoid dangers. Famous Russian doctor SI. Botkin (1832-1889) described rare case when the patient has lost all kinds of sensitivity, except for vision in one eye and touch in a small area of \u200b\u200bthe arm. When the patient closed her eyes and no one touched her hand, she fell asleep.
A person needs to receive information about the world around him all the time. The body's adaptation to environment, understood in the broadest sense of the word, implies a constantly existing informational balance between the environment and the organism. The information balance is opposed by information overload and information underload (sensory isolation), which lead to serious functional disorders of the body.
Indicative in this respect are the results of studies on the limitation of sensory information related to the problems of space biology and medicine. In those cases when the subjects were placed in special chambers providing almost complete sensory isolation (constant monotonous sound, frosted glasses that let only weak light through, cylinders on their arms and legs that remove tactile sensitivity, etc.), the subjects after several hours came to an alarming state and insistently asked to stop the experiment. Experiments on partial sensory isolation, for example, isolation from external influences of certain areas of the body surface, showed that in the latter case, violations of tactile, pain and temperature sensitivity are observed in these places. Subjects exposed to monochromatic light for a long time developed visual hallucinations. These and many other facts testify to how strong a person's need is to receive impressions about the world around him in the form of sensations.
The role of sensations in human life can hardly be overestimated, since they are the source of our knowledge about the world and about ourselves. What are sensations in their essence?
On the nature of sensations. The doctrine of sensation states that objects and their properties are primary, while sensations are the result of the action of matter on the sense organs. At the same time, sensations reflect the world as it exists. Truth criterion
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sensations, like any other reflection of reality, is practice, the activity of the subject.
There are other views on the nature of sensations. On the one hand, this is the interpretation of sensations by subjective idealists (Berkeley, Hume, Mach, etc.) as the only reality, as a result of which the world is considered by them only as a set of sensations. On the other hand, this is a concept for which sensations are only conventional signs, symbols of external influences (I. Müller, Helmholtz). This theory proceeds from the specialization of receptors for certain types of stimuli and from certain particular facts indicating that the same stimuli, acting on different sense organs, can cause different sensations. So, the retina of the eye gives light sensations when exposed to both light and electric current or pressure. At the same time, a mechanical stimulus can cause a sensation of pressure, sound or light, depending on whether it acts on the skin, ear or eye. Based on these facts, I. Müller put forward the principle of the specific energy of the sense organs. According to Müller's idea, sensation does not depend on the quality of the stimulus, but on the specific energy of the sense organ, which is affected by this stimulus. Hence, Müller concludes, there is no similarity between our sensations and objects of the external world, therefore sensations are only symbols, conventional signs of the latter.
In reality, although Muller's facts are correct, they are not universally valid. First, not all stimuli are as universal as an electric current or a mechanical stimulus. Sounds, smells and other irritants, acting on the eye, will not cause visual sensations. Likewise, light and smell cannot produce auditory sensations. This means that such relatively universal stimuli as electric current and mechanical stimulus are rare exceptions. Secondly, the sensations caused by different stimuli acting on the same receptor are not of the same quality. Thus, a mechanical shock or an electric current, acting on the ear, causes a coarse auditory sensation, which cannot be compared with the richness of auditory sensations caused by air vibrations.
It is necessary to distinguish between stimuli that are adequate for a given sense organ and those that are not adequate for it. This fact itself indicates a fine specialization of the sense organs to reflect one or another type of energy, certain properties of objects and phenomena.
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reality. The specialization of the sense organs is a product of a long evolution, and the sense organs themselves are a product of adaptation to the influences of the external environment, and therefore, in their structure and properties, they are adequate to these influences.
In humans, subtle differentiation in the field of sensations is associated with the historical development of human society, with social and labor practices. Serving the processes of adaptation of the organism to the environment, the sense organs can successfully fulfill their function only if its objective properties are correctly reflected. Thus, the principle here is not “specific energies of the sense organs”, but “organs of specific energies”. In other words, it is not the specificity of the sense organs that gives rise to the specificity of sensations, but the specific qualities of the external world give rise to the specificity of the sense organs. him.
Sensations and perceptual activity. Sensations are subjective images of the objective world. However, for a sensation to arise, it is not enough for the organism to be subjected to the corresponding action of a material stimulus; some work of the organism itself is also necessary. This work may be expressed either only in internal processes or also in external movements, but it must always be. The sensation arises as a result of the conversion of the specific energy of the stimulus that is currently acting on the receptor into energy nervous processes. Thus, sensation is not only a sensory image, or rather a component of it, but also an activity or a component of it. Numerous and versatile studies on the participation of effector processes in the emergence of sensation have led to the conclusion that sensation as a mental phenomenon is impossible in the absence of an organism's response or its inadequacy. In this sense, the fixed eye is as blind as the fixed hand ceases to be an instrument of knowledge. The sense organs are closely connected with the organs of movement, which perform not only adaptive, executive functions, but also directly participate in the processes of obtaining information. Thus, the connection between touch and movement is obvious. Both functions are merged in one organ - the hand. At the same time, the difference is obvious between the executive and groping movements of the hand. Il. Pavlov called the latter orienting-exploratory reactions related to a special type of behavior -
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perceptual rather than executive behavior. Such perceptual regulation is aimed at enhancing the input of information, optimizing the process of sensation.
Analyzer. The sensation arises as a reaction of the nervous system to a particular stimulus and has a reflex character. The physiological basis of sensation is a nervous process that occurs when a stimulus acts on an analyzer adequate to it.
The analyzer consists of three parts: 1) a peripheral section (receptor), which is a special transformer of external energy into the nervous process; 2) afferent (centripetal) and efferent (centrifugal) nerves - pathways connecting the peripheral section of the analyzer with the central one; 3) subcortical and cortical sections (brain end) of the analyzer, where the processing of nerve impulses coming from peripheral departments(Fig. 2).
Analyzer
/h
Afferent nerve/
--------V" . V"
Efferent nerves
-"(----"V-----------
Young Receptor end
analyzer
Rice. 2.
In the cortical section of each analyzer there is a nucleus, i.e. the central part, where the main mass of receptor cells is concentrated, and the periphery, consisting of scattered cellular elements, which are located in one quantity or another in various fields bark. The receptor cells of the nuclear part of the analyzer are located in the area of the cerebral cortex where the centripetal nerves from the receptor enter. Scattered (peripheral) elements of this analyzer enter the regions adjacent to the nuclei of other analyzers. This ensures the participation in a separate act of sensation of a significant part of the cerebral cortex. The analyzer core performs the function of fine analysis and synthesis, for example, it differentiates sounds by pitch. Scattered elements are associated with the function of rough analysis, for example, distinguishing between musical sounds and noises.
Certain cells of the peripheral parts of the analyzer correspond to certain parts of the cortical cells. Yes, pro-
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strangely different points in the cortex are represented, for example, different points retina; spatially different arrangement of cells is presented in the cortex and the organ of hearing. The same applies to other sense organs.
Numerous experiments carried out by methods of artificial stimulation make it possible at the present time to quite definitely establish the localization in the cortex of one or another input of sensitivity. Thus, the representation of visual sensitivity is concentrated mainly in the occipital lobes of the cerebral cortex. Auditory sensitivity is localized in the middle part of the superior temporal gyrus. Tactile-motor sensitivity is represented in the posterior central gyrus, etc.
For a sensation to arise, the work of the entire analyzer as a whole is necessary. The impact of the stimulus on the receptor causes the appearance of irritation. The beginning of this irritation is expressed in the transformation of external energy into a nervous process, which is produced by the receptor. From the receptor, this process along the centripetal nerve reaches the nuclear part of the analyzer. When excitation reaches the cortical cells of the analyzer, the body responds to irritation. We sense light, sound, taste, or other qualities of stimuli.
The analyzer constitutes the initial and most important part of the entire path of nervous processes, or the reflex arc. The reflex ring consists of a receptor, pathways, a central part, and an effector. The interconnection of the elements of the reflex ring provides the basis for the orientation of a complex organism in the surrounding world, the activity of the organism, depending on the conditions of its existence.
Selection of useful information in sensations. The process of visual sensation not only begins in the eye, but also ends in it. The same is true for other analyzers. Between the receptor and the brain there is not only a direct (centripetal), but also a reverse (centrifugal) connection. The feedback principle discovered by I.M. Sechenov, requires the recognition that the sense organ is alternately a receptor and an effector. Sensation is not the result of a centripetal process; it is based on a complete and, moreover, complex reflex act, which, in its formation and course, obeys the general laws of reflex activity.
The dynamics of the processes occurring in such a reflex ring is a kind of assimilation to the properties external influence. For example, touch is precisely such a process in which the movements of the hands repeat the outlines of a given object.
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object, as if becoming like its shape. The eye operates on the same principle due to the combination of the activity of its optical "device" with oculomotor reactions. The movements of the vocal cords also reproduce the objective pitch nature. When the vocal-motor link was turned off in the experiments, the phenomenon of a kind of pitch deafness inevitably arose. Thus, due to the combination of sensory and motor components, the sensory (analyzing) apparatus reproduces the objective properties of the stimuli affecting the receptor and is likened to their nature.
The sense organs are, in fact, energy filters through which the corresponding changes in the environment pass. By what principle is the selection of useful information in sensations carried out? Several hypotheses have been formulated.
According to the first hypothesis, there are mechanisms for detecting and passing limited classes of signals, and messages that do not match these classes are rejected. This can be likened to common editorial practice: one periodical publishes, for example, only information about sports and athletes, while another rejects everything but the original scientific articles. The task of such selection is performed by comparison mechanisms. For example, in insects, these mechanisms are involved in solving the difficult task of finding a partner for their species. Winks of fireflies, "ritual dances" of butterflies, etc. - all these are genetically fixed chains of reflexes that follow one after another. Each stage of such a chain is sequentially solved by the insect in the binary system: "yes" - "no". Not the movement of the female, not the spot of color, not the pattern on the wings, not the way she answered in the dance - it means that the female is alien, of a different species. The stages form a hierarchical sequence: the beginning of a new stage is possible only after the previous question is answered "yes".
The second hypothesis suggests that the acceptance or non-acceptance of messages can be regulated on the basis of special criteria, which, in particular, represent the needs of a living being. All animals are usually surrounded by a sea of stimuli to which they are sensitive. However, most living organisms respond only to those stimuli that are directly related to the needs of the organism. Hunger, thirst, readiness for mating or some other internal desire can be those regulators, criteria according to which the selection of stimulus energy is carried out.
According to the third hypothesis, the selection of information in sensations
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occurs on the basis of the criterion of novelty. Indeed, in the work of all sense organs there is an orientation to the change in stimuli. Under the action of a constant stimulus, the sensitivity seems to be dulled and the signals from the receptors cease to flow to the central nervous apparatus. Thus, the sensation of touch tends to fade away. It can completely disappear if the irritant suddenly stops moving across the skin. sensitive nerve endings signal the brain about the presence of irritation only when the strength of the irritation changes, even if the time during which it presses harder or weaker on the skin is very short.
The same is true with hearing. It was found that the singer, in order to control his own voice and to maintain it at the right pitch, absolutely needed vibrato - a slight fluctuation in pitch. Without stimulation of these deliberate variations, the singer's brain does not notice the gradual changes in pitch.
The visual analyzer is also characterized by the extinction of the orienting reaction to a constant stimulus. If there is no moving object in the frog's field of vision, its eyes do not send significant information to the brain. The frog's visual world must be usually as empty as a blank chalkboard. However, any moving insect is sure to stand out against the background of this emptiness.
The facts testifying to the extinction of the orienting reaction to a constant stimulus were obtained in the experiments of E.N. Sokolov. The nervous system finely models the properties of external objects acting on the sense organs, creating their neural models. These models perform the function of a selectively acting filter. If the stimulus acting on the receptor at the moment does not coincide with the previously established nervous model, impulses of mismatch appear, causing an orienting reaction. Conversely, the orienting reaction fades to the stimulus that was previously used in the experiments.
Consequently, the process of sensation is carried out as a system of sensory actions aimed at the selection and transformation of the specific energy of external influence and providing an adequate reflection of the surrounding world.
Classification of sensations. Since sensations arise as a result of the action of a certain stimulus on the corresponding receptor, the classification of sensations proceeds from the properties of the stimuli that cause them and the receptors that are affected by these stimuli. By the nature of the reflection
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and the location of the receptors, it is customary to divide sensations into three groups: 1) exteroceptive, reflecting the properties of objects and phenomena of the external environment and having receptors on the surface of the body; 2) interoceptive, having receptors located in the internal organs and tissues of the body and reflecting the state of the internal organs; 3) proprioceptive, whose receptors are located in the muscles and ligaments; they give information about the movement and position of our body. The subclass of proprioception, which is the sensitivity to movement, is also called kinesthesia, and the corresponding receptors are kinesthetic or kinesthetic.
Exteroceptors can be divided into two groups: contact and distant receptors. Contact receptors transmit irritation upon direct contact with objects that act on them; such are the tactile, taste buds. Distant receptors respond to stimuli emanating from a distant object; distance receptors are visual, auditory, olfactory. We named five receptors corresponding to the types of sensations: sight, hearing, smell, touch and taste, identified by Aristotle. Aristotle gave a scheme of these feelings (in everyday practice, the word “feeling” is often used in the meaning of the concept of “sensation”), which was followed for more than two thousand years. In fact, there are many more types of sensations.
The composition of touch, along with tactile sensations (sensations of touch), includes a completely independent type of sensations - temperature. They are a function of a special temperature analyzer. Temperature sensations are not only part of the sense of touch, but also have an independent, more general significance for the entire process of thermoregulation and heat exchange between the body and the environment.
An intermediate position between tactile and auditory sensations is occupied by vibrational sensations. A large role in the overall process of human orientation in the environment is played by sensations of balance and acceleration. The complex systemic mechanism of these sensations covers the vestibular apparatus, vestibular nerves and various departments cortex, subcortex and cerebellum. Common for different analyzers and pain sensations, signaling the destructive power of the stimulus.
From the point of view of the data of modern science, the accepted division of sensations into external (exteroceptors) and internal (interoceptors) is not enough. Some types of sensations can be considered external-internal. These include temperature and pain, taste and vibration, muscular-articular and static-dynamic.
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2. General General properties of sensations. Sensations are the patterns of reflection of adequate stimuli. So, sensations adequate stimulus of visual sensation is electromagnetic radiation, characterized by wavelengths in the range from 380 to 770 millimicrons, which are transformed in the visual analyzer into a nervous process that generates visual sensation. Auditory sensations are the result of the reflection of sound waves affecting the receptors with an oscillation frequency of 16 to 20,000. Tactile sensations are caused by the action of mechanical stimuli on the skin surface. Vibratory, which acquire special significance for the deaf, are caused by the vibration of objects. Other sensations (temperature, olfactory, taste) also have their own specific stimuli. However, different types of sensations are characterized not only by specificity, but also by properties common to them. These properties include quality, intensity, duration, and spatial localization.
Quality is the main feature of a given sensation, distinguishing it from other types of sensations and varying within a given type. So, auditory sensations differ in pitch, timbre, loudness; visual - by saturation, color tone, etc. The qualitative variety of sensations reflects the infinite variety of forms of motion of matter.
The intensity of sensations is its quantitative characteristic and is determined by the strength of the acting stimulus and the functional state of the receptor.
The duration of a sensation is its temporal characteristic. It is also determined by the functional state of the sense organ, but mainly by the duration of the stimulus and its intensity. When a stimulus is applied to a sense organ, sensation does not occur immediately, but after some time, which is called the latent (hidden) period of sensation. The latent period for different types of sensations is not the same: for tactile sensations, for example, it is 130 milliseconds, for pain - 370 milliseconds. A taste sensation occurs 50 milliseconds after a chemical irritant is applied to the surface of the tongue.
Just as a sensation does not arise simultaneously with the beginning of the action of the stimulus, it does not disappear simultaneously with the termination of the latter. This inertia of sensations is manifested in the so-called aftereffect.
The visual sensation has some inertia and does not disappear immediately after the stimulus that caused it ceases to act. The trace from the stimulus remains "in the form of a sequence
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body image. Distinguish between positive and negative sequential images. A positive consistent image in terms of lightness and color corresponds to the initial irritation. The principle of cinematography is based on the inertia of vision, on the preservation of a visual impression for some time in the form of a positive consistent image. The sequential image changes in time, while positive image is replaced by a negative one. With colored light sources, there is a transition of a sequential image into a complementary color.
I. Goethe wrote in his “Essay on the Doctrine of Color”: “When one evening I went into a hotel and a tall girl with a dazzlingly white face, black hair and a bright red bodice came into my room, I gazed at her, standing in the semi-darkness at some distance from me. After she left there, I saw on the light wall opposite me a black face, surrounded by a light radiance, while the clothes of a completely clear figure seemed to me the beautiful green color of a sea wave.
The appearance of successive images can be scientifically explained. As is known, the presence of color-sensing elements of three types is assumed in the retina of the eye. In the process of irritation, they get tired and become less sensitive. When we look at red, the corresponding receivers get more fatigued than the others, so when white light then falls on the same area of the retina, the other two types of receivers remain more sensitive and we see blue-green.
Auditory sensations, like visual sensations, can also be accompanied by successive images. The most comparable phenomenon in this case is “ringing in the ears”, i.e. an unpleasant sensation that often accompanies exposure to deafening sounds. After a series of short sound impulses acts on the auditory analyzer for several seconds, they begin to be perceived in a single or muffled way. This phenomenon is observed after the cessation of the sound pulse and continues for several seconds, depending on the intensity and duration of the pulse.
A similar phenomenon occurs in other analyzers. For example, temperature, pain and taste sensations also continue for some time after the action of the stimulus.
1 Goethe I. Select. op. in natural science. - L.-M.: Publishing House of the Academy of Sciences of the USSR, 1957. - S. 288.
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Finally, sensations are characterized by the spatial localization of the stimulus. Spatial analysis, carried out by distant receptors, gives us information about the localization of the stimulus in space. Contact sensations (tactile, pain, taste) are correlated with the part of the body that is affected by the stimulus. At the same time, the localization of pain sensations is more diffuse and less accurate than tactile ones.
Sensitivity and its measurement. Various sense organs that give us information about the state of the external world around us can be more or less sensitive to the phenomena they display, i.e. can display these phenomena with greater or lesser accuracy. The sensitivity of the sense organ is determined by the minimum stimulus that, under given conditions, is capable of causing a sensation. The minimum strength of the stimulus that causes a barely noticeable sensation is called the absolute threshold of sensitivity.
Irritants of lesser strength, the so-called subthreshold ones, do not cause sensations, and signals about them are not transmitted to the cerebral cortex. The cortex at each individual moment from an infinite number of impulses perceives only vital ones, delaying all the rest, including impulses from internal organs. This position is biologically reasonable. It is impossible to imagine the life of an organism in which the cerebral cortex would equally perceive all impulses and provide reactions to them. This would lead the body to inevitable death. It is the cerebral cortex that stands guard over the vital interests of the body and, by raising the threshold of its excitability, turns irrelevant impulses into subthreshold ones, thereby relieving the body of unnecessary reactions.
However, subthreshold impulses are not indifferent to the organism. This is confirmed by numerous facts obtained in the clinic of nervous diseases, when it is precisely weak, subcortical stimuli from the external environment that create a dominant focus in the cerebral cortex and contribute to the occurrence of hallucinations and "deception of the senses." Subthreshold sounds can be perceived by the patient as a host of intrusive voices with simultaneous complete indifference to real human speech; a weak, barely noticeable beam of light can cause hallucinatory visual sensations of various contents; barely noticeable tactile sensations - from skin contact with clothing - a series of perverse sharp skin sensations.
The lower threshold of sensations determines the level of absolute sensation
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the viability of this analyzer. There is an inverse relationship between absolute sensitivity and the threshold value: the lower the threshold value, the higher the sensitivity of this analyzer. This relationship can be expressed by the formula:
E \u003d 1 / P,
where E is sensitivity, and P is the threshold value of the stimulus.
Our analyzers have different sensitivities. The threshold of one human olfactory cell for the corresponding odorous substances does not exceed 8 molecules. It takes at least 25,000 times more molecules to produce a taste sensation than it does to create an olfactory sensation.
The sensitivity of the visual and auditory analyzer is very high. The human eye, as shown by SI experiments. Vavilov (1891-1951), is able to see light when only 2-8 quanta of radiant energy hit the retina. This means that we would be able to see a burning candle in complete darkness at a distance of up to 27 kilometers. At the same time, in order for us to feel touch, we need 100-10,000,000 times more energy than with visual or auditory sensations.
The absolute sensitivity of the analyzer is limited not only by the lower, but also by the upper threshold of sensation. The upper absolute threshold of sensitivity is the maximum strength of the stimulus at which a sensation adequate to the acting stimulus still arises. A further increase in the strength of stimuli acting on our receptors causes only a painful sensation in them (for example, an ultra-loud sound, blinding brightness).
The value of absolute thresholds, both lower and upper, varies depending on various conditions: the nature of the activity and the age of the person, functional state receptor, strength and duration of irritation, etc.
With the help of the sense organs, we can not only ascertain the presence or absence of a particular stimulus, but also distinguish stimuli by their strength and quality. The minimum difference between two stimuli that causes a barely noticeable difference in sensations is called the discrimination threshold or difference threshold. The German physiologist E. Weber (1795-1878), testing a person's ability to determine the heavier of the two objects in the right and left hand, found that the difference sensitivity is relative, not absolute. This means that the ratio of the additional stimulus to the main one should be the value
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constant. So, if there is a load of 100 grams on the arm, then for a barely noticeable sensation of an increase in weight, you need to add about 3.4 grams. If the weight of the load is 1000 grams, then for a sensation of a barely noticeable difference, you need to add about 33.3 grams. Thus, the greater the value of the initial stimulus, the greater should be the increase to it.
The discrimination threshold is characterized by a relative value that is constant for a given analyzer. For the visual analyzer, this ratio is approximately 1/100, for the auditory - 1/10, for the tactile - 1/30. Experimental verification of this provision showed that it is valid only for stimuli of medium strength.
Based on the experimental data of Weber, the German physicist G. Fechner (1801-1887) expressed the dependence of the intensity of sensations on the strength of the stimulus by the following formula:
S = KlgJ + C,
where S is the intensity of sensations, J is the strength of the stimulus, K and C are constants. According to this provision, which is called the basic psychophysical law, the intensity of sensation is proportional to the logarithm of the strength of the stimulus. In other words, with an increase in the strength of the stimulus exponentially, the intensity of sensation increases in an arithmetic progression (Weber-Fechner law).
Difference sensitivity, or discrimination sensitivity, is also inversely related to the difference threshold value: the higher the discrimination threshold, the lower the difference sensitivity.
The concept of differential sensitivity is used not only to characterize the discrimination of stimuli by intensity, but also in relation to other features of certain types of sensitivity. For example, they talk about sensitivity to distinguishing shapes, sizes and colors of visually perceived objects or to sound-altitude sensitivity.
Adaptation. The sensitivity of analyzers, determined by the magnitude of absolute thresholds, is not constant and changes under the influence of a number of physiological and psychological conditions, among which the phenomenon of adaptation occupies a special place.
Adaptation, or adaptation, is a change in the sensitivity of the sense organs under the influence of the action of a stimulus.
Three varieties of this phenomenon can be distinguished.
1. Adaptation as the complete disappearance of sensation in the process of prolonged action of the stimulus. We mentioned it
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phenomenon at the beginning of this chapter, speaking of the peculiar disposition of analyzers to change stimuli. In the case of constant stimuli, the sensation tends to fade. For example, a light load resting on the skin soon ceases to be felt. The distinct disappearance of olfactory sensations shortly after we enter an atmosphere with an unpleasant odor is also a common fact. The intensity of the taste sensation weakens if the corresponding substance is kept in the mouth for some time and, finally, the sensation may die out altogether.
Full adaptation of the visual analyzer under the action of a constant and immobile stimulus does not occur. This is due to compensation for the immobility of the stimulus due to the movements of the receptor apparatus itself. Constant voluntary and involuntary eye movements ensure the continuity of the visual sensation. Experiments in which conditions were artificially created for stabilizing1 the image relative to the retina of the eyes showed that in this case the visual sensation disappears 2-3 seconds after its occurrence, i.e. complete adaptation.
2. Adaptation is also called another phenomenon, close to the one described, which is expressed in the dulling of sensation under the influence of a strong stimulus. For example, when the hand is immersed in cold water, the intensity of the sensation caused by the Cold stimulus decreases. When we move from a semi-dark room into a brightly lit space, we are at first blinded and unable to distinguish any details around. After some time, the sensitivity of the visual analyzer decreases sharply, and we begin to see normally. This decrease in the sensitivity of the eye to intense light stimulation is called light adaptation.
The described two types of adaptation can be combined with the term negative adaptation, since as a result of them the sensitivity of the analyzers decreases.
3. Finally, adaptation is called an increase in sensitivity under the influence of a weak stimulus. This kind of adaptation, which is characteristic of certain types of sensations, can be defined as positive adaptation.
In the visual analyzer, this is dark adaptation, when the sensitivity of the eye increases under the influence of being in the dark. A similar form of auditory adaptation is
1 Stabilization was achieved using a special suction cup, on which an image was placed that moved with the eye.
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silence adaptation. In temperature sensations, positive adaptation is found when a pre-cooled hand feels warm, and a pre-heated hand feels cold when immersed in water of the same temperature. The question of the existence of negative pain adaptation has long been controversial. It is known that repeated use of a painful stimulus does not reveal negative adaptation, but, on the contrary, acts more and more strongly over time. However, new facts indicate the presence of a complete negative adaptation to needle pricks and intense hot irradiation.
Studies have shown that some analyzers detect fast adaptation, others are slow. For example, touch receptors adapt very quickly. On their sensory nerve, when any prolonged stimulus is applied, only a small burst of impulses runs through at the beginning of the action of the stimulus. The visual receptor adapts relatively slowly (dark adaptation time reaches several tens of minutes), olfactory and gustatory receptors.
Adaptive regulation of the level of sensitivity, depending on which stimuli (weak or strong) affect the receptors, is of great biological importance. Adaptation helps to catch weak stimuli through the sense organs and protects the sense organs from excessive irritation in case of unusually strong influences.
The phenomenon of adaptation can be explained by those peripheral changes that occur in the functioning of the receptor during prolonged exposure to a stimulus. So, it is known that under the influence of light, visual purple, located in the rods of the retina, decomposes (fades). In the dark, on the contrary, visual purple is restored, which leads to an increase in sensitivity. With regard to other sense organs, it has not yet been proven that their receptor apparatuses contain any substances that chemically decompose when exposed to a stimulus and are restored in the absence of such exposure. The phenomenon of adaptation is also explained by the processes taking place in central departments analyzers. With prolonged stimulation, the cerebral cortex responds with internal protective inhibition, which reduces sensitivity. The development of inhibition causes increased excitation of other foci, which contributes to an increase in sensitivity in new conditions (the phenomenon of successive mutual induction).
The interaction of sensations. The intensity of sensations depends not only on the strength of the stimulus and the level of adaptation of the receptor, but also on the stimuli currently affecting others.
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sense organs. A change in the sensitivity of the analyzer under the influence of irritation of other sense organs is called the interaction of sensations.
The literature describes numerous facts of sensitivity changes caused by the interaction of sensations. Thus, the sensitivity of the visual analyzer changes under the influence of auditory stimulation. ST. Kravkov (1893-1951) showed that this change depends on the loudness of auditory stimuli. Weak sound stimuli increase the color sensitivity of the visual analyzer. At the same time, a sharp deterioration in the distinctive sensitivity of the eye is observed when, for example, the loud noise of an aircraft engine is used as an auditory stimulus.
Visual sensitivity also increases under the influence of certain olfactory stimuli. However, with a pronounced negative emotional coloring of the smell, a decrease in visual sensitivity is observed. Similarly, with weak light stimuli, auditory sensations are enhanced, and exposure to intense light stimuli worsens auditory sensitivity. There are known facts of increasing visual, auditory, tactile and olfactory sensitivity under the influence of weak pain stimuli.
A change in the sensitivity of any analyzer is also observed with subthreshold stimulation of other analyzers. So, P.11. Lazarev (1878-1942) obtained evidence of a decrease in visual sensitivity under the influence of skin irradiation with ultraviolet rays.
Thus, all our analyzer systems are capable of influencing each other to a greater or lesser extent. At the same time, the interaction of sensations, like adaptation, manifests itself in two opposite processes: an increase and a decrease in sensitivity. The general regularity here is that weak stimuli increase, and strong ones decrease, the sensitivity of the analyzers in the course of interaction.
Sensitization. An increase in sensitivity as a result of the interaction of analyzers and exercise is called sensitization.
The physiological mechanism for the interaction of sensations is the processes of irradiation and concentration of excitation in the cerebral cortex, where the central sections of the analyzers are represented. According to I.P. Pavlov, a weak stimulus causes an excitation process in the cerebral cortex, which easily irradiates (spreads). As a result of the irradiation of the process,
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awakening increases the sensitivity of another analyzer. Under the action of a strong stimulus, a process of excitation occurs, which, on the contrary, has a tendency to concentration. According to the law of mutual induction, this leads to inhibition in the central sections of other analyzers and a decrease in the sensitivity of the latter.
A change in the sensitivity of analyzers can be caused by exposure to second-signal stimuli. Thus, the facts of changes in the electrical sensitivity of the eyes and tongue in response to the presentation of the words "sour as a lemon" to the subjects were obtained. These changes were similar to those observed when the tongue was actually irritated with lemon juice.
Knowing the patterns of changes in the sensitivity of the sense organs, it is possible, by using specially selected side stimuli, to sensitize one or another receptor, i.e. increase its sensitivity.
Sensitization can also be achieved through exercise. It is known, for example, how pitch hearing develops in children who study music.
Synesthesia. The interaction of sensations is manifested in another kind of phenomena called synesthesia. Synesthesia is the occurrence under the influence of irritation of one analyzer of a sensation characteristic of another analyzer. Synesthesia is seen in a wide variety of sensations. The most common visual-auditory synesthesia, when, under the influence of sound stimuli, the subject has visual images. There is no overlap in these synesthesias among different people, but they are fairly constant for each individual. It is known that some composers (NA. Rimsky-Korsakov, A.N. Skryabin, etc.) possessed the ability of color hearing. We find a vivid manifestation of this kind of synesthesia in the work of the Lithuanian artist M.K. Čiurlionis - in his symphonies of colors.
The phenomenon of synesthesia is the basis for the creation in recent years of color-music devices that turn sound images into color, and an intensive study of color music. Less common are cases of auditory sensations when exposed to visual stimuli, taste sensations in response to auditory stimuli, etc. Not all people have synesthesia, although it is quite widespread. No one doubts the possibility of using such expressions as "sharp taste", "screaming color", "sweet sounds", etc. The phenomenon of synesthesia is another evidence of the constant interconnection of the analyzer systems of the human body, the integrity of the sensory reflection of the objective world.
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Sensitivity and exercise. Sensitization of the sense organs is possible not only through the use of side stimuli, but also through exercise. The possibilities for training the sense organs and their improvement are very great. Two areas can be distinguished that determine the increase in the sensitivity of the sense organs: 1) sensitization, which spontaneously leads to the need to compensate for sensory defects (blindness, deafness) and 2) sensitization caused by activity, the specific requirements of the subject's profession.
Loss of sight or hearing is compensated to a certain extent by the development of other types of sensitivity.
There are cases when people deprived of sight are engaged in sculpture, their sense of touch is highly developed. The development of vibrational sensations in the deaf belongs to the same group of phenomena. Some deaf people develop vibration sensitivity to such an extent that they can even listen to music. To do this, they put their hand on the instrument or turn their backs to the orchestra. The deaf-blind O. Skorokhodova, holding her hand to the throat of the speaking interlocutor, can thus recognize him by his voice and understand what he is talking about. The deaf-blind-mute Helen Keller has such a highly developed olfactory sensitivity that she can associate many friends and visitors with the smells emanating from them, and her memories of acquaintances are as well associated with the sense of smell as most people are associated with the voice.
Of particular interest is the emergence in humans of sensitivity to stimuli for which there is no adequate receptor. Such, for example, is the remote sensitivity to obstacles in the blind.
The phenomena of sensitization of the sense organs are observed in persons who have been engaged in certain special professions for a long time.
The extraordinary visual acuity of grinders is known. They see gaps from 0.0005 millimeters, while untrained people only up to 0.1 millimeters. Fabric dyeers distinguish between 40 and 60 shades of black. To the untrained eye, they appear exactly the same. Experienced steelmakers are able to quite accurately determine its temperature and the amount of impurities in it from the faint color shades of molten steel.
A high degree of perfection is achieved by olfactory and gustatory sensations in tasters of tea, cheese, wine, and tobacco. Tasters can accurately indicate not only what grape variety the wine is made from, but also the place where this grape was grown.
Painting makes special demands on the perception of shapes, proportions and color relationships when depicting objects. Experiments show that the artist's eye is extremely sensitive to the assessment of proportions. He distinguishes between changes equal to 1/60-1/150 of the size of the subject. The subtlety of color sensations can be judged by the mosaic workshop in Rome - it contains more than 20,000 shades of primary colors created by man.
Opportunities for the development of auditory sensitivity are also quite large. Thus, playing the violin requires a special development of pitch hearing, and violinists have it more developed than pianists. Experienced pilots can easily determine the number of engine revolutions by ear. They freely distinguish 1300 from 1340 ob-
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mouths per minute. Untrained people catch the difference only between 1300 and 1400 rpm.
All this is proof that our sensations develop under the influence of the conditions of life and the requirements of practical labor activity.
Despite the large number of such facts, the problem of exercising the sense organs has not yet been studied enough. What underlies the exercise of the sense organs? It is not yet possible to give an exhaustive answer to this question. An attempt has been made to explain the increased tactile sensitivity in the blind. It was possible to isolate tactile receptors - pachinpevy little bodies that are present in the skin of the fingers of blind people. For comparison, the same study was conducted on the skin of sighted people. various professions. It turned out that the number of tactile receptors is increased in the blind. So, if in the skin nail phalanx the number of bodies of the first finger in the sighted reached an average of 186, then in the blind born it was 270.
Thus, the structure of receptors is not constant, it is plastic, mobile, constantly changing, adapting to the best performance of a given receptor function. Together with the receptors and inseparably from them, the structure of the analyzer as a whole is rebuilt in accordance with the new conditions and requirements of practical activity.
The progress of technology entails a colossal information overload of the main channels of communication between a person and the external environment - visual and auditory. The need to unload the visual and auditory analyzers inevitably associated with the activation of other communication systems, in particular, skin systems. Animals have been developing vibrational sensitivity for millions of years, while the idea of transmitting signals through the skin is still new for humans. And the possibilities in this regard are quite large: after all, the area of the human body capable of receiving information is quite large.
For a number of years, attempts have been made to develop "skin hearing" based on the use of stimulus properties adequate for vibrational sensitivity, such as the location of the stimulus, its intensity, duration, and frequency of vibrations. The use of the first three of the listed qualities of stimuli made it possible to create and successfully apply a system of coded vibrational signals. A subject who learned the alphabet of the "vibrational language" could, after some training, perceive sentences delivered at a speed of 38 words per minute, and this result was not the limit. Obviously, the possibilities of using vibrational and other types of sensitivity to transmit information to a person are far from being exhausted, and the importance of developing research in this area can hardly be overestimated.

Topic №3 "PSYCHOLOGICAL PREPARATION FOR LEGAL ACTIVITIES"

1. FEELING AND PERCEPTION. THEIR ROLE AND SIGNIFICANCE IN THE PROFESSIONAL ACTIVITY OF A LAWYER.

2. MEMORY. A LAWYER'S ACCOUNT OF THE REGULARITY OF MEMORY OF THE PARTICIPANTS OF THE PROCESS.

3. THINKING AND IMAGINATION. THEIR ROLE IN THE ACTIVITIES OF A LAWYER.

4. ATTENTION IN THE PROFESSIONAL ACTIVITY OF A LAWYER.

5. EMOTIONS, STATES, FEELINGS.

1. Sensations, perceptions, ideas, memory are related to sensory forms of knowledge. Sensation is the simplest, further indecomposable mental process.

The sensations reflect the objective qualities of the object (smell, color, taste, temperature, etc.) and the intensity of the stimuli affecting us (for example, higher or lower temperature). The accumulation and processing of information begins with sensation and perception, physiological basis which constitutes the activity of the sense organs, called analyzers in physiology.

But it is not analyzers who perceive, but a specific person with his needs, interests, aspirations, abilities, his own attitude to what is perceived. Therefore, perception depends both on the object of perception and on the individual characteristics of the perceiving person. In life, the perception of surrounding objects is a dynamic process.

A person performs many perceptual actions in order to form an adequate image of the object of perception. These actions consist in the movement of the eye in visual perception, the movement of the hand in touch, the movement of the larynx, reproducing an audible sound, etc. In practice, such a reflection of reality makes the formation of evidence more productive.

Psychology pays great attention to the study of the speed and accuracy of human perception of the readings of various instruments and signals of modern means.

connections. When analyzing the observational qualities of an investigator, when studying the process of forming testimonies of witnesses, victims about fleeting events, legal psychology can use the provisions of engineering psychology.

A full-fledged perception assumes that the future participant correctly embraces the object in its parts and as a whole, correctly reflects its meaning and purpose. This circumstance is connected with the unity of sensations and thinking.

In order to correctly assess the testimony of the interrogated, the interrogator needs to isolate the sensory data in them, which were the “material” of perception, and analyze the interpretation of it by the witness himself, the victim, the suspect and the accused. The human psyche develops as a result of its practical interaction with the outside world. Only activity determines the further progress of all mental processes.

According to the theory of activity adopted in Russian psychology, higher mental processes - sensation, perception, attention, memory, thinking, emotions - are considered as special forms of action.

2. MEMORY. A LAWYER'S ACCOUNT OF THE REGULARITY OF MEMORY OF THE PARTICIPANTS OF THE PROCESS.

In the activities of a lawyer, where the communicative process is the leading one, obtaining information and remembering it is the basis on which all practical actions are built. The training of skills and memorization skills is one of the main ones in the system of psychological preparation for legal activity. This training should be organized and carried out taking into account the main patterns of memory. Memory is a complex mental process that includes:

1) memorization of objects, phenomena, persons, actions, thoughts, information, etc.;

2) keeping in memory what was remembered;

3) recognition during repeated perception and reproduction of the memorized. The physical basis of memory is the traces of nervous processes stored in the cerebral cortex.

The impact of the environment on the human brain is carried out either by the impact of objects and phenomena on the organs of his senses, or indirectly through the word: story, description, etc. These effects leave corresponding traces in the cerebral cortex, which can then be used. animated by repeated perception (recognition) or by recall.

Memory is an integrative mental process that encompasses the results of sensations, perceptions and thinking. In psychology, there are 4 memory types. Visual-figurative memory is manifested in the memorization, preservation and reproduction of visual,

auditory, gustatory, temperature, etc. images. This may be a visual representation of the object of observation, the interlocutor, a piece of terrain, knowledge, the process of communication, etc. Visual-figurative memory is of great importance in the educational and creative activities of a person.

Verbal-logical memory is expressed in the memorization and reproduction of thoughts. This type of memory is closely related to speech, since any thought is necessarily expressed in words.

Features of this type of memory are taken into account in the learning process. To make memorization more effective, figurative speech and intonation are used.

Motor memory depends on muscle sensations, on excitation and inhibition of the corresponding pathways and nerve cells.

emotional memory is a memory of emotional states that took place in the past.

As a rule, vivid emotional images are quickly remembered and easily reproduced. Distinctive feature emotional memory are the breadth of communication and the depth of penetration into the essence of the feeling once experienced. The properties of emotional memory depend on the peculiarities of the work of the sense organs.

There are types of memory: visual, auditory, motor and

mixed.

In accordance with this, a worker in jurisprudence must imagine what kind of memory is inherent in himself, as well as in the people with whom he will have to work. This is necessary in order to make appropriate adjustments in the perception and description of events in order to make the right decision.

There are also long-term and short-term memory . short-term memory retains information incompletely.

long term memory serves to remember information for a long time, often for life. This type of memory is the most important and the most complex. Information about short-term and long-term memory is very significant for investigative work. The course of the processes of memorization, preservation and subsequent reproduction is determined by the place this information occupies in the activity of the subject, what is its significance, what he does with this information.

The most productively remembered material is related to the purpose of the activity, with its main content. In these cases, even involuntary memorization can be more productive than voluntary. Consideration should be given to the influence of emotions on the process of memorization. It will be more productive if the perception is carried out against the background of elevated emotional states. When a phenomenon and event affect feelings, the mental activity of the witness, the victim, the suspect and the accused will be more active, forcing them to repeatedly return to the experience. Forgetting is the opposite process of imprinting and storing.

Forgetting is a physiologically normal phenomenon. If all the information accumulated in memory simultaneously surfaced in the mind of a person, then productive thinking would be practically impossible. This is also the mechanism of reproduction of testimonies by a witness, victim, suspect, accused. A major role in memorizing the material is played by the mindset. As practice shows and experimental studies, people who perceive material only in order to write it down forget this material much faster, in contrast to those who memorize the same material with the “remember for a long time” setting. Special meaning material is important here.

If a person is clearly aware that the material to be memorized determines the success of an important operation, then the setting for lasting memorization is easily formulated.

From this follows the conclusion: the memorized material should be classified according to the degree of importance. In legal activities, it is advisable to memorize the perceived information according to the plan:

1) the main idea (comprehension of the memorized):

2) facts and events (what, when and where happens);

3) the reasons for the events taking place;

4) conclusions and source of information.

For the correct assessment of the testimony of a witness, victim, suspect. It is important for law enforcement officials and judges to know the patterns of the process of human memory development. Memory develops and improves throughout a person’s life. It is influenced by the development of the human nervous system, the conditions of education and training, and the activities performed. Note that memory and recall are not processes isolated from each other.

There is a two-way relationship between them. Recall is, on the one hand, a prerequisite for reproduction, and on the other, it turns out to be its result. Recall is made in the process of reproduction, in the course of the story of the witness, the victim, the suspect and the accused during interrogation.

You should not interrupt the free narrative of the interrogated unless absolutely necessary. A question asked in the course of a free story often scatters the interrogated person's attention, disrupts the course of his thoughts, and interferes with the recall of facts. The individuality of a person's memory is manifested, on the one hand, in the features of its process, that is, in how memorization, preservation and reproduction are carried out, and on the other hand, in the features of the content of memory, that is, in what is remembered. These two sides of memory, combined in different ways, make the memory of each person individual in terms of its productivity. In memory processes, individual differences are expressed in speed, volume, accuracy, memorization strength and readiness for

reproduction, which are determined by biological characteristics, living conditions, upbringing and professional activities.

Legal activity shows that involuntary, as well as arbitrary, memorization in most cases ensures the correct reproduction of the necessary information during interrogation. Individual differences in memory can also be manifested in the fact that one person remembers dates and numbers well, another person remembers people's names, a third person remembers the colors of paints, etc. It should, however, be noted that there are people whose memory always works flawlessly, without breakdowns , misses and distortions, In such cases, in order to achieve maximum completeness of reproduction, it is important for the investigator to make the right choice of time

interrogation of a witness, victim, suspect and accused.

Memory is the basis on which any professional activity is based. A lawyer must have a good memory.

3. THINKING AND IMAGINATION. THEIR ROLE IN THE ACTIVITIES OF A LAWYER.

Thinking as a mental process is always aimed at revealing deep connections rooted in objective reality.

Thinking- the process of reflection in the human mind of the essence, regular connections and relationships between things and phenomena of nature and society. Thinking arises on the basis of practical activity from sensory cognition and goes far beyond its limits. It enables the lawyer to know such aspects of objective reality,

that are hidden from his eyes. Thinking proceeds on a linguistic basis.

Words create the necessary material shell of thought. The better any thought is thought out, the clearer it is expressed in words, and, conversely, the clearer the verbal formulation, the deeper the thought.

“Thinking,” Pavlov wrote, “represents nothing else than associations, first elementary, standing in connection with external objects, and then chains of associations. This means that every small first association is a moment of the birth of a thought.”

A person's thought is formulated in images, concepts and judgments. Judgments are general, particular and singular. They are formed in 2 main ways:

1. directly, when they express what is perceived;

2. indirectly - through inference or reasoning.

Thinking Process - this is primarily analysis, synthesis and generalization.

Analysis- this is the selection in the object of one or another of its sides, elements, properties, connections, relationships, etc.

Analysis and synthesis are always interconnected. The inseparable unity between them clearly appears already in the cognitive process. Comparison consists in comparing objects, phenomena, their properties and relations with each other. So, in order to decide whether a particular person is or is not a suspect in a particular criminal case, it is necessary to divide the behavior of this individual into separate signs - actions and compare them, if possible, with the reference signs of this crime.

The identified match or mismatch of features serves as the basis for making a decision.

In the course of generalization in the compared objects - as a result of their analysis - something in common is singled out. These common properties for various objects are of 2 types:

1) common as similar features and

2) general as essential features.

Every essential property is between one and the same for a given group of homogeneous objects, but not vice versa: not every common (similar) property is essential for a given group of objects. Common essential features are identified during and as a result of in-depth analysis and synthesis.

Patterns of analysis, synthesis and generalization are the main internal specific patterns of thinking. In modern psychology, there are mainly 3 types of thinking:

1) visual and effective;

2) visual-figurative;

3) abstract (theoretical) thinking.

Visual-effective (objective) thinking is manifested in the practical life of a person. It accompanies him at all stages of development: a person, as it were, physically “hands” analyzes and synthesizes the objects of his activity, his behavior.

Figurative thinking contributes to predicting the behavior of persons suspected in a criminal case, helps learning with the help of visual aids, and facilitates the preparation of analytical documents, reviews, and scientific reports. Developed imaginative thinking contributes to the implementation of the tasks of communicative, managerial and cognitive activities of a practicing lawyer.

Abstract (theoretical) thinking appears most clearly where the performance of mental operations requires the use of abstract concepts, theoretical knowledge.

Such thinking is carried out on the basis of logical reasoning. This thinking helps the lawyer to understand the complex categories of social sciences and operate with them in the process of communication. In practical activity, no person, of course, uses some kind of thinking in a “pure form”, a worker of legal labor is no exception in this. Practical thinking is carried out and achieves a certain result through general mental operations (analysis, synthesis, generalization, comparison, abstraction and concretization) and also classification, systematization, structuring. With all this, practical thinking has a creative character. Qualities of creative thinking.

1. Problematic nature approach to the phenomena being studied - this quality of creative thinking is manifested in the ability to find questions to be clarified, researched, to find a problem situation where it seems to many that it does not exist, that everything in the case under investigation is very simple. The investigator, for example, uses the problematic nature of thinking at the intersection of reconstructive and search activities.

2. Dynamism of thinking- the ability to quickly, creatively navigate the case under investigation, highlight what exactly needs to be paid more attention and what should be distracted from, the speed of covering the situation under investigation and determining the grounds that should be guided in the subsequent development of the version. This quality of thinking also helps in such an investigative action as an interrogation.

3. Efficiency of thinking- the inclusion of mental operations (observation, imagination), which is the most significant in the study of material evidence and various legal facts; Efficiency of thinking also applies to the search activities of the investigator, providing a reasonable combination of observation, imagination and intuition.

4. Breadth of thinking is the productivity of creative work in solving many problems. This quality is especially necessary for investigators and judges investigating or considering economic crimes, where great versatility, rational application of knowledge, skills and experience in the process of cognitive activity are needed.

5. Depth of thinking manifested in the identification of essential properties, connections and relationships between objects and phenomena. A concrete expression of the depth of thinking is the combination of analysis and synthesis. Depth of thinking is closely related to selectivity. The narrower the problem, the phenomenon, the more properties, details can be considered when studying it.

6. Validity in putting forward versions of the case under investigation- in their decision, courage, originality and validity are different from discursive thinking in that these qualities precede logic in the process of cognition, especially at the first stages of investigation.

7. Logical thinking- this is the development of the sequence of the thought process, the rigor and "insight" of the evidence, the ability to draw generalizing conclusions from extensive and diverse legal facts.

8. criticality and impartiality (objectivity) of thinking- the core of the thought process of a worker of legal labor, without which he cannot establish the truth.

4. ATTENTION IN THE PROFESSIONAL ACTIVITY OF A LAWYER.

Attention in psychology is the focus of consciousness on certain objects that are significant for the individual. Attention during the search is arbitrary, volitional in nature, since the investigator uses it to achieve the intended goals, makes certain efforts to preserve it, concentrate it, so as not to be distracted by other extraneous stimuli.

There are well-known difficulties in sustaining attention for a long time. The monotonous nature of the search work, the presence of distractions lead to the gradual accumulation of fatigue, to the dispersion of attention.

Therefore, in the case of a lengthy and labor-intensive search, it is advisable to arrange short breaks after certain periods of time. It is important, however, not to be distracted during the search, to follow the planned plan.

It is desirable that the participants in the search change the nature of the search work from time to time (for example, the investigator, after examining the personal correspondence of the accused, proceeds to search for possible hiding places among pieces of furniture, etc.). Searchers must take into account that in the manufacture of hiding places and various storage facilities, criminals in some cases take into account a number of psychological factors.

These include the following:

1) calculation for the appearance of the factor of fatigue and automatism. Thus, the desired document is often placed in a book located in the middle of a bookshelf. The calculation is based on the fact that the books will be examined from one or the other edge of the shelf, and by the middle of the shelf there will already be a certain automatism, fatigue, in which the investigator will not turn over each page;

3) counting on the manifestation of tact and other noble motives on the part of the investigator (hiding objects in the bed of a seriously ill person, in the bed of a small child, in the grave of close relatives, etc.);

4) deliberate negligence of concealing an object (leaving it in plain sight);

5) diversion of attention by making caches - doubles. The calculation is that when the first empty cache is found, the rest of the same caches will not be inspected;

6) counting on organizing a conflict during a search in order to distract attention in order to hide the desired object. Preliminary collection of all the listed information, a thorough analysis of it allow the investigator to successfully solve the first part of the task of conducting a search - to mentally unravel the actions of the person being searched.

5. EMOTIONS, STATES, FEELINGS.

Emotions and feelings, etc. mental phenomena, these are various forms of reflection of the real world. Unlike cognitive processes that reflect the surrounding reality in sensations, images, ideas, concepts, thoughts, emotions and feelings reflect objective reality in experiences. They express the subjective attitude of a person to objects and phenomena of the surrounding reality. The reflection in the human brain of his real experiences, that is, the attitude of the subject of needs to objects that are significant to him, is usually called emotions and feelings. The activity of workers in the yur-th labor often proceeds in conditions of high nervous tension.

Therefore, a lawyer needs to be able to manage his emotions and feelings in order to maintain efficiency in any conditions. Emotion (from Latin “to excite”, “to excite”) is a person's experience of his personal attitude to real activity.

Some human emotions coincide with those of animals (eg rage and fear). However, due to the presence of reason, as well as special needs on the basis of emotions, a person has formed more complex experiences, i.e. feelings. The term "emotion" denotes a specific, relatively elementary form of experiencing feelings.

The sources of emotions and feelings should be sought in objective reality, in accordance or inconsistency of objects, phenomena, things of the real world with the needs and goals of the individual. Diverse positive emotions and feelings (joy, pleasure, etc.) arise when a person's needs are met, and, conversely, negative emotions and feelings that hinder are caused when a person's needs are not satisfied.

If the objects and phenomena of the surrounding world are not related to the goals and satisfaction of human needs, then they do not cause his emotional attitude, they are indifferent to him. Emotions and feelings as experiences are closely interconnected, but they have significant differences. Experiences associated with the satisfaction (or dissatisfaction) of the body's needs for food, protection from the cold, sleep, self-preservation, are related to emotions. Emotions are inherent in people and animals.

But human emotions differ significantly from animal emotions: they are restructured under the influence of social experience. From conditions public life depend on both forms of manifestation of emotions in a person, and ways to achieve goals and satisfy those needs that this or that emotion is associated with. In the process of public historical development social life of people in the sphere of their experiences, a special form and reflections and attitudes to the world around them appear - feelings, specifically human experiences that arise on the basis of satisfaction or dissatisfaction of the needs of a person as a person (such as the needs for communication, cognition, aesthetic, etc. .). Feelings, for example

camaraderie, shame and conscience, duty and responsibility, etc. are inherent

only to man as a social being. Variety of emotions and feelings

manifests itself in a special subjectivity, depending on the personal significance of objects and phenomena that affect a person and surround reality.

One and the same object, situation, incident, crime at different times can cause different experiences, emotions, feelings in a person. This indicates the complex relationship of emotions and feelings with the needs and goals of a person and explains the source of the subjectivity of emotions and feelings.

In feelings and emotions, more prominently than in cognitive processes, the most significant features of the personality are manifested. Unlike cognitive processes, emotions and feelings are often manifested during outward behavior: in expressive movements of the face (facial expressions), body (pantomime), in gestures, intonations and voice timbre.

Emotions and feelings are characterized by polarity and plasticity. Every emotion and every feeling is opposed by opposite experiences, there are many transitions between cats.