See what “Hearing” is in other dictionaries. Which memory is difficult to manage? What does lack of emotional memory lead to?
Hearing is the body's ability to perceive and distinguish sound vibrations. This ability is carried out by the auditory (sound) analyzer. That. Hearing is the process by which the ear converts sound vibrations in the external environment into nerve impulses that are transmitted to the brain, where they are interpreted as sounds. Sounds are born from various vibrations, for example, if you pull a guitar string, pulses of vibrational pressure of air molecules will arise, better known as sound waves.
The ear can distinguish various subjective aspects of sound, such as its volume and pitch, by detecting and analyzing various physical characteristics of the waves.
The outer ear directs sound waves from external environment To eardrum. The pinna, the visible part of the outer ear, collects sound waves into the ear canal. For sound to be transmitted to the central nervous system, sound energy undergoes three transformations. Firstly, air vibrations are converted into vibrations of the eardrum and ossicles of the middle ear. These, in turn, transmit vibrations to the fluid inside the cochlea. Finally, fluid vibrations create traveling waves along the basilar membrane, which stimulate the hair cells of the organ of Corti. These cells convert sound vibrations into nerve impulses in the fibers of the cochlear (auditory) nerve, which transmits them to the brain, from which they are transmitted, after significant processing, to the primary auditory area of the cerebral cortex, the terminal auditory brain center. Only when nerve impulses reach this area does a person hear sound.
When the eardrum absorbs sound waves, it central part, vibrates like a rigid cone, bending in and out. The greater the strength of the sound waves, the greater the deflection of the membrane and the stronger the sound. The higher the frequency of the sound, the faster the membrane vibrates and the higher the pitch of the sound.
The range of sounds with an oscillation frequency from 16 to 20,000 Hz is accessible to human hearing. Minimum sound intensity capable of causing a barely noticeable sensation audible sound, is called the hearing threshold. Auditory sensitivity, or hearing acuity, is determined by the threshold value of the auditory sensation: the lower the threshold value, the higher the hearing acuity. As the sound intensity increases, the sensation of sound volume increases, but when the sound intensity reaches a certain value, the increase in volume stops and a feeling of pressure or even pain appears in the ear. The sound strength at which these appear discomfort, called pain threshold, or the threshold of discomfort. Auditory sensitivity is characterized not only by the value of the threshold of auditory sensation, but also by the value of the difference or differential threshold, i.e., the ability to distinguish sounds by strength and height (frequency).
When exposed to sounds, hearing acuity changes. Exposure to strong sounds leads to hearing loss; in quiet conditions, auditory sensitivity quickly (after 10-15 seconds) is restored. This is a physiological adaptation auditory analyzer to the influence of a sound stimulus is called auditory adaptation. One should distinguish from adaptation auditory, which occurs during prolonged exposure to intense sounds and is characterized by a temporary decrease in auditory sensitivity with more long period restoration of normal hearing (several minutes or even hours). Frequent and prolonged irritation of the auditory organ strong sounds(for example, in noisy industrial conditions) can lead to irreversible hearing loss. To prevent permanent hearing loss, workers in noisy workshops must use special plugs - (see).
Availability paired organ Hearing in humans and animals provides the ability to determine the location of a sound source. This ability is called binaural hearing or ototopics. With unilateral hearing loss, ototopy is sharply impaired.
A specific feature of human hearing is the ability to perceive speech sounds not only as physical phenomena, but also as meaningful units - phonemes. This ability is ensured by the presence of a person’s auditory speech center located in the left temporal lobe brain When this center is turned off, the perception of tones and noises that make up speech is preserved, but distinguishing them as speech sounds, i.e., understanding speech becomes impossible (see Aphasia, Alalia).
Used for hearing testing various methods. The simplest and most accessible is research using speech. An indicator of hearing acuity is the distance at which certain elements of speech are distinguished. In practice, hearing is considered normal if the whisper is heard at a distance of 6-7 m.
To obtain more accurate data on the state of hearing, research is used using tuning forks (see) and an audiometer (see).
When transmitting vibrations through the air, and up to 220 kHz when transmitting sound through the bones of the skull. These waves have an important biological significance For example, sound waves in the range of 300-4000 Hz correspond to the human voice. Sounds above 20,000 Hz have little practical significance, as they slow down quickly; vibrations below 60 Hz are perceived through the vibration sense. The range of frequencies that a person can hear is called auditory or sound range; higher frequencies are called ultrasound, and lower frequencies are called infrasound.
Physiology of hearing
The ability to distinguish sound frequencies greatly depends on the individual: his age, gender, susceptibility to hearing diseases, training and hearing fatigue. Individuals are capable of perceiving sound up to 22 kHz, and possibly higher.
Some animals can hear sounds that are inaudible to humans (ultrasound or infrasound). Bats use ultrasound for echolocation during flight. Dogs are able to hear ultrasound, which is what silent whistles work on. There is evidence that whales and elephants can use infrasound to communicate.
A person can distinguish several sounds at the same time due to the fact that there can be several standing waves in the cochlea at the same time.
It turned out to be unusual to explain the phenomenon of hearing satisfactorily challenging task. The person who presented a theory that explained the perception of pitch and loudness of sound would almost certainly be guaranteed a Nobel Prize.
Original text(English)
Explaining hearing adequately has proven a singularly difficult task. One would almost ensure oneself a Nobel prize by presenting a theory explaining satisfactorily no more than the perception of pitch and loudness.
- Reber, Arthur S., Reber (Roberts), Emily S. The Penguin Dictionary of Psychology. - 3rd Edition. - London: Penguin Books Ltd, . - 880 s. - ISBN 0-14-051451-1, ISBN 978-0-14-051451-3
At the beginning of 2011, in some media related to scientific topics, there was short message O working together two Israeli institutions. IN human brain Specialized neurons have been identified that make it possible to estimate the pitch of a sound, up to 0.1 tone. Animals other than bats do not have such an adaptation, and for different types accuracy is limited to 1/2 to 1/3 octave. (Attention! This information requires clarification!)
Psychophysiology of hearing
Projecting outward auditory sensations
No matter how auditory sensations arise, we usually attribute them to the external world, and therefore we always look for the reason for the stimulation of our hearing in vibrations received from the outside from one distance or another. This trait in the sphere of hearing is much less pronounced than in the sphere of visual sensations, which are distinguished by their objectivity and strict spatial localization and, probably, is also acquired through long experience and control of other senses. With auditory sensations, the ability for projection, objectification and spatial localization cannot reach such high degrees as with visual sensations. This is due to such structural features hearing aid, such as lack muscle mechanisms, depriving him of the possibility of precise spatial determinations. We know the enormous importance that muscular feeling has in all spatial definitions.
Judgments about the distance and direction of sounds
Our judgments about the distance at which sounds are emitted are very inaccurate, especially if a person’s eyes are closed and he does not see the source of sounds and surrounding objects, by which one can judge the “ambient acoustics” based on life experience, or the acoustics of the environment are atypical: for example, in an acoustic anechoic chamber, the voice of a person located just a meter from the listener seems to the latter to be many times or even tens of times more distant. Also, familiar sounds seem closer to us the louder they are, and vice versa. Experience shows that we are less mistaken in determining the distance of noise than of musical tones. A person’s ability to judge the direction of sounds is very limited: not having mobile ears that are convenient for collecting sounds, in cases of doubt he resorts to head movements and puts it in a position in which sounds are distinguished best, that is, the sound is localized by a person in that direction , from which it is heard stronger and “clearer”.
There are three known mechanisms by which the direction of sound can be distinguished:
- Difference in average amplitude (historically the first principle discovered): for frequencies above 1 kHz, that is, those where the sound wavelength is shorter than the size of the listener's head, the sound reaching the near ear is of greater intensity.
- Phase difference: branching neurons are able to distinguish a phase shift of up to 10-15 degrees between the arrival of sound waves to the right and left ear for frequencies in the approximate range of 1 to 4 kHz (corresponding to an arrival time accuracy of 10 µs).
- Difference in spectrum: the folds of the auricle, head and even shoulders introduce small frequency distortions into the perceived sound, absorbing different harmonics differently, which is interpreted by the brain as Additional Information about horizontal and vertical localization of sound.
The brain's ability to perceive described differences in sound heard by the right and left ear led to the creation of binaural recording technology.
The described mechanisms do not work in water: determining the direction by the difference in volume and spectrum is impossible, since sound from water passes almost without loss directly to the head, and therefore to both ears, which is why the volume and spectrum of sound in both ears at any location of the source sound from high accuracy are the same; Determining the direction of the sound source by the phase shift is impossible, since due to the much higher speed of sound in water, the wavelength increases several times, which means the phase shift decreases many times.
From the description of the above mechanisms, the reason for the impossibility of determining the location of low-frequency sound sources is also clear.
Hearing test
Hearing is tested using a special device or computer program called an audiometer.
The frequency characteristics of hearing are also determined, which is important when producing speech in hearing-impaired children.
Norm
Perception frequency range 16 Hz - 22 kHz changes with age - high frequencies are no longer perceived. A decrease in the range of audible frequencies is associated with changes in the inner ear (cochlea) and with the development of sensorineural hearing loss with age.
Hearing threshold
Hearing threshold- the minimum sound pressure at which a sound of a given frequency is perceived by the human ear. The threshold of hearing is expressed in decibels. The zero level is taken to be a sound pressure of 2·10−5 Pa at a frequency of 1 kHz. The hearing threshold of a particular person depends on individual characteristics, age, and physiological state.
Pain threshold
Auditory pain threshold- the value of sound pressure at which auditory organ pain occurs (which is associated, in particular, with reaching the limit of extensibility of the eardrum). Exceeding this threshold leads to acoustic trauma. Painful sensation defines the boundary dynamic range human audibility, which averages 140 dB for a tone signal and 120 dB for noise with a continuous spectrum.
Pathology
see also
- Auditory hallucination
- Auditory nerve
Literature
Physical encyclopedic dictionary/Ch. ed. A. M. Prokhorov. Ed. collegium D. M. Alekseev, A. M. Bonch-Bruevich, A. S. Borovik-Romanov and others - M.: Sov. Encycl., 1983. - 928 pp., p. 579
Links
- Video lecture Auditory perception
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Synonyms:See what “Hearing” is in other dictionaries:
hearing- hearing, and... Russian spelling dictionary
hearing- hearing/... Morphemic-spelling dictionary
Noun, m., used. often Morphology: (no) what? hearing and hearing, what? hear, (see) what? hearing, what? rumor, about what? about hearing; pl. What? rumors, (no) what? rumors, what? rumors, (see) what? rumors, what? rumors about what? about rumors perception by authorities... ... Dictionary Dmitrieva
Husband. one of the five senses by which sounds are recognized; the instrument is his ear. The hearing is dull, thin. In deaf and earless animals, hearing is replaced by a feeling of shaking. Go by ear, search by ear. | A musical ear, an inner feeling that comprehends mutual... ... Dahl's Explanatory Dictionary
Slukha, m. 1. unit only. One of the five external senses, which gives the ability to perceive sounds, the ability to hear. The ear is the organ of hearing. Keen Hearing. “A hoarse scream reached his ears.” Turgenev. “I wish for glory, so that your ears will be amazed by my name... Ushakov's Explanatory Dictionary
Auditory
47. Types of sensations by modality:
Visual, auditory, gustatory;
Determine the type of sensation based on the location of the receptors.
proprioceptive;
49. Exteroceptive types of sensations:
Visual
50. Proprioceptive types of sensations:
Equilibrium
51. Interoceptive types of sensations:
Pain
52. Determine the property of sensations.
intensity;
What is perception?
holistic reflection of the properties of objects and phenomena;
What is the dependence of perception on content called? mental activity person, on the characteristics of his personality?
apperception;
What in reflex basis perception, according to I.P. Pavlov?
56. Determine the type of perception based on the form of existence of matter.
space;
Determine the type of perception by volitional effort.
arbitrary;
Which illusions are more common?
Visual
What is attention?
This mental process, ensuring the concentration of consciousness on the object;
What is attention?
Concentration of the subject's activities in this moment time on any object,
61. Attention in human mental activity provides:
clarity and clarity of consciousness;
62. Define the function of attention.
regulation and control;
Which attention is the simplest and most genetically original?
Involuntary
64. Determine the type of attention by volitional effort.
free
65. Determine the type of attention by the degree of contact with the object.
direct;
66. Determine the property of attention.
switchability;
67. Memory is a mental process:
preserving traces of experience;
68. Determine the type of memory by the nature of mental activity.
motor;
69. Determine the type of figurative memory.
visual;
70. Determine the type of memory by volitional effort.
arbitrary;
Determine the type of memory by the time the images were saved
long-term;
What is memory for feelings called?
Emotional
What is memory for words and thoughts called?
Semantic
Determine the type of memory based on the duration of saving images?
Long-term
How long does iconic memory last?
What is the name of a memory whose images are retained for 2-3 seconds after a brief auditory stimulus?
Echoic
Which memory is difficult to manage?
Instant
How long is short-term information retained in memory?
Which memory is close in importance RAM?
Short term
What memory is determined by the mechanism of heredity?
Genetic
What does episodic memory store?
Fragments of information
What kind of memory is typical for artists?
Reproductive
What is autobiographical memory?
Memory for life events
What kind of memory is typical for engineers?
Reconstructive
What memory is the basis of solid knowledge?
Long-term
What kind of memory retains information perceived by the senses without processing?
Instant
What is another name for instant memory?
Sensory
What is explicit memory based on?
Based on the knowledge gained
Which memory is better developed in childhood?
Involuntary
What memory deteriorates with age?
Mechanical
What does absence lead to? emotional memory?
"Emotional stupidity"
Ichoic and ecoic memory are types of what type of memory?
Instant
What does forgetting initially lead to?
To unload memory
What is semantic coding?
Semantic
What is the consequence of the law of actual memory needs?
Zeigarnik effect
What does the Zeigarnik effect imply?
remembering unfinished actions;
What are mnemotechnical memorization techniques?
comprehension;
What is thinking?
it is a mental process that provides a generalized and indirect form of reflection of reality;
99. Determine the type of thinking according to the scope of application of the results and the nature of the problems being solved?
theoretical;
The receptive part of the auditory analyzer is the ear, the conductive part is the auditory nerve, and the central part is the auditory zone of the cerebral cortex. The hearing organ consists of three sections: external, middle and inner ear. The ear includes not only the organ of hearing itself, with the help of which auditory sensations are perceived, but also the organ of balance, due to which the body is held in a certain position.
The outer ear consists of auricle and external auditory canal. The shell is formed by cartilage covered on both sides by skin. With the help of a shell, a person catches the direction of sound. The muscles that move the auricle are rudimentary in humans. The external auditory canal looks like a tube 30 mm long, lined with skin, which contains special glands, secreting earwax. In the depths of the ear canal is covered with a thin eardrum oval shape. On the side of the middle ear, in the middle of the eardrum, the handle of the hammer is strengthened. The membrane is elastic; when struck by sound waves, it repeats these vibrations without distortion.
Middle ear presented tympanic cavity, which communicates with the nasopharynx through the auditory (Eustachian) tube; It is delimited from the outer ear by the eardrum. The components of this department are: hammer, anvil And stapes. With its handle, the malleus fuses with the eardrum, while the anvil is articulated with both the malleus and the stapes, which covers the oval hole leading to the inner ear. In the wall separating the middle ear from the inner ear, in addition to the oval window, there is also a round window covered with a membrane.
Structure of the hearing organ:
1 -
auricle, 2 - external auditory canal,
3 - eardrum, 4 -
middle ear cavity, 5 - auditory tube, 6 -
cochlea, 7 - semicircular canals, 8 -
anvil, 9 - hammer, 10 -
stapes
The inner ear, or labyrinth, is located in the thickness temporal bone and has double walls: membranous labyrinth as if inserted into bone, repeating its shape. The gap-like space between them is filled clear liquid - perilymph, cavity of the membranous labyrinth - endolymph. Labyrinth presented the threshold anterior to it is the cochlea, posteriorly - semicircular canals. The cochlea communicates with the middle ear cavity through a round window covered by a membrane, and the vestibule communicates through the oval window.
The organ of hearing is the cochlea, its remaining parts make up the organs of balance. The cochlea is a spirally twisted canal of 2 3/4 turns, separated by a thin membranous septum. This membrane is spirally curled and is called basic. It consists of fibrous tissue, which includes about 24 thousand special fibers (auditory strings) of different lengths and located transversely along the entire course of the cochlea: the longest are at its apex, and the shortest at the base. Overhanging these fibers are auditory hair cells - receptors. This is the peripheral end of the auditory analyzer, or organ of Corti. The hairs of the receptor cells face the cavity of the cochlea - the endolymph, and the auditory nerve originates from the cells themselves.
Perception of sound stimuli. Sound waves passing through the external auditory canal cause vibrations of the eardrum and are transmitted auditory ossicles, and from them - to the membrane of the oval window leading to the vestibule of the cochlea. The resulting vibration sets in motion the perilymph and endolymph of the inner ear and is perceived by the fibers of the main membrane, which carries the cells of the organ of Corti. High-pitched sounds with a high vibration frequency are perceived by short fibers located at the base of the cochlea and transmitted to the hairs of the cells of the organ of Corti. In this case, not all cells are excited, but only those located on fibers of a certain length. Hence, primary analysis sound signals begin already in the organ of Corti, from which excitation along the fibers auditory nerve transferred to auditory center cerebral cortex in the temporal lobe, where their qualitative assessment occurs.
Vestibular apparatus. In determining the position of a body in space, its movement and speed of movement, it plays an important role vestibular apparatus. It is located in the inner ear and consists of vestibule and three semicircular canals, located in three mutually perpendicular planes. The semicircular canals are filled with endolymph. In the endolymph of the vestibule there are two sacs - round And oval with special lime stones - statolites, adjacent to the hairs receptor cells bags.
In normal body position, the statoliths irritate the hairs of the lower cells with their pressure; when the body position changes, the statoliths also move and irritate other cells with their pressure; the received impulses are transmitted to the cortex cerebral hemispheres. In response to irritation of the vestibular receptors associated with the cerebellum and the motor zone of the cerebral hemispheres, muscle tone and body position in space reflexively change. Three semicircular canals extend from the oval sac, which initially have extensions - ampoules, in which hair cells - receptors are located. Since the channels are located in three mutually perpendicular planes, the endolymph in them, when the body position changes, irritates certain receptors, and the excitation is transmitted to the corresponding parts of the brain. The body reflexively responds with the necessary change in body position.
Hearing hygiene. In the outdoor ear canal accumulates earwax, dust and microorganisms are retained on it, so it is necessary to regularly wash your ears with warm soapy water; Under no circumstances should you remove sulfur with hard objects. Overwork nervous system and hearing strain can cause sharp sounds and noises. Prolonged noise is especially harmful, causing hearing loss and even deafness. Loud noise reduces labor productivity by up to 40-60%. To combat noise in industrial environments, walls and ceilings are lined with special materials that absorb sound, and individual noise-reducing headphones are used. Motors and machines are installed on foundations that muffle the noise from the shaking of the mechanisms.
