Theory of interpretation of aerial and space images. Abstract general issues of image interpretation

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The information necessary for research (subject-specific and geometric) is extracted from images by two main methods: decoding and photogrammetric measurements.

Decoding, which should answer the main question - what is shown in the picture, allows you to obtain substantive, thematic (mostly qualitative) information about the object or process being studied, its connections with surrounding objects. Visual interpretation usually involves reading photographs and their interpretation (interpretation). The ability to read photographs is based on knowledge of the decipherable features of objects and the visual properties of photographs. The depth of interpretive decoding significantly depends on the level of training of the performer. The better the decipherer knows the subject of his research, the more complete and reliable the information extracted from the image.

Decoding is the process of recognizing: objects, their properties, relationships based on their images in the photograph. This is also a method of studying and researching objects, phenomena and processes on the earth's surface, which consists of recognizing objects by their characteristics, determining characteristics, and establishing relationships with other objects.

Depending on the conditions and location of execution, the interpretation of radar images can be divided into field, aerovisual, office and combined.

Field interpretation

During field decoding, the decoder directly on the ground is guided by characteristic and easily identifiable terrain objects and, comparing the contours of objects with their radar images, plots the identification results with conventional signs on a photograph or topographic map. During field interpretation, along the way, through direct measurements, the numerical and qualitative characteristics of objects are determined (characteristics of vegetation, reservoirs, structures attached to them, characteristics of settlements, etc.). In this case, objects that are not depicted in the photograph due to their small size or because they did not exist at the time of shooting can be placed on the photograph or map. During field decoding, standards (keys) are specially or incidentally created, with the help of which later in office conditions the identification of objects of the same type of terrain is facilitated. The disadvantages of field image interpretation are its time- and cost-intensive nature and the complexity of its organization.

Aerovisual interpretation of aerospace images

Recently, in the practice of aerial photography, the aerovisual method of interpreting aerial photographs has become increasingly used. This method can be successfully applied when deciphering radar images of the area. The essence of the aerovisual method is to identify images of an object from an airplane or helicopter. Observation can be carried out through optical and infrared devices. Aerovisual interpretation of radar images allows you to increase productivity and reduce the cost of field interpretation work. The data obtained as a result of deciphering this image will allow us to determine the location of pollution sources and assess their intensity.

Office interpretation of aerospace images

When deciphering images at a desk, identification of objects and their interpretation are carried out without comparing images with nature, by studying images of objects according to their deciphering characteristics. Decryption of images is widely used in the compilation of contour radar maps, updating topographic maps, geological research, and in correcting and supplementing cartographic materials in hard-to-reach areas.

However, desk decryption has a significant drawback - it is impossible to completely obtain all the necessary information about the area. In addition, the results of cameral decoding of images correspond not to the time of decoding, but to the moment of shooting. Therefore, it seems very appropriate to combine desk and field or aerial image interpretation, i.e., combining them.

With combined image interpretation, the main work on detecting and identifying objects is carried out in office conditions, and in the field or in flight those objects or their characteristics that cannot be identified office-wise are carried out and identified.

Visual decryption method, direct and indirect signs of decryption.

Materials used in visual interpretation

The concept of decoding images. Classification of decryption.

Deciphering (interpretation) is called the analysis of video information in order to extract information about the surface and interior of the Earth (other planets, their satellites), objects located on the surface, processes occurring on the surface and in the near-surface space.

The information includes, for example, determination of the spatial position of objects, their qualitative and quantitative characteristics, clarification of the boundaries of the extent of the processes being studied and data on their dynamics, and much more. The tasks of decoding also include obtaining information from other sources that cannot be read directly from images, for example, information about the presence, position and properties of undisplayed objects, names of settlements, rivers, and tracts. Such sources can be materials from previously completed decoding, plans, maps, auxiliary photographs, reference books, the area itself. The results of visual decoding are recorded by symbols on the deciphered image, machine decoding - by tone, color, symbol or other symbols.

Another definition of decryption:

Deciphering images (interpretation) - the process of recognizing local objects from a photographic image and identifying their content with symbols indicating qualitative and quantitative characteristics .

Depending on the content, decoding is divided into:

General geographical

special (thematic, sectoral).

General geographic decoding includes two types:

Topographic interpretation-produced to detect, recognize and obtain characteristics of objects that should be depicted on topographic maps. It is one of the foundations of the processes of technological scheme for updating and creating maps.

Landscape interpretation– carried out for regional and typological zoning of the area and solving special problems.

Special (thematic, industry) decoding produced to solve departmental problems in determining the characteristics of individual sets of objects. There are many varieties of thematic decoding. agricultural, forestry. geological, soil, geobotanical, etc. and other departmental purposes. If the ultimate task of special interpretation is the compilation of thematic maps, for example agricultural, soil or geobotanical, then. in the absence of a suitable topographical basis, special interpretation is accompanied by topographical interpretation.

The basis for the methodological classification of decryption at its current level of development is the means of reading and analyzing video information. Based on this, the following main decryption methods can be distinguished:

visual, in which information from images is read and analyzed by a person:

machine-visual, in which video information is pre-converted by specialized or universal interpretation machines in order to facilitate subsequent visual analysis of the resulting image:

automated(conversational), in which reading from images and analysis. or direct analysis of line-by-line recorded video information, are performed by specialized or universal interpretation machines with the active part of the operator:

auto(machine) in which deciphering is performed entirely by interpretation machines. A person defines tasks and sets a program for processing and video information.

In all methods, lower levels of classification can be distinguished - methods and variants of methods.

The basic diagram of the decryption process in any method remains unchanged - recognition is performed by comparing and determining the degree of proximity of a certain set of features of the object being deciphered with the corresponding reference features located in the memory of a person or machine. The recognition process is preceded by a learning process (or self-learning), during which a list of objects to be deciphered is determined, a set of their characteristics is selected, and the permissible degree of their difference is established.

If there is insufficient a priori information about the classes of objects and their characteristics, a person and a machine can divide the depicted objects according to the proximity of some characteristics into homogeneous groups - clusters, the content of which is then determined by a person or a machine using additional data.

2. Visual decoding method, direct and indirect signs of decoding .

Natural objects depicted in photographs can be identified and interpreted by a decoder by their properties, which are reflected in the decryption characteristics of these objects. All decryption features can be divided into two groups: direct decryption features and indirect ones.

Direct features include those properties and characteristics of objects that are directly displayed in photographs and can be perceived visually or using technical means.

To direct decoding signsm include the shape and size of the image of objects in plan and height, the overall (integral) tone of black-and-white or color of color (spectrozonal) images, and the texture of the image.

Form in most cases, it is a sufficient feature to separate objects of natural and anthropogenic origin. Objects created by humans tend to have correct configurations. For example, any buildings and structures have regular geometric shapes. The same can be said about canals, highways and railways, parks and squares, arable and cultivated forage lands and other objects. The shape of objects is sometimes used as an indirect sign to determine the characteristics of other objects.

Dimensions of decrypted objects in most cases they are assessed relatively. The relative height of objects is judged directly by their image on the edges of images obtained using wide-angle shooting systems. The size, as well as the shape in height, can be judged by the shadows falling from objects. Of course, the area on which the shadow falls must be horizontal.

The dimensions of the image of objects, as well as the shape, are distorted due to the influence of the terrain and the specifics of the projection used in the filming system.

Image Tone is a function of the brightness of the object within the spectral sensitivity of the radiation receiver of the shooting system. In photometry, the analogue of tone is the optical density of the image. the inconstancy of this feature is associated with the following factors: lighting conditions, surface structure, type of photographic material and processing conditions, zone of the electromagnetic spectrum and other reasons. Tone is assessed visually by assigning the image to a certain level of a non-standardized achromatic scale, for example, light tone, light gray, gray, etc. The number of steps is determined by the threshold of light sensitivity of the human visual apparatus.

It has been experimentally established that the human eye has been experimentally established that the human eye can distinguish up to 25 gradations of gray tone; for practical purposes, a gray scale of tones from seven to ten levels is more often used (Table 2).

Table 1 Quantitative characteristics of image density

With the help of computers, it is possible to distinguish up to 225 levels of gray tone from photographs and films. In addition, these levels, depending on the task at hand, can be grouped into certain steps with their quantitative characteristics. The tone of a photographic image is significantly influenced by the texture properties of objects, on which the distribution of light reflected from the surface of the object into space depends.

Optical density serves as a code that conveys the properties of objects. Objects that are completely different in color can appear in the same tone on a black-and-white photograph or television image. Given the instability of the indicator, when deciphering, the phototone is assessed only in combination with other decoding features (for example, structure). Nevertheless, it is the phototone that acts as the main deciphering feature that forms the outlines of the boundaries, dimensions and structure of the image of the object.

Tone can be quite an informative sign if the elements of the shooting system and shooting conditions are correctly selected.

The tone of the image of arable land can vary significantly in time and space, since it significantly depends on the state of the surface of unoccupied fields (plowed, harrowed, dry, wet, etc.), on the type and phenophase of crops on occupied fields.

Image color is a spectral characteristic and determines the energy of the light flux. The color gamut of images is an essential sign of interpretation. This sign should be considered in two aspects. In the first case, when the image on aerial and satellite images is formed in colors close to natural colors (color images), recognition and classification of terrain objects does not cause any particular difficulties. In this case, such characteristics of color as its lightness and saturation are taken into account, as well as different shades of the same color. In another case, a color image is formed in arbitrary colors (pseudo-colors), as is the case with spectrozonal photography. The meaning of this deliberate distortion of the color scheme of nature in the image is that in the photographs the observer more easily perceives the color contrasts of the details of the image, therefore color aerial and space photographs have a higher decipherability than black and white ones. The best results are obtained when interpreting spectrozonal aerial photographs with higher color contrast

The colors of a spectrozonal aerial photograph are less stable than those of a color photograph in natural colors. If necessary, they can be significantly changed using light filters.

There is a special decoding technique where color in images is used to encode image details that have the same optical density. This method is widely used in interpreting zonal images obtained as a result of multispectral surveys. It is very effective when carrying out landscape decoding. In this case, individual elementary landscape units can be coded in some color based on their related characteristics and properties.

Shadow as a decryption feature plays an important role in deciphering objects and their properties. A falling shadow cast by an object on the earth's surface, located on the side opposite to the Sun, emphasizes the volume of the object and its shape. Its outline and size depend on the height of the Sun, the terrain (area) on which the shadow falls, and the direction of illumination.

There are several ways to determine the height of an object from a falling shadow:

where l is the length of the shadow of the object on the aerial photograph;

m is the denominator of the image scale;

n is the relative length of the shadow, which is taken from the tables of V.I. Drury (see Smirnov L.E., 1975)

where b₁ is the length of the object’s shadow on the aerial photograph;

h₂ is the height of a known object on an aerial photograph;

b₂ - length of the shadow on an aerial photograph of a known object

By the shape of the falling shadow, you can recognize both artificial objects (buildings, pillars, triangulation points) and natural objects. Falling shadows are widely used as decoding features in the study of vegetation. .Casting shadows display the elongated shape of the object's silhouette. This property is used when deciphering fences, telegraph poles, water and silo towers, external signs of geodetic network points, individual trees, as well as sharply defined landforms (cliffs, gullies, etc.). It should be borne in mind that the size of the shadow is influenced by the terrain. Each breed has its own specific crown shape, which is reflected in its shadow and makes it possible to determine its species composition. For example, the shape of the falling shadow of a spruce resembles an acute triangle, while that of a pine tree is oval. However, it should be remembered that the shadow is a very dynamic decoding sign (it changes throughout the day). It can exceed the size of the object when the Sun is low above the horizon

Texture (image structure) - the nature of the distribution of optical density over the image field of the object. The structure of the image is the most stable direct deciphering feature, practically independent of shooting conditions. Structure is a complex feature that combines some other direct deciphering features (shape, tone, size, shadow) of a compact group of homogeneous and heterogeneous details of the image of the area in the image. The repeatability, placement and quantity of these parts lead to the identification of new properties and help to increase the reliability of interpretation. The importance of this feature increases as the image scale decreases. For example, the texture of a forest massif is formed by the image of the crowns of individual trees in the photographs, and with a high resolution of the shooting system - by the image of also the elements of the crowns - branches or even leaves; the texture of clean arable land is formed by the display of arable furrows or individual clods.

There is a fairly large number of structures formed by combinations of points, areas, narrow stripes of various shapes, widths and lengths. Some of them are discussed below.

Granular structure typical for depicting forests. The pattern is created by gray rounded spots (tree crowns) on a darker background created by the shaded spaces between the trees. The image of cultivated vegetation (gardens) has a similar structure.

Homogeneous structure It is formed by the same type of microrelief and is characteristic of lowland grassy swamps, steppe plains, clay deserts, and reservoirs with calm water conditions.

Banded structure characteristic of images of vegetable gardens and plowed fields and is a consequence of the parallel arrangement of furrows.

Fine grain structure typical for depicting shrubs of various species.

Mosaic structure formed by vegetation or soil cover of unequal moisture content and is characteristic of randomly located areas of various colors, sizes and shapes. A similar structure, created by alternating rectangles of various sizes and densities, is characteristic of the depiction of personal plots,

Spotted structure typical for images of gardens and swamps.

Square structure characteristic of some types of forest swamps and urban settlements. It is formed by a combination of areas of forest separated by light stripes of swamp, and is read as a combination of areas of a uniform tone. The same structure is created by images of multi-story buildings (relatively large rectangles) and elements of intra-block development in populated areas.

As the scale decreases, texture is created by larger terrain elements, for example, individual arable fields. Texture is one of the most informative features. It is by texture that a person unmistakably identifies forests, gardens, settlements and many other objects. For the listed objects, the texture is relatively stable over time.

Indirect signs can be divided into three main groups. natural, anthropogenic and natural-anthropogenic. Indirect decryption features are quite stable and depend on scale to a lesser extent.

TO natural relate to the interrelationships and interdependence of objects and phenomena in nature. They are also called landscape. Such signs may be, for example, the dependence of the type of vegetation cover on the type of soil, its salinity and moisture content, or the connection between the relief and the geological structure of the area and their joint role in the soil-forming process.

By using anthropogenic indirect signs identify objects created by man. In this case, functional connections between objects, their position in the general complex of structures, zonal specificity of the organization of the territory, and communication support for objects are used. For example, a livestock farm of an agricultural enterprise can be identified by the set of main and auxiliary buildings, the internal layout of the territory, intensively knocked out runs, the position of the deciphered complex of structures relative to the residential area, and the nature of the road network. Similarly, repair shops are identified by the image of the machines located on the territory; a stud farm is reliably identified by the arena adjacent to its territory. At the same time, each of the complex’s structures is not decipherable separately, without connection with the others. . For example, a light, winding line connecting populated areas is almost certainly a depiction of a country road; with the same probability, light winding lines are lost in a forest or field - field or forest roads; a building near the intersection of a light winding strip (dirt road) with a railway indicates the presence of a crossing here; a road that ends on the river bank and its continuation on the other bank indicates the presence of a ford or ferry; a group of buildings near a repeatedly branching railway suggests the presence of a railway station. Logical analysis of direct and indirect decryption features significantly increases the reliability of decryption.

TO natural-anthropogenic indirect The characteristics include the dependence of human economic activity on certain natural conditions, the manifestation of the properties of natural objects in human activity, and others. For example, based on the placement of certain types of crops, one can make a certain judgment about the properties of soils and their moisture content; the elements of a closed drainage system can be deciphered by changes in surface moisture at the locations of drains. Objects used in identifying and determining the characteristics of objects that cannot be directly deciphered are called indicators, and decryption - indicator. Such decoding can be multi-stage, when direct indicators of the objects being deciphered are identified with the help of auxiliary indicators. Indication decoding techniques are used to solve problems of detecting and determining the characteristics of objects not shown in photographs. The most important indicators of various phenomena in indirect interpretation are vegetation, relief and hydrography.

Vegetation is a good indicator of soils, quaternary sediments, soil moisture, etc. When interpreting, the following indicator signs of vegetation can be used:

Morphological characteristics make it possible to distinguish tree, shrub and meadow vegetation in aerospace images.

Floristic (species) characteristics make it possible to decipher the species composition, for example, pine plantations are confined to sandy automorphic soils, black alder plantations to sod-gley soils.

Physiological signs are based on the connection between the hydrogeological and geochemical conditions of the growing site and the chemical properties of the rocks. For example, lichens on limestones are orange, and on granites they are yellow.

Phenological characteristics are based on differences in the rhythms of vegetation development. This is especially evident in autumn in deciduous vegetation in the change in leaf color. Color aerospace images clearly distinguish the species composition of vegetation, which emphasizes the growing conditions.

Phytocenotic characteristics make it possible to decipher the types of forest vegetation and associations of meadow vegetation that are confined to certain growing conditions. For example, lichen pine forests grow on elevated relief elements with automorphic loose-sandy soils, while lichen pine forests are confined to low relief elements and sod-podzolic-boggy soils.

Relief is one of the most important indicators. The connection of relief with other components of natural complexes, its large role in shaping the external appearance of landscapes and the possibility of direct interpretation make it possible to use relief as an indicator of a wide variety of natural objects and their properties. Such indicators can be the following morphometric and morphological features of the relief: a) absolute heights and amplitudes of height fluctuations in a given area; b) general terrain dissection and slope angles; c) the orientation of individual relief forms and the exposure of slopes (solar, wind), which, together with absolute heights, determine the climatic conditions and water regime in a given territory; d) connection between relief and geology; e) the genesis of the relief, its age and modern dynamics, etc.

Hydrography is an important indicator of physical-geographical and geological conditions. The close connection between the structure and density of the hydrographic network (lakes, rivers and swamps) with geology and relief makes it possible to use aerial photographs, especially river networks, as a direct landscape feature when analyzing the area in geomorphological, geological and paleographic terms.

Decryption features are usually used collectively, without dividing them into any groups. The image on the deciphered area is usually perceived by a person as a single whole - a model of the area. Based on the analysis of the model, we create a preliminary hypothesis about the essence of the object (phenomenon) and its properties. The correctness of the hypothesis is confirmed or rejected (sometimes repeatedly) with the help of additional signs.

5. Information properties of images from the point of view of visual interpretation

To assess the information properties of an image, two characteristics are used:

1. information content;

2. . decipherability.

Information content - expert assessment of the potential possibility of obtaining the necessary information about objects from these images. It is impossible to select a quantitative criterion for assessing the information content of an image. Information content is usually assessed verbally: high information content, insufficient information content, etc. Depending on the purposes of interpretation (tasks to be solved), the same images can be considered highly informative and insufficiently informative.

The basis for a formal assessment of the amount of information contained in an image can be based on its relationship with resolution. The higher the resolution of the images, the greater the amount of information they contain. Based on semantic information, its value for the researcher can be determined. For example, a clear image of the species composition of forest vegetation on infrared aerial photographs indicates the effectiveness of using these images to decipher its species composition. By deciphering aerospace images, you can obtain a wide variety of information and facts. However, information includes only those that meet the task or goal.

To determine the maximum amount of information, the concept “ full information", which should be understood as the information that in each specific case can be extracted from images obtained under optimal technical and weather shooting conditions, as well as scale. However, images that have properties other than optimal are often used. The amount of information contained in them is generally less than complete information and amounts to operational information. Operational information includes those necessary information that can be calculated: obtained by deciphering image data. However, the extracted information is almost always less than operational information due to decryption errors. Errors when deciphering objects can occur for the following reasons: when deciphering low-contrast objects; false identification of objects due to the coincidence of deciphering features (for example, limestone and snowfields). However, the decipherer often encounters interference and noise that is of no value to the researcher. Interference can include the presence of glare, as well as the image in the images of the thickness of the atmosphere, which is superimposed on the image in the form of haze, or such atmospheric phenomena as fog, dust storms, etc. The qualitative variety and quantity of extracted information are largely determined by the properties of the information field of the images .

Simplicity comparisons of photographs with nature, external coincidence of the image of objects with the way we see them, determine the clarity of the photographs. Objects are recognized in photographs if their image corresponds to the immediate visual image and if it is well known from practice, for example, cloudiness. The clarity of photographs has always been especially valued. It was assumed that the possibility of direct visual recognition is the main advantage of images from aircraft. But as the method developed, great importance began to be attached to the expressiveness of the image. The more intense and contrasting the objects and phenomena that are the subject of decoding are highlighted in the image, the more expressive it is.

Thus, expressiveness images are characterized by the ease of deciphering objects and phenomena that are most significant for solving the problem. Visibility and expressiveness in a certain sense, opposite, mutually exclusive properties of the aerospace image. Thus, natural color photographs are the most visually appealing. Color spectrozonal images are less clear, but when interpreting, for example, forest vegetation, they are more expressive. The clarity and expressiveness of an image are related to its scale, but the optimal scales for expressiveness and clarity of images do not coincide with each other. Visibility increases with increasing scale.

Decodibility aerospace images are the sum of their properties, which determine the amount of information that can be obtained by deciphering images to solve a given problem. It is known that the same images have different decipherability in relation to different objects and tasks. tasks. It can be expressed quantitatively through the ratio of operational information (I 0) contained in these images and Iп complete information:

However, often to determine the decipherability of images, relative decipherability is used, which is characterized through the ratio of useful information (I) carried by the aerial photograph to the complete information that can be obtained from the aerial photograph:

The value of Dc is called the decipherability coefficient. The concept of “complete information” can be interpreted in different ways, according to which relative decipherability can characterize different properties of aerial photographs. If we take the maximum information capacity of aerial photographs as complete information, then the decipherability coefficient will show the loading of aerial photographs with useless information, in other words, the “noise level”

Using the same formula (Dc = I / Imax), the relative decipherability of individual objects can be calculated. With the appropriate approach, it allows you to compare aerial photographs taken on different films, printed on different papers, etc. Thus, the value of an aerial photograph as a source of information is expressed through the decipherability coefficient.

Completeness of decryption can be characterized through the ratio of used (recognized) useful information (I 1) to all useful information contained in the data

aerial photographs:

The completeness of decryption largely depends on the training of decipherers, their experience and special knowledge.

Under the reliability of decryption the likelihood of correctly recognizing or interpreting objects should be understood. It can be estimated through the ratio of the number of correctly recognized objects (n) to the sum of all recognized objects.

Decodibility can be improved by enlarging the image, changing the contrast, reducing blur, and other transformations.

Decryption of images

Decryption of images

a method for studying territories, water areas, and atmospheric phenomena from their images on aerial, space, and underwater photographs, photographic diagrams, and photographic plans. The essence of decoding is deciphering the content of images, recognizing depicted objects, determining their qualitative and quantitative characteristics, extracting information based on the dependencies that exist between the properties of objects and their display in images.
According to technical methods, a distinction is made between visual (office and field, including aerovisual), instrumental (measuring) and automated interpretation, and these methods are often used in combination. According to the content, decoding is divided into general geographic (including topographic), thematic (geological, landscape, environmental, etc.) and special (forestry, reclamation, etc.). The quality and reliability of object recognition are determined by decryption features, the scale and resolution of images, their stereoscopic properties, technical support and the algorithms used.
Decryption features are characteristic features of objects by which they can be recognized, distinguished from others and interpreted. They are divided into direct and indirect. Direct signs are inherent in the objects themselves, these are configuration, size, color, phototone, shadow of the object, structure and texture of the image. Indirect(indicative) decryption features characterize an object indirectly through the properties of some other object associated with it. For example, tectonic faults and groundwater are often detected in images by strips of vegetation associated with them. In the decryption process, pre-prepared sets of reference features are usually used.
The decipherer must certainly know the specific (geographical, geological, etc.) features of the territory and understand the nature of the object being deciphered. The results are presented in digital form or drawn up in the form of decryption schemes, which are then used to compile, clarify, and update maps.
Modern automated interpretation involves the use of special photogrammetric electro-optical instruments, computers, software and information tools. Automation covers the entire work cycle, including preliminary correction of images, selection, recognition and digitization of objects, drawing maps and displaying them on the screen or on a printing device.

Geography. Modern illustrated encyclopedia. - M.: Rosman. Edited by prof. A. P. Gorkina. 2006 .

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