The concept of mental experience by M.A. Kholodnaya. cold
Rice. 9. Correlation of basic concepts describing intelligence in terms of the category “mental experience”
Accordingly, to the question posed at the beginning of this chapter: “What is intellect as a mental carrier of its properties?” - the following answer may be suggested. Intelligence in its ontological status is a special form of organization of individual mental (mental) experience in the form of existing mental structures, the mental space of reflection generated by them and the mental representations of what is happening within this space.. Features of the composition and structure of the individual mental experience predetermine the nature of the reproduction of objective reality
in the human mind, as well as the originality of his intellectual behavior.
Strictly speaking, no information can get into an empty head at all. And even if it got there, its ordering and transformation would be impossible. Therefore, in conditions of a low level of formation of mental structures or their destruction, any impact will be “buried in the silence of individual experience” (J. Bruner). On the contrary, the presence of well-organized mental structures turns individual intelligence into a kind of dimensionless sponge, ready to absorb any information, which, of course, significantly expands a person’s ability to combine, transform and generate ideas.
Within the framework of the proposed approach, the criteria for the level of intellectual development of an individual are associated, firstly, with how a person perceives, understands and explains what is happening (that is, with the type of his mental speculation), and, secondly, with what decisions he makes and how effectively it operates in certain difficult situations.
The above does not mean that intelligence is exclusively and only a mechanism for adapting to one’s environment. On the contrary, smart people, as a rule, behave maladaptively (which is why they often encounter rejection and even aggression from other people). However, their behavior turns out to be non-adaptive because, due to the specific organization of their mental experience, they see what is happening differently; their behavior actually corresponds to deep, situational patterns, while coming into conflict with current situational requirements. Therefore, sophisticated adaptive behavior is rather a sign lack of intelligence rather than its excess.
Paradoxically, in this sense, the behavior of both a very smart and a very stupid person equally unpredictable, although for different reasons: for a smart person it is non-adaptive, for a stupid person it is maladaptive.
Thus, mental experience is a rather complex psychological formation in nature. Three main forms of organization of experience - mental structures, mental space, mental representations - act as a hierarchy of mental carriers that “from the inside” predetermine the characteristics of intellectual behavior.
The study of the composition and structure of individual mental structures, the study of the mechanisms of deployment of the mental space of intellectual reflection, the search for an answer to the question - how, in the process of manipulating the elements of individual mental experience, a mental picture of the “world in truth” is born (Democritus) - all this, as one can hope, will be a step towards new, subject-oriented and ecologically valid theories of intelligence.
Composition and structure
mental experience
Our mind is metal taken out of its mold.
A. Bergson
4.1. Psychological model of the device
mental experience
IN modern psychology, as we have already seen, there is a growing interest in the problem of the structure of the intellectual sphere from the perspective of the “inside” view. Gradually, the contours of that psychic reality began to emerge, for the analysis of which it was necessary to turn to the concept of “mental structure.”
The study of mental structures as mental carriers of the properties of intelligence leads to the need to pose a number of questions: 1) what mental structures characterize the composition and structure of mental experience? 2) how do different types of mental structures interact? 3) what type of mental structures can act as a system-forming component in the system of individual mental experience?
This chapter will consider a psychological model that describes the composition and structure of mental experience (Fig. 10).
Analysis of mental structures allows us to identify three levels (or layers) of experience, each of which has its own purpose.
- 1) Cognitive experience- these are mental structures that provide storage, ordering and transformation of available and incoming information, thereby contributing to the reproduction in the psyche of the cognitive subject of stable, natural aspects of his environment. Their main purpose is the rapid processing of current information about the current impact at different levels of cognitive reflection.
Rice. 10. A model of the psychological structure of intelligence, illustrating its features
structural organization from the point of view of the composition and structure of the subject’s mental experience
- 2) Metacognitive experience- these are mental structures that allow for involuntary and voluntary regulation intellectual activity. Their main purpose is to monitor the state of individual intellectual resources, as well as the processes of information processing.
- 3) Intentional experience- these are the mental structures that underlie individual intellectual tendencies. Their main purpose is the formation of subjective selection criteria regarding a specific subject area, the direction of searching for a solution, sources of information and methods of processing it, etc.
In turn, the features of the organization of cognitive, metacognitive and intentional experience determine the properties of individual intelligence (that is, specific manifestations of intellectual activity in the form of certain intellectual abilities that characterize the productivity and individual originality of the subject’s intellectual activity).
Thus, we can talk about the existence of a certain hierarchy of mental structures - at the level of cognitive, metacognitive and intentional experience. Depending on the characteristics of the composition and structure of these forms of experience, we can observe and measure convergent abilities (solving normative problems in regulated situations), divergent abilities (generating new ideas based on non-standard methods of activity), learning ability (ability to assimilate new knowledge and skills) and cognitive styles (ability for individually specific forms of cognitive reflection).
Accordingly, the assessment of individual intelligence should be approached while simultaneously taking into account four aspects of its work (taking into account the four horizontal levels of the presented model):
- how a person processes incoming information (level I),
- can he control the work of his intellect (level II),
- why exactly this and exactly this is what he thinks about (III level),
- how he uses his intelligence (IV level).
Psychological characteristics of the organization of each of the three layers of mental experience are presented in the following sections of this chapter.
4.2. Features of the organization of cognitive experience
The mental structures that form the composition of cognitive experience include: archetypal structures, ways of encoding information, cognitive schemes, semantic structures and finally conceptual structures as a result of the integration of the above basic information processing mechanisms.
4.2.1. Archetypal structures
Archetypal structures are forms of cognitive experience that are transmitted to the subject through genetic and/or social inheritance and characterize certain aspects of life associated with a person’s lifestyle as a tribal being. universal effects information processing. Most children use their fingers when learning to count, almost everyone has a special perception of the night (darkness), almost everyone perceives the circle as a symbol of goodness and peace, etc.
In scientific literature, pre-experimental forms of individual experience of this kind are designated using concepts such as “a priori categories” (I. Kant), “irrational experience” (Fr. Schelling), “archetypes of the collective unconscious” (G. Jung), etc. . Psychologically, the archetypal structures of mental experience are practically unexplored. Due to the lack of factual material, this component of human cognitive experience is not considered in the monograph, although it is designated in the model as one of the components in the structure of individual intelligence.
4.2.2. Methods of encoding information
Methods of encoding information are the subjective means by which a developing human individual represents (displays) the world around him in his experience and which he uses to organize this experience for future behavior.
Psychological research into methods of encoding information, as noted above, was first undertaken by J. Bruner (Bruner, 1971; 1977). Bruner talked about the existence of three main ways of subjectively representing the world: in the form of actions, visual images and linguistic signs. Each of the three ways of encoding information - effective, figurative and symbolic - reflects events in its own special way. Each of them leaves a strong imprint on the mental life of a child at different ages. However, even in the intellectual life of an adult, the interaction of these three methods of encoding information remains, constituting, according to Bruner, one of its main features.
The development of intelligence occurs as one masters these three forms of information representation, which can partially transform into one another. For a preschooler, the leading role in his intellectual life is played by the experience of practical interaction with objects. This experience is subsequently transferred to the level of visual representations, also directing the child’s verbal and speech development. Entering school gives a powerful impetus to the development of the verbal-sign way of displaying the world, and then language, thanks to its specific properties, such as categoricality, hierarchy, causality, combinatorics, contextuality, etc., radically rebuilds and enriches the effective-practical and figurative student experience.
The trouble is that traditional teaching, turning words (signs, symbols) into almost the only means of intellectual communication with a child, thereby ignores the key importance of two other ways of accumulating knowledge about the world that are equally important for the development of children’s intellectual capabilities - through action and image. However, without the connection and appropriate organization of the effective (and, therefore, sensory-sensory), as well as visual-spatial
In the child's experience, the full assimilation of signs and symbols (including mastery of the content of concepts) becomes difficult. Language “codes” work in vain, affecting only the superficial layers of the child’s ideas about the world.
Thus, it can be assumed that in the structure of mature intelligence, information processing simultaneously occurs in at least a system of three main modalities of experience: 1) through a sign (verbal-speech method of encoding information); 2) through an image (visual-spatial method of encoding information); 3) through a sensory impression with dominance of tactile-tactile sensations (sensory-sensory method of encoding information). In short, when we understand something, we define it verbally, see it mentally, and feel it.
A similar idea that the work of thought is ensured by three “languages” of information processing - sign-verbal, figurative-spatial and tactile-kinesthetic - was repeatedly expressed by L.M. Wekker (Wekker, 1976; 1981).
Accordingly, the development of intelligence presupposes the development of the ability to carry out reversible translations from one “language” of information representation to another. Note that this process obeys certain laws.
One of the first to draw attention to this circumstance was D.N. Uznadze in his studies of the psychological foundations of naming. He came to the conclusion that the process of linking a word and an object has a natural character. The mediator in this case is a certain “general impression”, which includes a variety of sensory, emotional and semantic associations. The basis of the name, therefore, turns out to be some special “...state that the subjects imagine with more or less certainty, or, finally, “experience” without any conscious certainty. What this state represents is another question.. ... let's just say that the fact of its existence, according to our experiments, must be considered an indisputable truth" (Uznadze, 1966, p. 23).
Let's try a little experiment. You are offered two words from a language unfamiliar to you, denoting some objects: one of them is “mamlyna”, the other is “jacareg”. Below (see Fig. 11) are images of these objects. Tell me, which one is “mamlyna” and which one is “jacareg”?
Rice. eleven. Image of "mamlina" and "jakarega"
Isn’t it true that you made your choice with amazing confidence, associating a certain word with a certain image? Now write down from the list of adjectives those characteristics that are characteristic of “mamlyna” and those that are characteristic of “jacareg”: hard, calm, heavy, anxious, soft, slow, strong, warm, harmless, wet, hard, smooth, fast, easy, scary, quiet, cold, shiny, elastic, loud, weak, prickly, dull, dry. Apparently, at the sensory level, your assessments were taken for granted. It is characteristic that different people the resulting lists are almost identical.
What's going on? In this case, we observe an amazing phenomenon: the features of the sign-sound structure of a word are naturally projected both on the level of visual-spatial representations and on the level of sensory impressions.
Finally, one more important note. The work of the intellect of most people (both children and adults), apparently, is characterized by the predominance of one or another method of encoding information. On this basis, individually unique styles of information encoding develop, which, in turn, manifests itself in selective success on verbal or nonverbal intelligence tests, specific forms of creativity, different rates of learning depending on the content of the material being learned, and subsequently in the formation of the individual mind. (then we talk about “logicians”, “artists”, “romantics”, etc.).
4.2.3. Cognitive schemas
The next structural component of cognitive experience is cognitive schemas. A cognitive schema is a generalized and stereotyped form of storing past experience in relation to a strictly defined subject area (a familiar object, a known situation, a familiar sequence of events, etc.). Cognitive schemas are thus responsible for receiving, collecting and transforming information in accordance with the requirement to reproduce stable, normal, typical characteristics of what is happening (including prototypes, anticipatory schemas, cognitive maps, frames, scenarios, etc.).
Let us take, in particular, such a cognitive scheme as a prototype. The prototype is cognitive structure, which reproduces a typical example of a given class of objects or an example of a particular category. Thus, studies have shown that for the majority of subjects the most typical example for the category “furniture” is “chair”, and the least typical example is “telephone”; for the category “fruit” - “orange” and “fruit puree”, respectively; for the category “transport” - “car” and “elevator”, respectively (Rosch, 1973; 1978).
Thus, a prototype is a generalized visual representation that reproduces a set of general and detailed features of a typical object and which acts as a basis for identifying any new impression or concept.
Let's look at how the prototype works in the following simple case. Everyone, of course, knows what a “bird” is. In one of the studies, subjects were asked to answer the question - who is more of a “bird”: a sparrow, an eagle or a goose? Overwhelming
Some of the subjects agreed almost instantly with the statement that “a sparrow is a bird,” a little more slowly with the statement that “an eagle is a bird,” and even more slowly with the statement that “a goose is a bird.” There is no doubt that to the statement “an ostrich is a bird,” an answer in the form of agreement would follow after an even longer pause.
What do these results say? About the existence in the structure of human mental experience of a cognitive scheme of a “typical bird”, and the prototype of a bird (its most striking, obvious example), judging by these data, is the formotype of a sparrow, to which ideas about other birds are adjusted. Let us add that the cognitive schema of "bird" seems to assume that it is something sitting on a branch ("a typical bird in a typical situation"). Therefore, it is not surprising that not only children, but also many adults do not consider the penguin to be a bird.
J. Bruner had in mind the prototypical effects of organizing intellectual activity when he introduced the term “focus.” “Focus” is an example of a concept in the form of a schematized image that a person solving a particular problem uses as a starting point. In his opinion, the use of such “focus examples” in the formation of concepts (focus examples can be both positive and negative) is one of the most direct and simple ways to reduce memory overload and logical thinking. Bruner talked about two types of focus examples: first, about “species examples” in relation to specific concepts (for example, a typical orange has a typical color, size, shape, smell, etc.) and, secondly, about “generic examples” in relation to general generic categories (say, in the form of a typical schematized image of the principle of action of a lever or the image of a typical triangle).
What will be perceived and what will be the primary interpretation of what is perceived is determined, in particular, by such a variety of cognitive schemes as frames (Minsky, 1979). A frame is a form of storing stereotypical knowledge about a certain class of situations: its “frame” characterizes stable, always existing relationships between the elements of the situation, and the “nodes” (or “slots”) of this frame characterize the variable details of a given situation.
When extracting an existing frame, it is quickly brought into line with the characteristics of the situation by filling in its “nodes” (for example, the frame of a living room has some unified frame in the form of a generalized idea of a living room in general, the nodes of which are every time a person perceives a living room or thinks about may be filled with new information). According to Minsky, if we say about a person that he is smart, this means that he has the ability to extremely quickly choose the most appropriate frame in the circumstances.
In the conditions of real intellectual activity, the entire set of available cognitive schemes works simultaneously: individual perceptual schemes of varying degrees of generalization turn out to be “built-in” one into another (“pupil” is a sub-scheme of the “eye”, “eye”, in turn, is a sub-scheme built into the scheme “faces”, etc.), prototypes act as components of frames, frames participate in the formation of scenarios, etc.
The area in which ignoring cognitive schemas has perhaps the most dramatic consequences is in the learning process. The essence of this problem was clearly defined by P.Ya. Galperin. According to him, "...all acquisitions
in the process of learning can be divided into two unequal parts. One consists of new general schemes of things, which determine their new vision and new thinking about them, the other - specific facts and laws of the field being studied, specific material of science" (Galperin, 1969, p. 24). Only if in the educational process real conditions are created for “... the formation of those generalized schemes of reality that... become unifying schemes of individual actions, new structures of thinking,” we can say that this is the type of teaching in which the acquisition of knowledge occurs along with the intellectual development of students (ibid.).
It is important for us to emphasize the point that if the necessary cognitive scheme is completely absent or it is inadequate, then full assimilation of the corresponding concept is impossible due to the error of classifying a specific object into a category. Thus, evidence of the insufficient formation of the mathematical concept of “figure” is the fact that the child calls objects of the type or “figure” and just as confidently refuses to consider objects of the type or “figure”
Perhaps one of the most difficult aspects of the study of cognitive schemas is the question of the characteristics of their mental material. U. Neisser believes that in terms of their material, cognitive schemes are generalized visual formations that arise as a result of the integration of visual, auditory and tactile-tactile impressions (Neisser, 1980). It is likely that in the formation of cognitive schemes, along with these basic sensory modalities, the verbal-speech modality of experience also participates.
An attempt to correlate the level of development of individual intellectual capabilities with the characteristics of cognitive schemes can be found in the works of various authors. The most radical in assessing the role of cognitive schemes is perhaps W. Neisser. He believes that “those types of information for which we do not have schemas, we simply do not perceive” (Neisser, 1981, p. 105). Of interest is the idea of M. Minsky that individual differences in intelligence are determined by the measure of the richness of the set of available frames (Minsky, 1979).
An example of a synthesis of existing ideas about cognitive schemes in connection with the problem of individual intellectual capabilities is the theory of “constructive operators” by J. Pascual-Leon (Pascual-Leon, 1970; 1987). He distinguishes three types of schemes (structures of experience in which invariants of various situational interactions of a person with his environment are recorded): figurative (recognition of familiar objects and events), operational (rules for transforming information) and control (plans of action in a problem situation). In addition to schemes, Pascual-Leon identifies another cognitive mechanism - a system of operators, which is responsible for the actualization and functioning of schemes. Of particular importance among other operators is the so-called “M-operator”. The latter characterizes the level of “mental energy” of the subject, which manifests itself in the selective activation of a complex of cognitive schemes relevant for a given problem situation.
Accordingly, in the context of this theory, in order to assess individual intelligence, it is important to know what repertoire of schemas a person owns and how many relevant schemas can be updated at a given time, taking into account the requirements of the situation. It is this aspect of mental experience, according to this author, that determines individual intellectual capabilities and is the main criterion for the level of intellectual development.
4.2.4. Semantic structures
Another component of cognitive experience, according to my model, is semantic structures. In the process of interaction with his environment, a person develops a special mechanism for reflecting reality - an individual system of meanings. All the elements of the world that a person at one time directly encountered, which he was told about and which he ever thought about himself, begin to mean something to him: a person knows the meaning of things, gestures, words, events, etc.
This kind of knowledge can be either illusory, or insufficient, or fully correspond to the essence of what is happening. It can be explicit, conscious (explicit knowledge), or hidden, unconscious (implicit knowledge).
Thus, semantic structures are an individual system of meanings that characterizes the meaningful structure of individual intelligence. Thanks to these mental formations, knowledge, being represented in the mental experience of a particular person in a specifically organized form, has active influence on his intellectual behavior.
In a number of studies, it has been shown that an individual system of meanings at the level of verbal and non-verbal semantic structures reveals itself under experimental conditions in the form of stable verbal associations, “semantic fields”, “verbal networks”, “semantic or categorical spaces”, “semantic perceptual universals" etc.
Initially, the main source of information about semantic structures were experiments studying the characteristics of the acquisition and use of words in natural language. At the same time, essentially the same question was discussed in different variations: how a person understands the meaning of a word and how he establishes connections between different words.
Semantic structures made their existence known already in the simplest associative experiments, in which the subject had to respond to a word named by the experimenter with the first other word that came to his mind. It turned out that verbal associative reactions have a natural character, as evidenced by the indicators of the frequency of verbal reactions. For example, the overwhelming majority of subjects responded to the word “chair” with the word “table”, to the word “white” - “snow”, to the word “lamp” - “light”, etc.
Subsequently, connections between words were studied. And again, evidence of the regular nature of interword relationships was obtained. Thus, in the study of A.R. Luria and O.S. Vinogradova's subjects, after being reinforced by an electric shock with the word "violin", gave an involuntary defensive reaction (in the form of a narrowing of the blood vessels in the fingers and on the forehead) to the words "violinist", "bow", "string", "mandolin" and an indicative reaction (in the form of a narrowing vessels in the fingers and dilation of blood vessels on the forehead) to words denoting non-stringed musical instruments (“drum”), as well as words somehow related to music (“chord”, “concert”, “sonata”). There were no reactions to neutral words (“paperclip”) in normal adult subjects (Luria and Vinogradova, 1971). We emphasize that this experiment demonstrated not only the presence of certain semantic structures in the form of “semantic fields” with the emphasis in the latter
“semantic core” and “semantic periphery”, but also the fact that the subjects themselves were not aware of such obvious and stable interword connections.
Surprisingly demonstrative confirmation of the fact of the existence of semantic structures are the results obtained in experiments using hypnosis. Thus, if a subject in a hypnotic state was instilled with a ban on seeing a certain object, then when leaving this state the subject “did not see” other objects semantically associated with it. For example, if the subject was told that he would not see cigarettes, then he would not notice an ashtray with cigarette butts, matches, etc. Moreover, he did not understand what exactly he was seeing (if there was a lighter in front of him), and could not explain the meaning of the word “smoke” (Petrenko, 1988).
The use of complex methods of mathematical data processing in studies of long-term semantic memory (in particular, multidimensional scaling methods and cluster analysis methods) made it possible to talk about the existence of “semantic spaces”, since it turned out that a certain set of words are located in individual mental experience at a certain distance from each other .
In Fig. Figure 12 presents the existing formally visual means of describing semantic structures - in the form of “verbal networks” (a) and “semantic spaces” (b).
Rice. 12. Formal means of describing semantic structures: “verbal network” (a)
and "semantic space" (b)
The principle of organization and functioning of the “verbal network” is such that the activation of the main word (element “O”) leads to simultaneous, sequential or selective actualization of other elements of this verbal network. In turn, “semantic space” makes it possible to assess the nature of the placement of word meanings in a person’s mental experience, depending on the degree of their meaningful proximity with respect to features A and B. (For more detail on the procedure for constructing semantic spaces, see: Petrenko, 1988.)
Further research showed that the semantic structure of a word (as it is represented in human mental experience) is “stratified” into two components:
1) objective meaning - indicating the direct or indirect correlation of the word with certain objects or phenomena of reality; 2) evaluative-affective meaning - expressing a person’s attitude, his emotions and sensory impressions regarding the content fixed in a given word.
C. Osgood conducted a series of experiments in which subjects had to evaluate words using various emotional-evaluative features. Analysis of the results of this experiment allowed us to conclude that the organization of affective (connotative) meanings is subject to the action of three such universal factors as evaluation (represented by the signs “good - bad”, “joyful - sad”, “beautiful - ugly”, etc. .), strength ("brave - cowardly", "hard - soft", "strong - weak", etc.) and activity ("hot - cold", "tense - relaxed", "fast - slow", etc. .p.) (Osgood, 1980).
The most striking thing in these studies was, perhaps, that these three factors were found in groups of subjects that differed in age, professional status, and even in belonging to different cultures.
Subsequently, similar experiments were carried out by E.Yu. Artemyeva. She asked subjects to describe contour images, using polar features similar to Charles Osgood’s scales (light - heavy, kind - evil, etc.) (Artemyeva, 1980; 1999). According to Artemyeva, each image evokes in the subjects a fairly stable complex of direct sensory and emotional-evaluative impressions (Fig. 13).
Rice. 13. Contour images and corresponding sensory and emotional-evaluative impressions according to E.Yu. Artemyeva (Artemyeva, 1980)
According to Artemyeva, these facts indicate the existence of mechanisms that naturally “package” the experience of human interaction with the world into some special structures, which she called “semantic-perceptual universals.” With the help of special methodological means, it is possible “... to expand the classification of the world, folded in the structures of our subjective experience, which is final for each specific task” (Artemyeva, 1980, p. 44).
So, we can talk about certain structural patterns of organization of an individual system of meanings both at the level of verbal and at the level of non-verbal semantics. It is important, further, to emphasize the dual nature of the organization
semantic structures: their content, on the one hand, is invariant with respect to the intellectual behavior of different people in different situations and, on the other hand, is extremely individualized and variable due to the saturation of subjective impressions, associations and rules of interpretation.
Apparently, we can completely agree with the point of view expressed at one time by C. Cofer and D. Foley that the characteristics of the process of transition from one meaning of words to another are an important determinant of intellectual activity and, accordingly, can serve as a measure of intelligence (quoted from: Ushakova, 1979). Let us also note that the formation of semantic structures (in particular, in the form of features of the organization of subject-specific knowledge in gifted children and highly qualified specialists) is considered as key factor, influencing the success of intellectual functioning (Chi, 1981; 1983; Glaser, 1984).
4.2.5. Conceptual mental structures
Conceptual mental structures are integral cognitive structures, the design features of which are characterized by inclusion different ways coding of information, the representation of visual schemes of varying degrees of generalization and the hierarchical nature of the organization of semantic features.
Many researchers recognized the special role of conceptual thinking in the structure of intelligence, considering the ability for conceptual reflection as the highest stage of intellectual development (as a rule, dating it to adolescence), and conceptual thought as one of the most effective cognitive tools.
In particular, the following questions are of interest: 1) why exactly the formation of concepts acts as a prerequisite highest form intellectual activity characterized by maximum resolution capabilities? 2) for what reasons does conceptual cognition, being abstract, abstract-logical, categorical in its essence, nevertheless have an objective character and, moreover, turns out to be “closer to the object” than any other cognitive act? 3) what is the specificity of conceptual generalization and, in particular, how in conceptual generalizations does the wealth of the individual not fade away, but, on the contrary, is preserved and increased?
Answers to these questions, apparently, should be sought in the peculiarities of the organization of conceptual structures (see for more details: Wekker, 1976; Kholodnaya, 1983).
The concept of mental experience by M. A. Kholodnaya
In Russian psychology there are not too many original concepts of intelligence as a general ability. One of these concepts is the theory of M.A. Kholodnaya, developed within the framework of the cognitive approach (Fig. 12).
The essence of the cognitive approach is the reduction of intelligence to the properties of individual cognitive processes. Less known is another direction, which reduces intelligence to the characteristics of individual experience (Fig. 13).
It follows that psychometric intelligence is a kind of epiphenomenon of mental experience, which reflects the properties of the structure of individual and acquired knowledge and cognitive operations (or “products” - units of “knowledge - operation”). Beyond explanation remain following problems: 1) what is the role of genotype and environment in determining the structure of individual experience; 2) what are the criteria for comparing the intelligence of different people; 3) how to explain individual differences in intellectual achievements and how to predict these achievements.
M.A. Kholodnaya’s definition is as follows: intelligence, by its ontological status, is a special form of organization of individual mental (mental) experience in the form of existing mental structures, the mental space they predict, and the mental representations of what is happening within this space.
In the structure of intelligence M.A. Kholodnaya includes the substructures of cognitive experience, metacognitive experience and a group of intellectual abilities.
In my opinion, metacognitive experience has a clear relation to regulatory system psyche, and intentional - to the motivational system.
Paradoxical as it may seem, almost all supporters of the cognitive approach to intelligence expand the theory of intelligence by involving extra-intellectual components (regulation, attention, motivation, “metacognition”, etc.). Sternberg and Gardner follow this path. M.A. Kholodnaya argues similarly: one aspect of the psyche cannot be considered in isolation from others, without indicating the nature of the connection. The structure of cognitive experience includes methods of encoding information, conceptual mental structures, “archetypal” and semantic structures.
As for the structure of intellectual abilities, it includes: 1) convergent ability - intelligence in the narrow sense of the term (level properties, combinatorial and procedural properties); 2) creativity (fluency, originality, receptivity, metaphor); 3) learning ability (implicit, explicit) and additionally 4) cognitive styles (cognitive, intellectual, epistemological).
The most controversial issue is the inclusion of cognitive styles in the structure of intellectual abilities.
The concept of “cognitive style” characterizes individual differences in the way of obtaining, processing and applying information. Kh. A. Vitkin, the founder of the concept of cognitive styles, specifically tried to formulate criteria separating cognitive style and abilities. In particular: 1) cognitive style is procedural characteristic, not effective; 2) cognitive style is a bipolar property, and abilities are unipolar; 3) cognitive style – a characteristic stable over time, manifested at all levels (from sensory to thinking); 4) value judgments are not applicable to style; representatives of each style have an advantage in certain situations.
The list of cognitive styles identified by various researchers is extremely long. Kholodnaya lists ten: 1) field dependence – field independence; 2) impulsiveness – reflexivity; 3) rigidity – flexibility of cognitive control; 4) narrowness – breadth of the equivalence range; 5) width of categories; 6) tolerance to unrealistic experience; 7) cognitive simplicity – cognitive complexity; 8) narrowness – scanning width; 9) concrete – abstract conceptualization; 10) smoothing – sharpening differences.
Without going into the characteristics of each cognitive style, I will note that field independence, reflexivity, breadth of the equivalence range, cognitive complexity, scanning breadth and abstractness of conceptualization significantly and positively correlate with the level of intelligence (according to the tests of D. Raven and R. Cattell), and field independence and tolerance to unrealistic experience are associated with creativity.
Let us consider here only the most common characteristic “field-dependence-field-independence”. Field dependence was first identified in Vitkin's experiments in 1954. He studied the influence of visual and proprioceptive stimuli on a person’s orientation in space (the subject maintaining his vertical position). The subject sat in a darkened room in a chair. He was presented with a luminous rod inside a luminous frame on the wall of the room. The rod deviated from the vertical. The frame changed its position independently of the rod, deviating from the vertical, along with the room inside which the subject was sitting. The subject had to bring the rod into a vertical position using the handle, using either visual or proprioceptive sensations about the degree of his deviation from the vertical during orientation. Subjects who relied on proprioceptive sensations determined the position of the rod more accurately. This cognitive feature was called field independence.
Then Vitkin discovered that field independence determines the success of isolating a figure from a holistic image. Field independence correlates with the level of nonverbal intelligence according to D. Wexler.
Later, Vitkin came to the conclusion that the characteristic “field dependence–field independence” is a manifestation in perception of a more general property, namely “psychological differentiation.” Psychological differentiation characterizes the degree of clarity, dissection, distinctness of the subject’s reflection of reality and manifests itself in four main areas: 1) the ability to structure the visible field; 2) differentiation of the image of one’s physical “I”; 3) autonomy in interpersonal communication; 4) the presence of specialized mechanisms of personal protection and control of motor and affective activity.
To diagnose “field dependence-field independence,” Vitkin proposed using Gottschald’s “Embedded Figures” test (1926), converting black and white pictures into color ones. In total, the test includes 24 samples with two cards each. One card has a complex figure, the other a simple one. Each presentation takes 5 minutes. The subject must detect simple figures in the structure of complex ones as quickly as possible. The indicator is the average time to detect figures and the number of correct answers.
It is easy to see that the “bipolarity” of the “field dependence-field independence” construct is nothing more than a myth: the test is a typical achievement test and is similar to the subtests of perceptual intelligence (Thurstone’s P factor).
It is no coincidence that field independence has high positive correlations with other properties of intelligence: 1) indicators of non-verbal intelligence; 2) flexibility of thinking; 3) higher learning ability; 4) success in solving problems of intelligence (factor “adaptive flexibility” according to J. Guilford); 5) the success of using an object in an unexpected way (Dunker tasks); 6) ease of changing settings when solving Lachins problems (plasticity); 7) the success of restructuring and reorganizing the text.
Field independents learn well when they are internally motivated to learn. Information about errors is important for their successful learning.
Field dependents are more sociable.
There are many more prerequisites for considering “field dependence-field independence” as one of the manifestations of general intelligence in the perceptual-imaginative sphere.
The cognitive approach, contrary to its name, leads to an expansive interpretation of the concept of “intelligence.” Various researchers include numerous additional external factors into the system of intellectual (cognitive in nature) abilities.
The paradox is that the strategy of adherents of the cognitive approach leads to the identification of functional and correlational connections with other (extra-cognitive) properties of the individual’s psyche and ultimately serves to multiply the original subject content of the concept of “intelligence” as a general cognitive ability.
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From the book of 100 objections. business and sales author Frantsev EvgeniyThesis
Degteva, Tatyana Alekseevna
Academic degree:
Candidate of Psychological Sciences
Place of thesis defense:
HAC specialty code:
Speciality:
General psychology, personality psychology, history of psychology
Number of pages:
Chapter 1. ORGANIZATION OF MENTAL EXPERIENCE AS A PROBLEM OF GENERAL AND COGNITIVE PSYCHOLOGY.
1.1. The main approaches to the problem of organization interfered
HOIO oppa in psychology.
1.2. The role of cognitive mental cipyKiyp in opianimation individual mixed with oppa.
1.3. Mental represenation as a natural tea
Iive mental cipyKiyp.
Chapter 2. ORGANIZATION AND METHODS OF RESEARCH.
2.1. Characteristics of the investigated ruins and paws of the iKCiiepn-meshal research.
2.2. Me Iodes of studying students' mental representations.
2.3. Methods for studying the development of koipiiivnyh mental structures among students of various professions.
Chapter 3. EXPERIMENTAL STUDY OF THE INFLUENCE OF COGNITIVE MENTAL STRUCTURES ON AN ORGANIZATION
MENTAL EXPERIENCE OF SCHOOLCHILDREN.
3.1. Gender-fast and individual special! and cognitive psychic structures and mental repercussions.
3.2. Koshshivnye mental cipyKiypw in the mental experience of schoolchildren.
3.3. Analysis of the research results.
Introduction of the dissertation (part of the abstract) On the topic "Cognitive mental structures as a factor in the organization of individual mental experience"
Current research. The intellectual potential of the youth is the most important condition for the development of the whole. The key trend of modern times is the growing need for subjects to “learn to learn,” which presupposes an expansion of individual learning.
A person’s perception of reality and its effect on it are determined by individual mental experience, based on copious mental structures. In this regard, the problem of the exchange organization of cognitive mental processes and interference in general becomes one of the central issues in psychology. At the present time, it has become important to unravel the general, whole functioning of the interfering system and identify the specificity and originality of the development of specific koi pIive mental cTpyKiyp in age and individual plans.
The organization of mental experience as a subject of scientific research appears as a set of imaginary problems that find expression in the literature of domestic and foreign specialists in the region.
NITIVE PSYCHOLOGY, PERSONALITY PSYCHOLOGY AND AGED G1SIKH0L01 ii.
In an extensive array of koi nor iivnyh research, the problem of orishization of mental interference is presented in approaches to the study of individual mental processes and crpyKiyp: memory (L.L. Smirnov, L.R. L>ria, P.P. Blonsky); thinking (J. Piaget, B. Inelder, I.S. Yakimanskaya, E.D. Khomskaya, M.A. Kholodnaya, etc.); attention (F.N. Gonobolin, V.I. Sakharov. N.S. Leytes. P.Ya. Galierin).
The main directions of modern empirical research on cognitive structures in men's schools are:
Description of integral simitomocomylexes and the cochi-tive structures included in them (E.A. Golubeva, I.V. Ravich-PDerbo, S.A. Izyumova,
T.A.Rataiova, N.I. Chuprikova, M.K. Kabardov, P.V. Artsishevskaya, M.L. Matova);
Identifying individual differences in mental abilities and cognitive skills (II. Bailey, J. Block, K. Warner, G.L. Berulava),
Analysis of the level organization of mental functions and cognitive functions (B.G. Ananyev, J. Piaget, J. G. Mead, X. Werper, D.H. Flavell, M.A. Kholodnaya, V.D. Shadrikov);
Studying the dynamics of children's cat mental processes during specially organized training (J. Bruner, J.I.B. Zankov, D.B. Elkonin, V.V. Davydov);
Determining the influence of moshvation on successful information assimilation (JI.M. Bozhovich, A.K. Markova, M.V. Manokhina);
Identification of the conditions for the development of coschitative abilities (A.-P. Pere-Clermeau, G. Muny, U. Duaz, A. Brossard, Ya.A. Ponomarev, Z.I. Kalmykova, P.F. Galyshna, P.II. Kabanova- Meller, II.A. Menchinskaya, A.M. Maposhkin, E.A. Golubeva, V.N. Druzhinin, I.V. Ravich-Shcherbo, S.A. Inomova, G.A. Paia-nova, II.I. Chunrikova , G.I. Shevchenko, O.V. Solovyova).
The first cognitive process, in the middle of the year, a person has replenished! individual mental experience, receiving information from the external and internal environment, is a sensation. On the basis of sensations, she develops more holistic and more complex, cognitive psychic structures that are futuristic in nature. V.D. Shadrikov c4Hiaei, separate types of perception can have corresponding analogues in other swaying processes (auditory, physical, tactile, for example, in auditory, visual memory, imaginative thinking, etc.).
Despite the fairly wide range of problems of mental organization of intelligence in scientific research, follow! It should be noted that the problem of the relationship between interfering oppa and koi nor i ive mental cipyKiyp on the modal principle remains poorly studied. The actuality of this problem is due to the increased need for individualization and differentiation of personality development, taking into account the special koi nitive mental structures.
The problem of the research is to identify the main ideas of the relationship between the metallic system and koi nitive mental cipyKiyp.
The purpose of the study is to study the places of metal repression in any mental structures that provide individual description of the interfering subject.
Object of study: metallic group of students of different sexual groups I pyrin, who are concerned about the level and modal organization of developed mental structures.
Subject of research: the influence of metal re-resetations on the sexually fast dynamics of the development of cognitive mental cipyKiyp during the school period on ioi sps ga.
Research hypotheses
1. The interrelation of cognitive mental cipyKiyp and metal representations, which are the operational form of metal cipyKiyp, determines the effectiveness of intellectual activity.
2. Individual principles of coding information in the experiment are determined by mental representations.
3. The basis of gender and age differences in the intellectual activity of schoolchildren is the way of organizing koi nitive cipyKiyp according to the principle of modality (auditory, visual, cinematic).
Research objectives:
1. Based on the analysis of the concepts of cat psycholism, develop a conceptual apparatus for studying the relationship between the interfering experience, niche mental structures and mental representations.
2. Conduct a differential psychological analysis of schoolchildren, highlighting: persons with various problems of the leading representative system, metal represen- tation and development of copious mental cipyniyp; forms of or!apization of schoolchildren's individual mesh on a modal basis, designating gender and age specific features and.
3. Experimentally study the system of organization of individual mental experience and give a description of individual systems of its opia-nization according to sensory type.
4. OxapaKi erizova n, the relationship between the ihiiom of metal representation (modal cipyKiypofi of perception, comprehension, processing of information and explanation of what is happening), the dynamics of developing K01ni1ive mental structures and the peculiarities of the organization of individual mental experience of schoolchildren.
5. Based on the results of the study, develop a package of recommendations for taking into account the individual characteristics of organizing the mixed experience of schoolchildren in the learning process, normalizing academic and academic workloads in secondary school, and establishing a system for selecting gifted children.
6. The methodological basis of the study was: the principle of a systemic-activity approach to the study of mental phenomena (L.S. Vygotsky, 1957, S.JI. Rubinpayne, 1946, II.L. Leosh-ev, 1960, B.G. Ananyev, 1968 );
The principle of differentiation of cognitive structures in mental development (P.I. Chuprikova, 1995); the principle of dependent mental stimulation of the organic substrate, ensuring the implementation of mental stimulation developed in “ activity physiology" ON THE. Bernppein, theories of functional systems by P.K. Anokhin, geology of the systemic organization of higher cortical functions A.R. Luria; the principle of constructing the psyche, mind and mind as a hierarchically organized whole (C.J.I. Rubinpain, 1946, M.A. Kholodnaya, 1996). principle integrated approach, which involves the study of specific coschitative mental structures of the same people using the method of deep cuts and losha and submeasures at the ipex levels - the individual, the subject of activity and personal (B.G. Ananyev, 1977, V.D. Shadrikov, 2001); the principle of the unity of theory - experiment - prakshka (Lomov B.F., 1975, 1984, Zabrodin Yu.M., 1982), concretized when applied to research problems as the principle of the unity of the psychological theory of isch-lek1a, mental oppa and coschistic mental cipyKiyp , their experimental research and use of the resulting fayuic Maie-rial in general educational practice.
To solve the problems and check the starting points, the following methods were used: theoretical (analysis and generalization of experiments, abrasive analysis, modeling), empirical (observation, survey, praximetric method, experimentation); statistical methods (quantitative and qualitative processing of materials using mathematical methods, psychological measurement, multiple comparison).
The study was carried out in the period of study and included 1ri >iana: On the nervous dad (2000-2001 p.) the iichxojioi, social, pedagogical, methodological lyepaiypa began on the research problem, the state of the 1oregical explanation of the principles and models of the system of organizing mental opp in domestic and foreign psychology. The research framework was developed, the content and forms of experimental work were determined. At this stage (ascertaining experiment), individual indicators of students’ belonging to various sensory types were determined: visual, auditory, kinesthetic, and the presence of a relationship between the sensory type and age dynamics in each age group was revealed.
At the last 3iane-zsperimesh (2001-2002), criteria and indicators of students’ affiliation to various sensory skills were determined and studied, and the formation of a sample of students was identified; indicators of the levels of development of the main parameters of the cognitive mental cipyKiyp were identified: the level of intellect; figurative and verbal-logical thinking; adaptable and switchable attention; figurative and verbal-logical memory. The presence of a relationship between the sensory type and the level of development of cognitive mental structures of students in each gender and age group was also determined.
At ipeibCM 3iane (2002-2006), work was carried out to identify and describe the individual sfakmiya organization of mental experience of students with a low level of development of cat mental structures: intelligence; figurative and verbal-logical thinking; stability and switchable attention; figurative and verbal-logical memory.
In 2006, a new diagnostic of the level of development of koi-native mental cipyKiyp was carried out for the purpose of changing individual cipareiHH in the system of organizing mental experience in schoolchildren characterized by low levels of successful intellectual activity. A package of recommendations was developed for specialists working with students in schools but taking into account the individual peculiarities of the organization of the interfering experience of schoolchildren in the learning process, normalizing intellectual and educational loads in secondary school, and establishing a system for selecting gifted children. The experimental work was completed, the research results were comprehended and presented in the form of a dissertation.
In total, 467 students took part in the longitudinal experimental study, of which: at the first and junior Diane experiment 467 people, at the third stage - 60 students of 6th and 10th grades (as of 20011 they made up the contingent of 1st and 5th grades -x classes). At the last Diane Jsperimesh, schoolchildren took part who showed low levels of development of koi nitive mental structures and were classified as kinesyushki.
Scientific novelty pa6oibi consists of:
For the first time, the subject of practical research was the increasing and individual peculiarities of mental representation and its influence on the gender-age dynamics of the development of cognitive mental structures and their role in the system of organizing the individual hindrance of students during the period of school ontogenesis;
Increasing features of the represen- sical language of schoolchildren have been identified, which are associated with the predominance in military education and information processing of the kinesthetic modality in primary school age; in adolescence - auditory-visual with subsequent strengthening in adolescence of the visual modality;
Substantial differences in the wearing of metal represen- tation sutures were revealed, consisting of a predominance of the auditory-visual modality in girls compared to boys in primary school and adolescence, with the subsequent smoothing of these differences in adolescence;
The position about how, in adolescence, the individual mental experience has been consolidated on the basis of polymodality has been experimentally substantiated;
The possibility of increasing the effective cognitive activity of schoolchildren through the development of individual mental skills according to the principle of multimodality has been empirically substantiated.
Theoretical and significant!b works cociohi in um, chu lower than repre-zeptashvnyh chcicm, used mainly in psycho-yuhpics practical psychology analyzed in the final provisions of domestic and foreign smoke psychology. The study of individual and gender-adult characteristics of mental representation (modal structure of perception, comprehension, non-processing of information and explanation of what is happening) and the dynamics of development of cumulative mental structures complements the framework of the system of organization of individual mental oppa according to the modal parameter.
Practical meaningful! b research.
As a result of the experimental study, individual strategies of the system of organization with individual interference were identified, characteristic of students with different levels of development of mental mental structures
Strategies for “translating” information into the mental environment are described, demonstrating strong and weaknesses individual siayem ortanization of mental experience according to the principle of modality.
A package of recommendations has been developed for specialists working with students in schools, allowing them to take into account the individual characteristics and organization of the mixed experience of schoolchildren in the learning process, normalize intellectual and academic loads in secondary school, establishing a system for selecting gifted children. Faculty material presented in the study could be used in the development of lectures for students, teachers and psychologists.
Provisions made for the defense.
1. The mental representative system or modal structure of perception and processing of information during the school period of oshoyunesis is characterized by increased and individual characteristics, expressed in a stable preference for one of the sensory channels (visual, auditory or kinesthetic).
2. In students at all age stages, there is a connection between the level of development of cognitive mental structures and the predominance of the use of one leading channel of perception. The most significant connections are found as one advances in age, due to a decrease in the age factor and an increase in the individual factor.
3. The low level of development of catal mental systems at all ages is reliably associated with the predominance of the use of the kinesthetic channel of perception. The high level of development of catty mental cipyKiyp students is reliably associated with the predominance of the use of visual aids.
4. At the heart of the mental organization system lies! cathartic mental systems, the foundation of which, in turn, are mental representations (methods of encoding information). Consequently, a more successful organization of the individual experience according to the principle of the leading sensory modality is possible.
5. Expanding the individual mix of information, improving the quality of information received and organizing it is possible through the development of multimodality.
The reliability of the research results is ensured by the totality of theoretical and methodological provisions that make it possible to determine generally accepted scientific psychological and pedagogical approaches to the problem being sought; the use of methods that correspond to the concept of an individual approach to the study of personality, as well as an experimental test of the system for organizing individual mixing of sensory input with the presentation of strategies for “fanning” information into metal experience.
Approbation and implementation of the results of the research carried out in classes with students studying on the basis of MOUSOSH No. 18 in Stavropol. The main conclusions and provisions of the dissertation research were tested at scientific and practical conferences different levels: international (Moscow 2005, Stavropol 2006), re!IONal (Stavropol 2001,
Stavropol 2004), Universities (Stavropol 2004).
Publications. Based on the dissertation materials, published by 9 pa6oi. Cipyiciypa and the volume of the dissertation. Sosyu work! And? introduction, chapter ipex, conclusion, bibliography and appendices. The dissertation research is presented in 150 pages. The list of literature includes 1 150 studies.
Conclusion of the dissertation on the topic "General psychology, personality psychology, history of psychology", Dyogteva, Tatyana Alekseevna
The results of the data obtained both in the first and early stages of the experiment (200-2001 and 2001-2002), and based on the results of a long-term study, allow us to draw the following CONCLUSIONS:
1. During dissertation research scientific and theoretical analysis was carried out current state problems of studying the system and levels of organization of individual mental experience, which makes it possible to define mental experience as a system of available psychological formations and those initiated by them mental states underlying a person’s cognitive attitude to the world and determining the specific properties of his intellectual activity. Mental experience includes1 three levels: cognitive, metacognitive and intentional. The basic one is cognitive experience, based on methods of encoding information (mental representations) and cognitive mental structures (thinking, attention, memory). Mental representations directly depend on the leading representational system.
2. Differential psychodiagnostics schoolchildren made it possible to identify the following forms of organization of individual mental experience: kinesthetic, auditory, visual. Sexual dynamics of cognitive mental structures is manifested in the presence high performance levels of development of basic cognitive mental processes and structures (intelligence, attention, thinking, memory) in students of all age groups with a visual type of organization of mental experience, compared with kinesthetic students. For girls during primary school and adolescence Characteristic indicators for the development of koi-native mental structures are higher than in boys, and in adolescence these differences level out, which indicates a weakening of the individual factor and an increase in the age factor.
3. Individual strategies for organizing mental experience are based on a sensory type and include a number of operational stages: the stage of recognizing a sensory signal, creating a sensory image in the mind, comparing it with existing images in the metal weapon, preserving or if the sensory image does not coincide with the content of the image - recoding in another sensory modality, followed by its storage as a new image.
4. The type of mental representations is in relationship with cognitive mental structures and the peculiarities of the organization of individual mental experience according to the principle of modality.
5. Taking into account the peculiarities of the organization of individual mental experience in the educational process involves identifying: firstly, the types of mental representations and levels of development of cognitive mental structures (diagnosis) and secondly, the development of polymodal psychology (psychological support), which will allow us to normalize intellectual and educational loads separately taken student, as well as make a more correct selection of gifted students.
CONCLUSION
An analysis of scientific psychological and pedagogical literature on issues addressing the problem of identifying the main trends in the relationship between mental experience and cognitive mental structures during the period of school ontogenesis, studying the features of the development of channels of sensory perception, analyzing various typologies and classifications, forming the human cognitive sphere, describing holistic symptoms -plexes and their constituent cognitive groups; identifying individual differences in intellectual abilities and cognitive styles; allowed us to conclude that there is a direct connection between the level of development of cognitive mental structures, the specific modal structure of perception (mental representation) and the system of organization of individual mental experience, both according to gender and age, and also according to individual gender.
As a result of the experimental research, this assumption was confirmed, which made it possible, based on the results of psychological and pedagogical practice published in scientific publications, and the data of our own experimental research, to develop an algorithm for the direct receipt and “translation” of information into mental experience.
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The article presents the results of a study of the relationship between mental experience and divergent productivity. The purpose of the study is to identify the self-actualization structure as a personal-semantic disposition of subjects with high creative potential. The study involved 289 people (23% men, 77% women). The discovered reliable relationships and differences made it possible to clarify the significance of mental experience in the formation of the phenomenon of creativity. It is shown that the statistical rarity of an idea depends on the level of complexity of the conceptual system. In the absence of reliance on a visual stimulus, a high level of productivity is due to a more complex abstract-figurative categorization of the conceptual system, including symbolic-semantic constructs, a kind of conceptual language of non-verbal intelligence. In conditions of reliance on visual stimulus, a high level of productivity is due to big amount implicit associative connections between elements not included in the initial image of the problem situation.
metacognitive style
conceptual system
mental experience
divergent productivity
creativity
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The scientific desire to understand the nature and mechanisms of creative productivity is dictated by current problems of modern social life, one of which is the humanization of society, in the center of plans and concerns of which is a person with his potential and capabilities, as well as the conditions for their full disclosure and implementation.
One of the latest trends in modern psychological science, based on the works of humanistic psychologists (G. Allport, K. Rogers, A. Maslow, V. Frankl, etc.) and the classical works of Russian psychology (L.S. Vygotsky, A.V. Brushlinsky, S.L. Rubinshtein, B.G. Ananyev, A.N. Leontiev, V.N. Panferov), is the convergence of natural scientific and humanistic paradigms in the study of mental phenomena. As part of this rapprochement, the focus of scientific attention is focused on the personality and its psyche as a non-disjunctive unity.
In this vein, creativity as a mental phenomenon is a complex system formation (T.A. Barysheva), on the one hand, conditioned by the functionality of the operational system, on the other hand, by the conceptual system (worldview, personal meaning) as a necessary condition for adaptation in conditions of increasing complexity social environment. It is personal meaning that determines the life choice of ways to achieve a goal (V. Frankl), and, ultimately, determines the success of self-realization in life. life path(K.A. Abulkhanova, V.H. Manerov, E.Yu. Korzhova, etc.).
Purpose and hypothesis of the study. The purpose of the study is to identify the self-actualization structure as a personal-semantic disposition of subjects with high creative potential. The hypothesis assumed that the configuration of the structure of the personal-semantic disposition determines the characteristics of the conceptual system and the direction of self-actualization of the individual.
Research methods. The study used methods for assessing the level of divergent productivity: the “Nonverbal Creativity” subtest by E.P. Torrens; originality/stereotype scale of the “Pictograms” methodology by A.R. Luria - B.G. Kherson; methods for assessing mental experience: G. Eysenck’s intelligence test (allowing one to identify and evaluate “partial”, according to V.N. Druzhinin, intellectual factors: verbal, non-verbal, mathematical); “Included Figures” technique K.B. Gottschaldt; method “Establishing patterns” B.L. Pokrovsky.
Research results. At the first stage of the study, a correlation analysis of indicators of mental experience and divergent productivity was carried out, as a result of which statistically significant correlation coefficients between indicators were identified nonverbal intelligence And uniqueness drawing of the “Pictograms” technique (r = 0.243 at p ≤0.01), as well as between indicators development drawing and indicator logindependence(r = 0.226 at p ≤0.01). We also note that there were no significant correlation coefficients between indicators of mental experience and divergent productivity obtained under conditions of relying on a visual stimulus, that is, when performing the “Nonverbal Creativity” subtest by E.P. Torrens, not identified.
The presence of correlations when performing the task of the “Pictograms” technique, and at the same time its absence when performing the task of the Torrance technique, indicate that different cognitive structures are activated in the process of performing tasks. In the absence of reliance on a visual fragment of the image, as suggested by the “Pictogram” technique, the non-verbal component of conceptual representations is more activated. Moreover, the generation of a non-standard idea in the absence of clarity is due to a more complex differentiation and integration of individual conceptual schemes, since the construction of a “pictogram” is closest to the operation of defining a concept and revealing its meaning. According to A.R. Luria, the process of constructing an image is mental system concept coding. The main feature of the mental operation necessary to complete the task is that, on the one hand, the meaning of the word is always wider than the chosen image, on the other hand, the picture is also wider than the meaning of the word, the coincidence takes place only on a certain interval, the general semantic field of the concept and drawing. Revealing the meaning of a concept through an image, in particular with the help of an image, forces us to dwell at least briefly on the relationship between the verbal and figurative components in conceptual thinking. Moreover, in order to non-stereotypically express an abstract concept in a symbolic image, it is necessary to first highlight the quintessence of this concept, its basic essence, therefore, the image symbolically presented and expressed in the drawing will reflect both the personal meaning and the degree of differentiation and integration of the cognitive scheme. Thus, the statistical rarity of an idea when performing a task in the “Pictograms” technique is due to a more complex abstract-figurative categorization of the conceptual system, including symbolic-semantic constructs, a kind of conceptual language of non-verbal intelligence.
When performing a task with the initially specified stimulus frames of the E.P. subtest. Torrance, it is not semantic constructs that are activated to a greater extent, but associative connections between the elements of the image and its holistic representation, which is supported by non-verbal formal-figurative constructs of mental experience. Moreover, when relying on fragments of the image, statistically rare ideas were produced by those subjects who were able to mentally identify the implicit elements of the image and discover associative connections between constructs existing in mental experience. In other words, they were able to go beyond the influence of the stimulus and discover connections that were not included in the initial image of the problem situation, which is typical for a more complex abstract conceptual system. Thus, according to O. Harvey, D. Hunt and H. Schroder, the difference between “abstract” and “concrete” conceptual systems is manifested in the degree of “stimulus dependence” in which the responding individual is able or unable to go beyond its limits.
According to M.A. Cold, the increase in the conceptual complexity of the conceptual system is associated not only with an increase in the differentiation of concepts and connections between them, but also with the expansion of the mental-subjective space of possible combinatorial alternatives. Note that the last remark is true regarding operations with formal-figurative cognitive constructs when performing tasks of the Torrance subtest, the support base of which is the initial differentiation of explicit and implicit signs of an object and their connections. Implicit signs are not ignored by consciousness, as in the case of a specific conceptual system, but are implicitly contained in it, thereby providing variability in combinations of elements and newly emerging associations.
The results of data factorization (after rotation) are presented in Table 1.
Table 1
Factor matrix of divergent productivity and cognitive indicators
|
Indicators |
Factor 1 |
Factor 2 |
Factor 3 |
|
Uniqueness of the drawing using the “Pictogram” method (P.U.) |
|||
|
Originality of the drawing using the “Pictogram” method (P.O.) |
|||
|
Development of a drawing using the “Pictogram” method (P.R.) |
|||
|
The uniqueness of the drawing according to the Torrens method (T.W.) |
|||
|
Originality of the drawing using the Torrens method (T.O.) |
|||
|
Development of the drawing using the Torrens method. (T.R.) |
|||
|
Field independence (PNZ) |
|||
|
Associative thinking (A.M.) |
|||
|
Verbal Intelligence (V.I.) |
|||
|
Nonverbal intelligence (N.V.I.) |
|||
|
Mathematical Intelligence (M.I.) |
|||
|
Total Intelligence Quotient (IQ) |
|||
|
% total variance |
27,957 |
22,791 |
12,895 |
As can be seen from the table, all indicators of mental experience were included in the main factor with high positive loadings (with 27.95% of the total variance). Field independence(0,570), associative thinking (0,649), verbal intelligence (0,776), nonverbal intelligence (0,647), mathematical intelligence(0.783). Intelligence indicators turned out to be correlated, firstly, with the speed indicator of perception and the establishment of associative connections between abstract schemes ( associative thinking), secondly, with a high level of metacognitive control ( field independence), suggesting a high level of mental manipulation of perceptual constructs (discretion of a simple figure in a complex one). Thus, the main factor demonstrates the general abilities of the subjects and can be designated as convergent productivity.
The second factor, which explains 22.79% of the total variance, includes indicators of divergent productivity obtained using both methods, with high positive loadings - uniqueness pictograms (0.805), originality pictograms (0.725), uniqueness picture of the Torrance subtest (0.880), originality subtest drawing. This factor can be denoted as divergent productivity.
Note also that the metacognitive style is field independence, by definition acting as a mechanism of involuntary intellectual control, fell into the factor of general abilities. This is explained, first of all, by the fact that the method of identifying this cognitive style diagnoses to a greater extent the selectivity of attention, as well as such properties of thinking as analysis and synthesis. It should be noted that many researchers have come to the same conclusion: “cognitive style field dependence/field independence is not a style formation, but rather a manifestation of spatial abilities, fluid or general intelligence” (P. Vernon, T. Weideger, R. Knudson, L. Rover, F. McKenna, R. Jackson, J. Palmer and others).
The third factor includes the indicator development pictograms (0.818) and development picture of the Torrance subtest (0.831), which indicates autonomy this indicator regarding divergent productivity and mental experience. The resulting correlation between the indicator development drawing with an indicator of metacognitive style field independence(r = 0.226 at a significance level of p ≤0.01) indicates that in the process of manipulating perceptual schemes ( field independence) and by elaborating the architecture of the drawing, general cognitive structures are activated, which are responsible, for example, for: detailing, structuring the image, eye, which are necessary both in working with geometric diagrams and in the process of visual activity.
It should also be noted that the results of our study confirm the existence of a threshold of 115-120 IQ established by many authors (E.P. Torrens, A. Christiansen, K. Yamamoto, D. Hardgreaves, I. Boltoni, etc.), above which the test score intelligence and divergent productivity become independent factors, in other words, intellectual activity is a necessary but insufficient condition for the productivity of thinking.
As is known, the level of intelligence, subject to the normal formation of brain structures, mainly depends on the functionality of the operating system, accumulated experience (level of erudition), and on the level of differentiation - integration of this experience, which determines the quality of the conceptual system. Higher mental functions act as tools, and erudition is the base of reference data through which competencies are formed, which ultimately determines the adaptive function of the intellect. While divergent thinking is activated in conditions of insufficient support base (available solutions do not satisfy the request), the emerging need to transform the initial data and acts as a mental superstructure (compensatory mechanism).
The brain works on the principle of efficient use of energy (K. Pribram, N.P. Bekhtereva), information is differentiated, integrated, categorized, and also subjectively filtered according to the principle of significant-insignificant, useful-useless, based on individual experience. Implicit cues are not useful on their own but can be useful in combination with other elements, however possible connections implicit and statistically less probable than those already present in experience; intention and their awareness, and then verification, require a large expenditure of energy. Therefore, the convergent thought process is directed along the path of least resistance - the establishment of explicit associative connections between concepts and the enumeration of variants of accumulated algorithms. In this case, those who have high functionality of the operating system and a high level of erudition are more successful.
The divergent thought process involves both the analysis of obvious signs and intention, and the enumeration of all possible combinations of implicit signs of an object, the establishment of distant associative connections, and the choice of the most relevant solution option from the entire range of conceptual representations. In this case, as noted above, those who have a more abstract conceptual system are more successful.
As M.A. Kholodnaya points out, the productivity of thinking is expressed in a joint convergent-divergent process. Based on many years of research, N.P. Bekhtereva writes: “ Stereotypical thinking- a basis for the non-stereotypical, as if freeing up space and time for it.” Consequently, the difference in the quality of the thought process is due to both the specificity of the conceptual system and the mechanisms of its formation.
As noted by O. Harvey, D. Hunt and H. Schroder specific the conceptual system is characterized by limited and static methods of categorization, that is, during initial differentiation, implicit signs, as well as the connections between them, are either consciously or unconsciously ignored. “Ego” controls the inviolability of such a conceptual system since “... the severance of conceptual connections between the subject and the objects with which he interacts will contribute to destruction.” I", the destruction of that spatial and temporal support on which all determinations of its existence depend” (Harvey, Hunt, Schroder, 1961, p. 7).
Abstract the conceptual system is characterized by minimizing the conditionality of the categorization of object criteria; implicit signs and equally implicit connections can be realized, but are in a latent state until required. The “ego” adheres to an unbiased position, but in this case it is very vulnerable, since it does not have strong support and clear guidelines. The instability of the internal picture of the world can cause intrapersonal conflict. It is possible to prevent the destruction of the “I” only through the development of a sufficiently strong personal-semantic disposition based on high self-control, sensitivity to the internal and external world, and relative independence from the opinions and criticism of society.
Thus, the results obtained allow us to make the following conclusions:
- The statistical rarity of the idea of a drawing is determined by a more complex conceptual system (abstract).
- In the absence of reliance on a visual stimulus, a high level of productivity is due to a more complex abstract-figurative categorization of the conceptual system, including symbolic-semantic constructs, a kind of conceptual language of non-verbal intelligence.
- In conditions of reliance on a visual stimulus, a high level of productivity is due to a large number of implicit associative connections between elements that are not included in the initial image of the problem situation.
- The results of the study confirmed the isolated E.P. Torrance and an intellectual threshold supported empirically by many researchers (IQ 115-120) above which divergent productivity and intelligence become independent factors.
- The indicator of the development of a drawing is independent of the level of divergent productivity; the correlation between the cognitive style of field independence and the elaboration of the architecture of the drawing indicates the activation of general cognitive structures in the process of completing tasks.
Reviewers:
Zimichev A.M., Doctor of Psychology, Professor, Professor of the Department of General Psychology of the St. Petersburg Institute of Psychology and Acmeology, St. Petersburg.
Korzhova E.Yu., Doctor of Psychology, Professor, Head of the Department of Human Psychology, Russian State Pedagogical University. A.I. Herzen, St. Petersburg.
Bibliographic link
Zagornaya E.V. THE RELATIONSHIP OF MENTAL EXPERIENCE AND DIVERGENT PRODUCTIVITY WITHIN THE FRAMEWORK OF RESEARCH OF PERSONAL-MEANING DISPOSITION // Contemporary issues science and education. – 2014. – No. 6.;URL: http://science-education.ru/ru/article/view?id=15664 (access date: 03/27/2019). We bring to your attention magazines published by the publishing house "Academy of Natural Sciences"
Mental structures form the basis of individual mental experience. The reasons for certain decisions and subsequent actions are located precisely in the structure of individual mental experience. How information will be processed, how a person will solve problems, what solutions to formulate, depends on the unique structure and composition of individual mental experience.
Mental experience is an individual psychic reality, which determines the properties of human intellectual activity. Mental experience is a system of mental structures, mental representations and the mental space generated by these structures.
It is the uniqueness of mental experience, the features of its composition and structure that predetermine the quality of intellectual activity, the nature of the intellectual reflection of the surrounding reality. In conditions of a low level of formation of mental structures, any information impact will be “buried in the silence of individual experience”1. On the contrary, a well-organized, rich mental experience allows you to perceive, combine, and transform diverse information, generating ideas and constructing productive solutions.
This is where the concept of “intelligence”2 arises. According to its status, intelligence is a special form of organization of individual mental experience in the form of existing mental structures and the mental space generated by them and the mental representations of what is happening within this space”3.
THIS IS INTERESTING
Models of intelligence
Ch. Spearman's three-factor hierarchical model
C. Spearman believed that the productivity of any intellectual work is determined by three factors: general mental ability - Spearman's general factor G; group abilities - verbal B, arithmetic A, mechanical M factors; special abilities - factors S (operations).
Factor G is a general “mental energy” that really exists, has a number of properties, which affects the success of any intellectual activity.
Group abilities - linguistic (verbal), mechanical (spatial-dynamic) and mathematical factors*.
Special abilities - thinking operations (comparison, analysis, synthesis, justification).
R. Sternberg's cognitive model of intelligence
The concept of intelligence by the American psychology professor Robert Sternber became most famous in the 90s of the 20th century.
ha. The essence of his approach is the reduction of intelligence to the characteristics of cognitive processes. The scientist identified three types of cognitive components of intelligence responsible for processing information. Metacomponents are management processes that regulate information processing processes:
a) the ability to “see”, realize, formulate problems;
b) the ability to represent the problem;
c) justify the strategy for solving the problem;
d) control the execution of the task. Executive components - thinking operations: comparison, analysis, synthesis, justification. Components of knowledge acquisition - selective encoding, selective combination, selective comparison. The main thing in cognition is the ability to select meaningful information and combine it into a consistent whole.
H. Gardner's theory of multiple intelligences
In his work “Structures of the Mind,” the classic of modern psychology, the American scientist Howard Gardner first formulated the theory of multiple intelligences. According to this theory, there are at least seven objectively measurable categories of intelligence. Logical-mathematical - determines the ability to explore, classify categories, identify relationships between symbols and concepts (mathematician, logician, physicist). Verbal-linguistic - determines the ability to use language to convey information (poet, writer, editor, journalist). Spatial - determines the ability to perceive and manipulate objects in the mind, perceive and create visual compositions (architect). Musical - determines the ability to perform, compose, or enjoy music. Bodily-kinesthetic - determines the ability to use motor skills in sports, performing arts, manual labor(dancer, athlete). Social - determines the ability to empathize with others (teacher). Intrapersonal - determines the ability to understand oneself and other people (psychologist).
