Hearing analyzer. Theories of hearing physiology
Auditory
47. Types of sensations by modality:
Visual, auditory, gustatory;
Determine the type of sensation based on the location of the receptors.
proprioceptive;
49. Exteroceptive types of sensations:
Visual
50. Proprioceptive types of sensations:
Equilibrium
51. Interoceptive types of sensations:
Pain
52. Determine the property of sensations.
intensity;
What is perception?
holistic reflection of the properties of objects and phenomena;
What is the dependence of perception on content called? mental activity person, on the characteristics of his personality?
apperception;
What in reflex basis perception, according to I.P. Pavlov?
56. Determine the type of perception based on the form of existence of matter.
space;
Determine the type of perception by volitional effort.
arbitrary;
Which illusions are more common?
Visual
What is attention?
This mental process, ensuring the concentration of consciousness on the object;
What is attention?
Concentration of the subject's activities in this moment time on any object,
61. Attention in human mental activity provides:
clarity and clarity of consciousness;
62. Define the function of attention.
regulation and control;
Which attention is the simplest and most genetically original?
Involuntary
64. Determine the type of attention by volitional effort.
free
65. Determine the type of attention by the degree of contact with the object.
direct;
66. Define the property of attention.
switchability;
67. Memory is a mental process:
preserving traces of experience;
68. Determine the type of memory by the nature of mental activity.
motor;
69. Determine the type of figurative memory.
visual;
70. Determine the type of memory by willpower.
arbitrary;
Determine the type of memory by the time of saving images
long-term;
What is the memory of feelings called?
Emotional
What is memory for words and thoughts called?
Semantic
Determine the type of memory by the duration of saving images?
Long-term
How long does iconic memory last?
What is the name of a memory whose images are retained for 2-3 seconds after a brief auditory stimulus?
Echoic
What kind of memory is hard to manage?
Instant
How long is short-term information retained in memory?
Which memory is close in importance RAM?
Short term
What memory is determined by the mechanism of heredity?
Genetic
What does episodic memory store?
Fragments of information
What kind of memory is typical for artists?
Reproductive
What is autobiographical memory?
Memory for life events
What kind of memory is typical for engineers?
Reconstructive
What memory is the basis of solid knowledge?
Long-term
What kind of memory retains information perceived by the senses without processing?
Instant
What is another name for instant memory?
Sensory
What is explicit memory based on?
Based on the knowledge gained
Which memory is better developed in childhood?
Involuntary
What memory deteriorates with age?
Mechanical
What does absence lead to? emotional memory?
"Emotional stupidity"
Ichoic and ecoic memory are types of what type of memory?
Instant
What does forgetting initially lead to?
To unload memory
What is semantic coding?
Semantic
What is the consequence of the law of actual needs of memory?
Zeigarnik effect
What does the Zeigarnik effect imply?
memorization of unfinished actions;
What are mnemonic memorization techniques?
comprehension;
What is thinking?
it is a mental process that provides a generalized and indirect form of reflection of reality;
99. Determine the type of thinking according to the scope of application of the results and the nature of the problems being solved?
theoretical;
Satisfactory explanation of the phenomenon of hearing turned out to be extraordinary challenging task. A person who presented a theory that explained the perception of pitch and loudness of sound would almost certainly guarantee himself Nobel Prize.
Original text(English)
Explaining hearing adequately has proven a singularly difficult task. One would almost ensure oneself a Nobel prize by presenting a theory explaining satisfactorily no more than the perception of pitch and loudness.
A. S. Reber, E. S. Reber
Hearing- the ability of biological organisms to perceive sounds with the organs of hearing; a special function of the hearing aid, excited by sound vibrations in the environment, such as air or water. One of the biological distant sensations, also called acoustic perception. Provided by the auditory sensory system.
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General information
A person is able to hear sound ranging from 16 Hz to 20 kHz when vibrations are transmitted through the air, and up to 220 kHz when sound is transmitted through the bones of the skull. These waves have important biological significance, for example, sound waves in the range of 300-4000 Hz correspond to the human voice. Sounds above 20,000 Hz are of little practical importance as they decelerate quickly; vibrations below 60 Hz are perceived through the vibrational sense. The range of frequencies that a person can hear is called auditory or sound range; higher frequencies are called ultrasound, and lower frequencies are called infrasound.
Physiology of hearing
At the beginning of 2011, in some media related to scientific topics, there was short message O working together two Israeli institutions. IN human brain Specialized neurons have been identified that make it possible to estimate the pitch of a sound down to 0.1 tones. Animals other than bats do not have such an adaptation, and for different types accuracy is limited to 1/2 to 1/3 octave. (Attention! This information requires clarification!)
Theories of hearing physiology
To date, there is no single reliable theory that explains all aspects of human perception of sound. Here are some of them:
- Helmholtz string theory;
- Bekesy's traveling wave theory;
- microphone theory;
- electromechanical theory.
Since a reliable theory of hearing has not been developed, in practice psychoacoustic models are used, based on data from studies conducted on various people.
Auditory traces, fusion of auditory sensations
Experience shows that the sensation caused by a short sound pulse lasts for some time after the sound stops. Therefore, two sounds that quickly follow each other give a single auditory sensation, which is the result of their fusion. As in visual perception, when individual images replacing each other with a frequency of ≈ 16 frames/sec and higher merge into a smoothly flowing movement, a sinusoidal clear sound is obtained as a result of the fusion of individual vibrations with a repetition frequency equal to the lower threshold of hearing sensitivity, that is, ≈ 16 Hz. The fusion of auditory sensations is of great importance for the clarity of perception of sounds and in matters of consonance and dissonance, which play a huge role in music.
Projection of auditory sensations
No matter how auditory sensations arise, we usually attribute them to the external world, and therefore we always look for the reason for the stimulation of our hearing in vibrations received from the outside from one distance or another. This trait in the sphere of hearing is much less pronounced than in the sphere of visual sensations, which are distinguished by their objectivity and strict spatial localization and, probably, is also acquired through long experience and control of other senses. With auditory sensations, the ability for projection, objectification and spatial localization cannot reach such high degrees as with visual sensations. This is due to such structural features of the hearing aid as, for example, lack of muscle mechanisms, depriving it of the possibility of precise spatial definitions. We know the enormous importance that muscle sensation has in all spatial definitions.
Judgments about the distance and direction of sounds
Our judgments about the distance at which sounds are made are very inaccurate, especially if a person’s eyes are closed and he does not see the source of sounds and surrounding objects, by which one can judge the “acoustics of the environment” based on life experience, or the acoustics of the environment are atypical: for example, in an acoustic anechoic chamber, the voice of a person located just a meter from the listener seems to the latter to be many times or even tens of times more distant. Also, familiar sounds seem closer to us the louder they are, and vice versa. Experience shows that we are less mistaken in determining the distance of noise than of musical tones. A person’s ability to judge the direction of sounds is very limited: lacking mobile and convenient ear shells for collecting sounds, in cases of doubt, he resorts to head movements and puts it in a position in which the sounds are different the best way, that is, the sound is localized by a person in the direction from which it is heard stronger and “clearer”.
Three mechanisms are known by which the direction of sound can be distinguished:
- The difference is in average amplitude (historically the first principle discovered): for frequencies above 1 kHz, that is, those where the sound wavelength is less than the size of the listener's head, the sound reaching the near ear has greater intensity.
- Phase difference: branching neurons are able to distinguish a phase shift of up to 10-15 degrees between the arrival of sound waves in the right and left ear for frequencies in the approximate range of 1 to 4 kHz (corresponding to an arrival time accuracy of 10 µs).
- The difference in the spectrum: the folds of the auricle, the head and even the shoulders introduce small frequency distortions into the perceived sound, absorbing different harmonics differently, which is interpreted by the brain as Additional Information about horizontal and vertical localization of sound.
The ability of the brain to perceive the described differences in sound heard by the right and left ears led to the creation of binaural recording technology.
The described mechanisms do not work in water: determining the direction by the difference in volume and spectrum is impossible, since sound from water passes almost without loss directly to the head, and therefore to both ears, which is why the volume and spectrum of sound in both ears at any location of the source sound from high accuracy are the same; Determining the direction of the sound source by the phase shift is impossible, since due to the much higher speed of sound in water, the wavelength increases several times, which means the phase shift decreases many times.
From the description of the above mechanisms, the reason for the impossibility of determining the location of low-frequency sound sources is also clear.
Hearing test
Hearing is tested using a special device or computer program called an audiometer.
It is possible to determine the leading ear using special tests. For example, different audio signals (words) are fed into the headphones, and a person records them on paper. From which ear there are more correctly recognized words, the leading [ ] .
The frequency characteristics of hearing are also determined, which is important when producing speech in hearing-impaired children.
Norm
Perception frequency range 16 Hz - 20 kHz changes with age - high frequencies are no longer perceived. A decrease in the range of audible frequencies is associated with changes in inner ear(cochlea) and the development of sensorineural hearing loss with age.
Hearing threshold
Hearing threshold- the minimum sound pressure at which a sound of a given frequency is perceived by the human ear. The threshold of hearing is expressed in decibels. The zero level is taken to be a sound pressure of 2·10−5 Pa at a frequency of 1 kHz. The hearing threshold of a particular person depends on individual characteristics, age, and physiological state.
Pain threshold
Auditory pain threshold- the value of sound pressure at which auditory organ pain occurs (which is associated, in particular, with reaching the limit of extensibility of the eardrum). Exceeding this threshold results in acoustic trauma. Painful sensation defines the boundary dynamic range human audibility, which averages 140 dB for a tone signal and 120 dB for noise with a continuous spectrum.
The human hearing organ is paired organ, designed to perceive sound signals, which, in turn, affects the quality of orientation in the environment.
Sound signals are perceived using a sound analyzer, the main structural unit of which is phonoreceptors. The auditory nerve, which is part of the vestibulocochlear nerve, carries out information in the form of signals. The final point of signal reception and the place of their processing is the cortical section of the auditory analyzer, located in the cortex cerebral hemispheres, in its temporal lobe. More detailed information The structure of the hearing organ is presented below.
The human hearing organ is the ear, which has three sections:
- The external ear, represented by the auricle, external ear canal and eardrum. The auricle consists of elastic cartilage covered with skin and has a complex shape. In most cases, it is motionless, its functions are minimal (compared to animals). The length of the external auditory canal ranges from 27 to 35 mm, the diameter is about 6-8 mm. Its main task is to conduct sound vibrations to the eardrum. Finally, the eardrum, formed connective tissue, is outer wall tympanic cavity and separates the middle ear from the outer ear;
- The middle ear is located in the tympanic cavity, a depression in the temporal bone. The tympanic cavity contains three auditory ossicles, known as the malleus, incus, and stapes. In addition, in the middle ear there is an Eustachian tube that connects the middle ear cavity with the nasopharynx. By interacting with each other, the auditory ossicles direct sound vibrations to the inner ear;
- The inner ear is a membranous labyrinth located in the temporal bone. The inner ear is divided into the vestibule, three semicircular canals, and the cochlea. Only the cochlea is directly related to the organ of hearing, while the other two elements of the inner ear are part of the organ of balance. The snail looks like a thin cone twisted in the shape of a spiral. Along its entire length, it is divided into three canals using two membranes - scala vestibule (upper), cochlear duct (middle) and scala tympani (lower). In this case, the lower and upper canals are filled with a special fluid - perilymph, and the cochlear duct is filled with endolymph. The main membrane of the cochlea contains the organ of Corti, an apparatus that perceives sounds;
- The organ of Corti is represented by several rows of hair cells that function as receptors. Except receptor cells The organ of Corti contains a covering membrane that overhangs the hair cells. It is in the organ of Corti that the vibrations of the fluids filling the ear are converted into a nerve impulse. Schematically this process looks like in the following way: sound vibrations are transmitted from the fluid filling the cochlea to the stapes, due to which the membrane with the hair cells located on it begins to vibrate. During vibrations, they touch the integumentary membrane, which leads them to a state of excitation, and this, in turn, entails the formation nerve impulse. Each hair cell is connected to sensory neuron, the combination of which forms the auditory nerve.
Hearing diseases
Hearing protection and disease prevention should be regular, since some diseases can cause not only hearing impairment and, as a consequence, spatial orientation, but also affect the sense of balance. In addition, the rather complex structure of the hearing organ and some isolation of some of its parts often complicate the diagnosis of diseases and their treatment.
The most common diseases of the hearing organ can be divided into four categories: inflammatory, non-inflammatory, resulting from injury and caused by fungal invasion:
- Inflammatory diseases of the hearing organ, among which the most common are otitis media, labyrinthitis, otosclerosis, occur after viral or infectious diseases. Manifestations of otitis externa include suppuration, pain and itching in the area of the ear canal. Sometimes the symptom is hearing loss. With absence timely treatment Otitis often becomes chronic or causes complications. Inflammation of the middle ear is accompanied by an increase in temperature, severe hearing loss, and sharp shooting pain in the ear. Appearance purulent discharge serves as a sign purulent otitis. With delayed treatment of this disease of the hearing organ, there is a high probability of damage to the eardrum. Finally, otitis media of the inner ear causes dizziness, a rapid decline in hearing quality, and an inability to focus the gaze. Complications of this disease may include labyrinthitis, meningitis, brain abscess, blood poisoning;
- Non-inflammatory diseases of the hearing organ. These include, in particular, otosclerosis, a hereditary lesion of the bone of the ear capsule that causes hearing loss. With another ear disease, Meniere's disease, the amount of fluid in the inner ear cavity increases, which puts pressure on the vestibular apparatus. Signs of the disease are vomiting, nausea, tinnitus, and progressive hearing loss. Another type of non-inflammatory disease is neuritis of the vestibulocochlear nerve. It can cause hearing loss. Most often used to treat non-inflammatory ear diseases surgical methods Therefore, timely and thorough protection of the hearing organs is important, which will prevent the worsening of the disease;
- Fungal diseases of the hearing organ are usually caused by opportunistic fungi. The course of such diseases is complicated, often leading to sepsis. In some cases, otomycosis develops in postoperative period, at traumatic injuries skin, etc. For fungal diseases frequent complaints patients complain of discharge from the ear, constant itching and tinnitus. Treatment of diseases is long-term, but the presence of fungus in the ear does not always provoke the development of the disease. Proper prevention and care of the hearing organs will prevent the disease from developing.
The hearing organs provide the most important connection with the outside world. With their help, a person is able to distinguish sounds and navigate in space.
Hearing health is essential for full life. To save it, it’s worth knowing how it works auditory analyzer person.
What is an ear?
The human ear is made up of three main parts: outer ear, middle ear and inner ear.
ENT office
Diseases upper sections respiratory system and hearing organs is dealt with by an otorhinolaryngologist, otherwise an otolaryngologist, or an ENT doctor. Find out when it's time to see a doctor in that unpronounceable specialty.
Outer ear can be seen in the mirror - it includes auricle and outdoor ear canal(1). Its walls contain cells that produce earwax designed to protect against dust and bacteria.
The external auditory canal ends eardrum located at an angle to it (2). It, like a microphone membrane, transmits sound to the middle ear, which is located directly behind it - in the cranial cavity.
The smallest bones amplify sound vibrations human body– malleus, incus and stirrup (4).
The middle ear is also located Eustachian tube(3), which connects to the nasopharynx. With its help, the pressure in the middle ear is equalized.
Above the base eustachian tube located inner ear(5). Due to its shape resembling a snail shell, it is called a labyrinth.
This fluid-filled formation provides the perception of sounds. Inside there is a canal, the walls of which are covered with receptors that capture vibrations of sound waves and transmit them to the auditory nerves.
How does hearing work?
Sound is a wave that propagates in any elastic medium: water, air and various materials. Force sound vibrations is measured in decibels, and the frequency that a person perceives as the pitch of sound is in hertz.
The human ear can perceive limited range sound spectrum - from 20 Hz (very low bass) to 20 kHz. However, most adults are able to detect very high-pitched sounds around 16 kHz.
When sound waves enter the ear canal, they hit the eardrum. It begins to vibrate, including the auditory ossicles in the process, which, in turn, transmit vibrations to the fluid of the inner ear.
There they are perceived by hair cells, which convert the vibrations into electrical impulses transmitted auditory nerve into the brain.
What Causes Hearing Loss?
Partial or complete hearing loss can be caused by a variety of reasons.
Congenital hearing loss- one of the most common birth defects in people. It affects about one in 1,000 newborns.
Hearing loss also occurs as a result of ear injuries, past infections or natural process aging.
Besides, hearing loss may occur as a result of exposure to excessively loud sounds that damage the hair cells in the inner ear. The longer the auditory analyzer is subjected to overload, the more pronounced the disturbances in its operation are subsequently.
So, for example, ringing in the ears after an hour-long rock concert will pass by the morning. However, prolonged exposure to loud sounds leads to irreversible damage hearing
How to protect your hearing?
1. Limit exposure to loud sounds. Experts do not recommend exposing the hearing organs to sound stress above 80 dB more than two hours a day. The impact of sound is already 110 dB doctors consider it dangerous for hearing.
2. Listen to “live” sounds. Try to be in nature more often, listen to soft music through speakers, and give up headphones for a while. This will allow the sensitive villi to recover from the loud sounds of the metropolis and constant wearing headphones.
