Intersystem mechanisms of compensation for external functions. Special psychology
Correction in the modern understanding - this is overcoming or weakening the shortcomings of the mental and physical development through various psychological and pedagogical influences.
In domestic defectology, the term “correction (“ pedagogical correction") was first used by V.P. Kashchenko in relation to children with behavioral problems. It was then extended to mentally retarded children. The main content of the activities of the auxiliary school was defined as correctional and educational work. Now the correctional orientation of education is considered as one of the basic principles of work of all special educational institutions. In English-speaking countries, the term “correction” is not used in the field of special education; correction of developmental deficiencies by psychological and pedagogical means is designated by the word “remediation.” Remedial education is an analogue to our concept of “corrective education”. Corrective pedagogy in European countries, it is an area of pedagogy that deals with offenders and crime prevention.
For the first time, a holistic concept of correction of developmental delays was created by the Italian teacher M. Montessori (1870-1952), who believed that the enrichment of sensory experience and the development of motor skills (sensorimotor correction) will automatically lead to the development of thinking, since they are its prerequisites.
In Russia, a leading role in the development of theory and practice correctional work played by A.N. Graborov (1885-1949).
Correction is most successfully carried out in relation to secondary developmental deficiencies, i.e. through psychological and pedagogical influences.
Compensation(from Lat. compensation) - replenishment or replacement of functions that are underdeveloped, impaired or lost due to developmental defects, illnesses and injuries. In the process of compensation, the function of damaged organs or structures either begins to be carried out by directly unaffected systems by enhancing their activity (the so-called replacement hyperfunction), or a restructuring of the partially impaired function occurs (sometimes with the inclusion of other systems). Compensation is one of important species adaptive reactions of the body.
Usually the entire body is involved in the compensation process, since when the functioning of any system is disrupted, a number of changes occur in the body that are associated not only with the affected system (primary disorders), but also with the effects of its damage on other functions associated with it (secondary disorders ). For example, congenital or early-onset damage to the hearing organ leads to loss or impairment auditory perception(primary defect), which causes a violation of speech development (secondary defect), which, in turn, can cause deficiencies in the development of thinking, memory, etc. mental processes(third order defects) and ultimately have a certain impact on the development of the individual as a whole. At the same time, damage to the system inevitably causes a spontaneous restructuring of the functions of a number of other systems, ensuring the process of adaptation of the body in conditions of insufficiency that has arisen (automatic compensation), in which an important role is played by the assessment by the central nervous system of the success of adaptive reactions (authorizing afferentation, according to P.K. Anokhin) , carried out on the basis of reverse afferentation.
Compensation of functions can occur at different levels both intra-system and inter-system .
In-system compensation is carried out through the use of reserve capabilities of this functional system. For example, with pneumonia, the respiratory surface, which is usually not involved in breathing, begins to work; When one lung is completely switched off, the activity of the other increases.
Intersystem compensation occurs with more severe dysfunctions and represents a more complex restructuring of the body’s activity with the inclusion of other functional systems in the compensation process.
Compensation of functions at the level of complex mental processes is carried out through conscious retraining, usually using aids. For example, compensation for insufficient memorization is made by rational organization memorized material, attracting additional associations, introducing other mnemonic techniques.
In case of developmental disorders associated with congenital or early acquired defects of analyzers, the compensation process is complicated by additional negative influence sensory deprivation(lack of afferentation, stimulation). Sensory deprivation causes long-term action significant changes in activities nerve centers corresponding analyzer, which can go into structural changes up to the degeneration of nerve cells. This influence can only be overcome through active and possibly earlier training. In such cases, for example, in children with profound visual impairments, it is possible to achieve compensation for deficiencies cognitive activity through development during special classes insignificant and not usually used remnants of vision. Compensation for functions that are completely lost or deeply damaged by analyzers is achieved by replacing these functions with the activities of other sensory systems. Thus, through special training it is possible to achieve significant compensation for lost vision by developing tactile perception. The development of touch in blind children and its use to familiarize themselves with the surrounding objective reality, relying on speech and mental activity, ensures the formation of an adequate picture of the world in them. In children with normal vision, this picture is based almost entirely on visual information.
Compensation for lost hearing in deafness is partially achieved through the development of visual perception of speech (“lip reading”), learning the dactyl (finger) alphabet, which is also accessible to visual perception, and through the formation of speech kinesthesia under the control of kinesthetic and visual perception.
There are two stages in the compensation process - urgent and long-term compensation. For example, if a person loses his right hand, he immediately begins to use left hand to perform actions normally performed right hand, although this urgent compensation at first turns out to be obviously imperfect.
Subsequently, as a result of learning and the formation of new temporary connections in the brain, skills are developed that provide long-term compensation - relatively perfect execution by the left hand of operations previously performed by the right hand.
Plastic nervous system especially great in childhood, therefore, the effectiveness of compensation of functions in such cases in children is higher than in adults.
Diagnosis of developmental disorders modern stage should be built on a number of principles, previously described in the works of leading experts (L.S. Vygotsky, V.I. Lubovsky, S.D. Zabramnaya):
- comprehensive study of child mental development. This principle involves uncovering deep internal reasons and the mechanisms of occurrence of this or that deviation. The implementation of an integrated approach means that the examination of the child is carried out by a group of specialists (doctors, speech pathologists, speech therapist, psychologist, social teacher). Not only clinical and experimental psychological study of the child is used, but also other methods: analysis of medical and pedagogical documentation, observation of the child, socio-pedagogical, and in the most difficult cases- neurophysiological, neuropsychological and other examinations;
-a systematic approach to diagnosing a child’s mental development. This principle is based on the idea of the systemic structure of the psyche and involves an analysis of the results of the child’s mental activity at each of its stages. System analysis in the process of psychological and pedagogical diagnosis requires not only to identify individual violations, but also to establish the relationships between them, the hierarchy of identified violations. It is very important that not only phenomena are detected of a negative nature, but also preserved functions, and positive sides individuals who will serve as the basis for corrective measures;
- dynamic approach to studying a child with developmental disorders. This principle involves taking into account age characteristics child when organizing an examination, choosing diagnostic tools and analyzing the results of the study, taking into account the current condition of the child, taking into account age-related qualitative neoplasms and their timely implementation. Diagnostic training organized only within the limits of those tasks that are available to children of a given age;
- identifying and taking into account the child’s potential capabilities. This principle is based on the theoretical position of L.S. Vygotsky about the zones of actual and proximal development of a child. The child’s potential in the form of the zone of proximal development determines the possibilities and pace of assimilation of new knowledge and skills. These possibilities are revealed in the process of cooperation between the child and the adult as the child learns new ways of acting;
- qualitative analysis results of a psychodiagnostic study of a child.
The main parameters of such an analysis are:
The child’s attitude towards the examination situation and tasks;
Ways of orienting a child in the context of tasks and his methods of completing tasks;
Compliance of the child’s actions with the conditions of the task, the nature of the experimental material and instructions;
The child’s productive use of adult assistance;
The child’s ability to complete a task using analogies;
The child’s attitude towards the results of his activities, criticality in assessing his achievements.
Compensation is the compensation of underdeveloped or impaired functions by using preserved or restructuring partially impaired functions. With compensation, it is possible to involve new nerve structures who have not previously participated in its implementation.
Any ..... system must have a certain margin of safety in case of sudden adverse changes in external or internal environment. It is provided by the processes of adaptation and compensation.
General: adaptation effect
Various: adaptation is activated when the balance between the organism and the environment is disturbed as a result of changes in the environment. Balance is achieved by an internal change in the individual; he must abandon the previous initial state.
Compensation begins as a result of changes in the individual himself. Balance is possible subject to a complete or partial return to the original state.
Adaptation and compensation are united, but multidirectional and develop unevenly during ontogenesis.
At the beginning, adaptation processes overtake the formation of compensatory ones; as they grow older, they approximately equalize; as they age, first the adaptation processes weaken, and later the compensatory ones.
As a result of a primary disorder in the body, various kinds restructuring and replacement of functions, which in the general biological sense are based on the mobilization of the reserve capabilities of the central nervous system that developed during ontogenesis and phylogenesis. At the same time, the compensatory restructuring of functions in Ch, unlike animals, is of a qualitatively different nature. At the biological level, compensatory processes are predominantly automatic and unconscious. In humans, compensation processes consist not so much in the biological adaptation of the body, but in the formation of the ability to act and assimilate social experience in conditions of conscious, purposeful activity. The formation of methods of assimilation is based on the use not of elementary functions, but of higher forms of mental activity. The leading role in compensation processes is played by consciousness, conditioned by social relationships. Thus, compensation in a person is associated with the development of all aspects of the personality.
The history of the development of compensation theories is based on philosophical ideas about the essence of Ch and is associated with the development of scientific physiological research about the possibilities human body and the patterns of its functioning.
Litvak identifies 4 stages in the development of the idea of compensation:
1. compensation as a manifestation of higher spiritual powers (all in the will of God);
2. how clean biological development and automatic “sophistication” of safe analyzers;
3. sociological direction;
4. stage of materialistic determinism.
At the basis of all theories, two directions for the interpretation of compensation have emerged:
1. reliance of people with developmental deficiencies on the activities of intact analyzers:
2. use of higher mental functions.
For the late 19th century and early 20th century, it was uncharacteristic to consider the human psyche and its formation as a result of socio-historical development, to assert the independence of the psyche from the outside world.
General views on Ch as a purely biological being formed the biologizing direction in the theory of compensation. Among the numerous attempts to explain these processes by biological factors, there is a well-known doctrine according to which. The loss of one or another type of sensation entails an automatic increase in the preserved types of sensitivity. This happens due to the supposed release of the specific energy of the affected analyzer, which is directed to the preserved types of feelings, due to which their sensitivity automatically increases.
Isolating biological factors as the main ones in compensation is untenable, because an organic defect of a particular system cannot have a global effect on the psyche. To a much greater extent, deviations in psychodevelopment are caused by shifts in social connections and relationships created by an organic defect.
Understanding the inappropriateness of the biologizing approach led compensation studies to the other extreme - the sociological understanding of the replacement of impaired or lost functions. The interpretation of the provisions on the social nature of Ch led to the ignoring of the natural biological principle in Ch and the logical conclusion: compensation for deviations in mental development is possible only by creating learning conditions for, for example, the blind and visually impaired that are identical to those of ordinary students.
Awareness of the one-sidedness of both biologizing and sociologizing approaches to understanding compensation led to attempts to combine them. An example is the creation of the theory of overcompensation by the Austrian psychiatrist and psychologist Adler. It is based on the idea that the presence of a defect not only inhibits, but also stimulates the development of the psyche, since the defect itself combines both negative and positive potencies.
Adler drew attention to the fact that defective organs, the functions of which are difficult or impaired due to defects, necessarily come into conflict with the outside world in order to adapt to it. As a result of the defect, the individual develops a feeling or consciousness of his own low value in relation to his social position, which becomes the main driving force of mental development.
Overcompensation develops anticipation and foresight, as well as their operating factors: memory, intuition, attentiveness, sensitivity, i.e. everything psychic phenomena to an enhanced degree, which leads to the development of super-inferiority and inferiority to the transformation of a defect into giftedness, talent (Beethoven).
The modern understanding of the essence and processes of compensation is built in a dialectical-materialist vein.
Compensation for a defect is considered as a complex synthesis of social and biological factors, the determining ones among which are the activities and social relationships into which Ch enters in the process of this activity.
The theoretical foundations and principles of compensation for dysfunction were developed on the basis of the teachings of Sechenov and Pavlov about GNI, by psychologists Vygotsky, Anokhin and others.
Considering the essence of compensation processes, Vygotsky comes to the conclusion that the consequences of a defect are two-sided: on the one hand, there is an underdevelopment of functions directly related to the organic defect, on the other, compensatory mechanisms arise.
The compensation process is understood by Vygotsky not as an automatic replacement of the affected function, but as a consequence of its independent exercise and the result of nurturing intact aspects of the child’s psyche and personality.
The outcome of compensation depends not only on the severity of the defect, but to a large extent on the adequacy and effectiveness of the methods used for the formation of compensatory processes; depending on the success of compensation and correction, the structure of the defect changes.
Vygotsky formulates the so-called law of transforming the minus of a defect into a plus of compensation: the positive uniqueness of a child with deviated development is created primarily not by the fact that he loses certain functions, but by the fact that their loss brings to life new formations that in their unity represent the reaction of the individual for a defect.
Achieving in its development the same as normal child, a deaf or blind child achieves this in a different way and in other ways and means, so it is especially important to know the uniqueness of the path along which the child should be led.
Compensation processes in children, unlike adults, are deeply specific. In adults, the functions of the central nervous system have already developed and taken on the character of a harmonious organization, which provides ample opportunities for interchangeability and switching in the event of a violation of any of the functions. Abnormal children go through a special path of mental development, where, thanks to the efforts of special training and upbringing, new functional systems are formed, methods of action and assimilation of social experience are developed.
The child's body has enormous plasticity and pliability. When assessing the possibilities for developing functions in a child, one should take into account not only already formed functional systems, but also those in the stage of maturation and formation - the zone of proximal development. In childhood, many functions of the central nervous system are in the process of formation; as a result, at different stages of the child’s development, the existing compensation mechanisms change and develop, primarily under the influence of learning.
With deviant development, the principles of the course are also preserved nervous processes, which is normal. In the process of compensation, intact analyzers, cortical closing mechanisms and effector organs are used. As a result of the disorganization of functions, new interfunctional connections and relationships are formed.
Reorganization of functions when different forms abnormal development of a child is detected primarily in changes in signaling systems that ensure the transmission of external influences to the cerebral cortex, and the implementation of feedback systems with the help of which movements are assessed, controlled and regulated. The compensation process develops simultaneously through different channels. The interaction of intact analyzers during the restructuring of functions allows, depending on the conditions and content of the activity, to perform the same work different ways. Some types of signaling can be replaced by others. With established methods of compensation, variant methods of action are used with the help of signals coming from auditory, skin, motor, visual and other analyzers.
Compensation can be intra-system and inter-system.
With intrasystemic compensation, intact nerve elements of the affected function are used. Each system has backup mechanisms that are not always used normally. The smallest remnants of vision in the practically blind and the remnants of hearing in the deaf have great importance for orientation and regulation of actions.
Compensation for a partial defect proceeds according to the same laws, but its system includes information from the damaged analyzer. In this case, the correction of the primary defect and the development of residual hearing and vision begin to play a significant role.
Intersystem compensation consists of mobilizing reserve capabilities and nervous elements that are not normally included in a given functional system. Here new inter-analyzers are formed neural connections, various workarounds are used, mechanisms of adaptation and restoration of secondary impaired functions are activated. Here, too, the residual functions of damaged analyzers are used to some extent and the functional systems of connections that have developed in ontogenesis are widely used. For example, late-deafened children during development oral speech rely on established auditory images, which result in newly formed dynamic systems connections. Gradually, the importance of signaling from damaged functions decreases and other methods are used, based on the interchange of functions.
Psychological compensation is central to Ch, a truly human way of restoring impaired functions. It is connected by the ability and adequate assessment of one’s capabilities: to set realistic goals and objectives, with volitional abilities. Besides important have shapes psychological protection is a special system of personality stabilization aimed at protecting consciousness from unpleasant traumatic experiences associated with a state of anxiety, discomfort, internal and external conflicts. These mechanisms are mostly unconscious and selective: repression, suppression, projection, regression, sublimation, etc.
Coning strategy is behavior, coincidence, a conscious effort of the individual to coincide with stressful situations.
Vygotsky identifies several options for compensatory development of a child:
1. real compensation - occurs in response to more or less realistically taken into account difficulties.
2. fictitious - an attitude of wariness, suspicion, suspiciousness as compensation for protecting oneself from emerging difficulties. Such compensation can also be called delusional
Topic 3. FUNDAMENTALS OF THE THEORY AND PRACTICE OF CORRECTIONAL WORK
The leading principle of work in special institutions is the correctional and rehabilitation orientation of the educational process. -Correction (lat. cogges11o - improvement, correction) is the central concept of defectology. It includes a system of psychological, pedagogical and medical-social measures aimed at overcoming or weakening physical and (or) mental disorders (minimizing a defect - reducing the consequences of disorders to a minimum).
The entire history of special pedagogy can be presented as the history of the development of the theory and practice of correctional work. The correctional systems and concepts of Edouard Seguin (1812-1880), Maria Montessori (1870-1952), Ovid Decroli (1871-1933), L. S. Vygotsky (1896-1934), A. N. Graborov (1885-1949) are widely known. ) etc. In addition to these general systems, each branch of defectology can provide its own examples.
Correction can be direct or indirect. Direct correction consists of conducting correctional training with the teacher using special didactic materials and methods of correctional influence, planning the content and predicting the results of correctional work over time. At the turn of the 19th and 20th centuries, lessons in sensorimotor culture and mental orthopedics were widespread.
With indirect correction, it is assumed that already in the learning process, progress in the child’s development occurs and his psychomotor and mental activity is corrected. The ways of correction in this case are enrichment, clarification, correction of existing experience and the formation of new ones.
There may be some errors in the use of the concept “correction”. It is always more correct to talk about the correction of impaired development, rather than a defect, since a defect can be corrected only in certain cases, for example, with dyslalia (violation of sound pronunciation). It is also necessary to distinguish between the concepts of “pedagogical correction” and “corrective pedagogy”. In the first case, we mean work with shallow disorders (most often behavioral deviations), which are noted among students in public schools, in the second case, deep disorders, which are directly dealt with by deaf pedagogy, typhlopedagogy, oligophrenopedagogy and speech therapy. The biological basis for the possibility of correction is the processes of compensation (Latin sotrepzapo - compensation, balancing). The essence of the compensation process is to compensate, to one degree or another, for impaired functions and conditions: the brain receives signals from damaged areas, in response to which it mobilizes protective mechanisms, “reliability reserves of a living organism,” to counteract the pathological process. At the same time, the higher department of the central nervous system continuously receives signals about the results achieved and, on the basis of this, certain adjustments are made to the compensation process: new mechanisms and devices are mobilized and old ones that turned out to be ineffective are demobilized. Once optimal results are achieved, the mobilization of defense mechanisms stops. The state of compensated functions becomes relatively stable. There is a tendency in the body to maintain this stability.
The basic principles of compensation were formulated, physiologically substantiated and clinically tested by P.K. Anokhin (1959). This is the principle of defect signaling; progressive mobilization of compensatory mechanisms; continuous reverse afferentation of compensatory devices; authorizing afferentation; relative stability of compensatory devices.
There are two types of compensation: organic (intrasystem) and functional (intersystem).
Intrasystem compensation is achieved by replacing damaged nerve elements with the activity of intact neurons as a result of restructuring the activity of neural structures in analyzers under the influence of adequate stimulation and special perceptual learning. The basic initial level of compensation is established by adequate sensory stimulation, which activates restoration processes not only in the projection section of the analyzer, but also in the associative and nonspecific formations of the brain, the mechanism of activity of which is associated with perception. An example is correctional work with hearing-impaired and visually impaired students on the development of residual auditory and visual functions.
Intersystem compensation is associated with the restructuring of activity or the formation of new functional systems, including projection and associative areas of the cerebral cortex. When forming new functional systems, the psychophysiological factor of activation of analyzer feedback, which is an important mechanism for processing information coming from the outside world, is of decisive importance.
The process of compensation of elementary physiological functions does not require training and occurs due to automatic restructuring, in which an important role is played by the assessment of the success of adaptive reactions carried out in the central nervous system. Correction of higher mental functions is possible only as a result of specially organized training. In case of developmental anomalies associated with congenital or early acquired defects of analyzers, active learning takes on a decisive role. Thus, as a result of special pedagogical influence on the development of tactile perception, significant compensation for the lost visual function in a blind child is achieved. Currently used methods for compensating for impaired functions are based on the use of the almost unlimited possibility of forming associative nerve connections in the cerebral cortex.
In recent years, many researchers have established the important role of the right hemisphere in the implementation of mental functions and the special significance for applied neuropsychology of the question of the functional specialization of the hemispheres. In this regard, the problem of hemisphere dominance (in speech and leading hand), while remaining relevant for solving specific problems of topical diagnostics, is considered as an integral part of the more general problem of integrative brain activity. The differences in the functioning of the right and left hemispheres (in right-handed people), known since the times of H. Jackson and V. M. Bekhterev, are currently the subject of extensive and diverse research, which is united by a common problem - functional assymmitry of the hemispheres. The problems of functional disparity and functional interaction of the hemispheres, fundamental for neurophysiology and neuropsychology, are also very relevant for correctional work.
Ideas about the dominance of the hemispheres in the perception of certain stimulus material (speech for the left hemisphere and visual-figurative for the right) should soon be significantly supplemented and clarified. The results of clinical and experimental studies show that the differences depend not only and not so much on the characteristics of the material presented, but on the nature of the specific tasks facing the subjects. At the same time, the left hemisphere is predominantly associated with categorization (classification) tasks based on identifying significant features in speech or visual stimuli, and the right hemisphere is primarily associated with identification (comparison) tasks of complex, unfamiliar non-verbalizable objects (under conditions of high noise immunity). The left hemisphere dominates in tasks related to the categorization of familiar, relatively complex, easily verbalized objects. It, as experimental data show, loses in the speed of information processing, is less resistant to damage, but has the ability to analytical, generalized descriptions of objects based on system connections and thereby voluntary control of psychological functions. The dominance of the left hemisphere in speech is currently considered relative, since it prevails only in the most complex types of voluntary speech activity, whereas right hemisphere dominates in involuntary, automated speech processes, such as emotional, intonation and other components of speech.
The development of compensatory adaptations depends on the nature of the defect, the time and degree of dysfunction, the provision of qualified comprehensive assistance, as well as such psychological factors as awareness of the defect, orientation towards compensation, the social position of the individual, etc.
Thus, compensation acts as a condition and as a result of correction: without the ability of the Higher nervous activity it would be impossible to mobilize one’s “NZ” (emergency reserves) to effectively carry out pedagogical work; The more effectively correctional and developmental activities are carried out, the more stable the new conditioned connections are consolidated in the central nervous system. L. S. Vygotsky expressed the unity and interdependence of the processes of correction (external) and compensation (internal) in the law of turning the minus of a defect into a plus of compensation (“If there was no happiness, but misfortune would help”), emphasizing the need to create and use workarounds.
The established compensatory processes are not absolute (sustainable) in nature, therefore, under unfavorable conditions (excessive loads, stress, illness, seasonal deterioration in the body’s condition, abrupt cessation of educational and training sessions, etc.) they can disintegrate. In such cases, decompensation occurs, i.e., relapse of functional disorders. With the phenomena of decompensation, serious impairments in mental performance, a decrease in the rate of development, and changes in attitudes towards activities and people are noted. In such cases, it is necessary to observe a number of special measures aimed at normalizing the development process.
Pseudo-compensation should be distinguished from the phenomena of compensation, i.e. imaginary, false adaptations, harmful formations that arise as a result of a person’s reaction to certain undesirable manifestations towards him from the people around him. L. S. Vygotsky included various neurotic behavioral traits in mentally retarded children, which are formed as a result of low assessments of their personality, among such pseudo-compensatory formations. Behavioral disorders in children are often associated with the desire to attract the attention of others when this cannot be done by other, positive means (this phenomenon is defined as challenging behavior).
The doctrine of compensation reveals the creative nature of development directed along this path. A number of scientists based the origin of giftedness on it. Thus, V. Stern came up with the thesis: “What does not destroy me makes me stronger; through compensation, strength emerges from weakness, and ability from weaknesses” (1923). A. Adler put forward the idea of overcompensation: “He (the child) will want to see everything if he is myopic; hear everything if he has a hearing abnormality; everyone will want to speak if he has difficulty speaking or has a stutter... The desire to fly will be most expressed in those children who already experience great difficulty when jumping. The opposition of organic insufficiency and desires, fantasies, dreams, i.e., mental aspirations for compensation, is so comprehensive that on the basis of it it is possible to derive the basic psychological law about the dialectical transformation of organic inferiority through a subjective feeling of inferiority into mental aspirations for compensation and overcompensation" (1927 ),
The concepts of correction and compensation are closely related to rehabilitation (rehabilitation = restoration), which includes measures to ensure and/or restore functions or compensate for the loss or absence of functions or functional limitations. The rehabilitation process does not only involve the provision of medical care. It includes a wide range of measures and activities, ranging from initial and more general rehabilitation to targeted activities, such as restoration of professional ability. In medical institutions, there are three stages of rehabilitation: medical-rehabilitation, medical-professional, and vocational rehabilitation. In UN documents, the term “rehabilitation” means a process aimed at helping people with disabilities achieve and maintain optimal physical, intellectual, mental and/or social levels of functioning, thereby providing them with the means to change their lives and expand their independence. /... correctional pedagogy.- M., 1999 5. Defectology. Dictionary-reference book / Edited by B.P. Puzanova.- M., 1996 6. Zaitseva I.A. Correctional pedagogy.- M., 2002 7. Correctional pedagogy ...
Correctional pedagogy with mental retardation
Test >> PsychologyWith developmental disabilities. Special psychology associated with correctional pedagogy. These branches of knowledge general subject... , are common methodological basis, study methods. Correctional pedagogy develops and scientifically substantiates a training system...
History of formation correctional pedagogy
Abstract >> PedagogyWill take into account the requirements correctional pedagogy". Justifying the essence and objectives correctional pedagogy, V.P. Kashchenko noted... correctional pedagogy? 2. What are the main objectives of the course? correctional pedagogy? 3. What is the location like? correctional pedagogy ...
Theoretical foundations of special ( correctional) pedagogy like science
Lecture >> Pedagogy... correctional) pedagogy as science Topic 1. Introduction. Special ( correctional) pedagogy like science Topic 2. Special communication ( correctional) pedagogy... . Special ( correctional) pedagogy as science (formerly: Correctional pedagogy with the basics...
Any defect, i.e. any physical defect, poses the body with the task of overcoming this defect, making up for the deficiency, compensating for the damage caused by it. Thus, the influence of a defect is always dual and contradictory: on the one hand, it weakens the body, undermines its activity, is a disadvantage, on the other hand, precisely because it complicates and disrupts the activity of the body, it serves as a stimulus to increased development other functions of the body, it pushes and encourages the body to intensified activity, which could compensate for the deficiency and overcome difficulties.
Defect- is a physical or mental disability that entails a deviation from the norm of development.
For the first time, the essence and structure of the defect were analyzed by L.S. Vygotsky. He established that between a somatic defect and developmental anomalies there are complex structures and functional connections operating in different directions. L.S. Vygotsky noted that the manifestation of differences in psychophysical form are not adjacent, but have complex structure dysontogenesis. He identified a primary defect, which is usually caused by biological factors, and a secondary deviation - a disorder that occurs under the influence of the primary defect.
Primary disorders or nuclear - these are irreversible changes in the parameters of a particular mental function caused by the direct influence of a pathogenic factor.
Secondary deviation or systemic disorder - these are reversible changes in the development of mental functions directly related to the primary disorder.
The central issue of both special psychology and special pedagogy is the problem of compensation of functions. Compensation mental functions - compensation of underdeveloped or impaired mental functions by using intact ones or restructuring partially impaired ones. In this case, it is possible to involve new nervous structures in its implementation that were not previously involved in the implementation of these functions. These structures are functionally united on the basis of performing a common task.
The task of specially organized training and education of children with impaired mental development is to find the most effective ways to compensate for impaired functions. Special training and education are compensatory-oriented. “Compensation for mental functions (from the Latin compensatio - balancing, equalization) is the compensation of underdeveloped or impaired mental functions through the use of preserved or restructuring of partially impaired functions.”
When compensating for mental functions, it is possible to involve new structures that were not previously involved in the implementation of these functions or performed a different role. There are two types of function compensation. The first one is intra-system compensation, which is carried out by attracting preserved nerve elements of the affected structures (for example, with hearing loss, the development of residual auditory perception). The second is intersystem compensation, which is carried out by restructuring functional systems and incorporating new elements from other structures into the work by performing previously unusual functions. For example, function compensation visual analyzer in a child born blind occurs due to the development of the sense of touch, i.e., the activity of the motor and skin analyzers. Most often, both types of function compensation are observed. This is of particular importance in the case of congenital or early-onset mental development disorders.
Higher ones, in fact human forms compensation provides opportunities for full personal development. These are both opportunities to acquire knowledge of the fundamentals of science and work skills, as well as opportunities to form a worldview and moral qualities of an individual.
The theory of compensation has gone through a long path of development in close connection with the history of the development of special education. For a long time, the main principle of mental development was considered to be the self-development of initially inherent abilities, therefore, in the processes of compensation, external influence was considered only as an impetus for their spontaneous development. Often the role of such a push was assigned to the word, which was attributed to a mystical effect on the human psyche.
A special place in the interpretation of the problem of compensation is occupied by the theory of overcompensation of the Austrian psychologist and psychiatrist A. Adler, who put forward a number of new ideas. Among them is the principle of internal unity of the psychological life of the individual and emphasizing the role of the social, and not biological factor in human mental development. Just like Z. Freud, A. Adler believed that personality formation occurs mainly in the first five years of a child’s life, when he develops his own style of behavior, which determines the way he thinks and acts in all subsequent periods. From the point of view of A. Adler, a person is the most biologically unadapted creature, therefore he initially has a feeling of completeness, which intensifies if the child has any physical or sensory defect. The self-perception of inferiority, defectiveness is for a person a constant stimulus for the development of his psyche, i.e. defect, unadaptability, low value is not only a minus, but also a plus, a source of strength, an incentive to overcompensate. In an effort to overcome feelings of inferiority and assert oneself among others, a person actualizes his creative potential.
According to L.S. Vygotsky, A. Adler derives the basic psychological law of the transformation of organic inferiority - through a subjective feeling of low value, which is an assessment of one’s social position - into the desire for compensation and overcompensation.
At the same time, overcompensation is only the extreme point of one of two possible outcomes of the compensation process; it is one of the poles of development complicated by a developmental defect. The other pole is the failure of compensation, flight into illness, neurosis, complete asociality of the psychological position. Between these two poles there are various degrees of compensation - from minimum to maximum. The idea of overcompensation is valuable because it positively “appraises not suffering in itself, but its overcoming; not humility in front of a defect, but rebellion against it; not weakness in itself, but the impulses and sources of strength contained in it” [Z, p. 42].
L.S. In his works, Vygotsky critically analyzed existing views on the problem of compensation for mental functions and substantiated the understanding of compensation as a synthesis of biological and social factors. This understanding was of great importance for the development of all branches of special pedagogy, as it made it possible to more effectively build the processes of teaching and raising children with various types of mental development disorders. When considering the theory of compensation of mental functions L.S. Vygotsky can highlight several important points.
Firstly, L.S. Vygotsky attached great importance to the inclusion of abnormal children in a variety of socially significant activities, the creation of active and effective forms of children's experience. As L.S. said Vygotsky, when any sense organ is lost, other organs begin to perform functions that they do not usually perform. Vision in a deaf person, touch in a blind person does not play the same role as in a person with preserved sensory organs, since they must perceive and process great amount information that passes through a different route for Normal people. The essence of working with children who have any impairments, for example in the sensory sphere, should not be the development of their remaining sensory organs, but more active and effective forms childhood experience.
Secondly, L. S. Vygotsky introduced the concept of “defect structure.” Primary impairment, for example, decreased hearing, vision, etc., entails secondary developmental deviations and third-order deviations. With different primary cause many secondary deviations in infancy, early and preschool age have similar manifestations. Secondary deviations are, as a rule, systemic in nature and change the entire structure of the child’s mental development.
Speech development defects are observed in all abnormal children. Speech may be absent due to deafness, mental retardation, children's cerebral palsy. At the same time, the development of an abnormal child has the same tendencies and is subject to the same patterns as the development normal child. This is the basis for an optimistic approach to the possibilities of raising and educating children with disabilities. But this requires a special pedagogical intervention that has a correctional focus and takes into account the specifics of this defect. Pedagogical influence is aimed primarily at overcoming and preventing secondary defects. With the help of pedagogical means, significant compensation for impaired functions can be achieved.
The uniqueness of the structure of mental development, for example, of a deaf child, can be represented in the following form: Primary defect - hearing impairment, secondary deviation - Speech development disorder, third order deviation - a unique development of all cognitive processes. To overcome primary defects, medical intervention is necessary; secondary deviations are amenable to corrective pedagogical interventions. Moreover, the more closely the secondary deviation is connected with the primary defect, the more difficult it is to correct. For example, deviations in pronunciation in deaf children are most closely dependent on hearing impairment, so their correction turns out to be the most difficult. The development of other aspects of speech is not so closely dependent on hearing, and their correction turns out to be easier. So, lexicon is acquired not only through oral communication, but also through reading and writing.
Thirdly, this is a provision about the connection between the general tasks of education and special methods, the subordination of special education to social education, and their interdependence. The need for special education was not denied - teaching children with any disabilities requires special pedagogical equipment, special techniques and methods. For example, in case of hearing impairment, the issue of teaching deaf-mute (as they said in the time of L.S. Vygotsky) children oral speech becomes not only a special issue of methods of teaching its articulation, but also the central issue of deaf pedagogy. It is necessary to organize the life of a child with impaired hearing as early as possible so that speech is necessary and interesting for him. “We must create the need for universal human speech - then speech will appear.”
Fourth, the main way to compensate people with various disorders L.S. Vygotsky saw their inclusion in active labor activity, which provides the possibility of forming higher forms of cooperation. L.S. Vygotsky highly appreciated physical abilities compensation, for example, for people with sensory impairments (blind, deaf), while he believed that many types of work activities are available to such people, with the exception of some areas directly related to the primary impairment. At the right approach It is through involvement in work that the door to life opens and conditions are created for full integration into society.
Fifthly, the position of L.S. has deep scientific and practical meaning. Vygotsky that “blindness, deafness, etc., private defects in themselves, do not make their bearer defective.” In his opinion, it is not the defect itself that decides the fate of the individual, but its socio-psychological implementation.
L.S. Vygotsky believed that an individual’s compensatory capabilities are fully revealed only if the defect becomes conscious. In this case, the level of compensation is determined, on the one hand, by the nature and degree of the defect, the reserve forces of the body, and on the other hand, by external social conditions. This position is illustrated very clearly by the words of K.E. Tsiolkovsky, who had impaired hearing since childhood: “Deafness was my chase, the whip that drove me all my life. She distanced me from people, from stereotyped happiness, made me concentrate, surrender to my science-inspired thoughts. Without her, I would never have made or finished so much work.” Thus, both biological and social factors are included in the processes of compensation of mental functions.
Subsequently, in the works of domestic psychologists (A.R. Luria, B.V. Zeigarnik, R.E. Levina, I.M. Solovyov, V.V. Lebedinsky, etc.), the development of problems of compensation of mental functions was continued.
Damage various areas The cerebral cortex causes disorders of conditioned reflex activity (reproduction of previously developed reflexes, development of new reflexes). But these disorders disappear in quite a while short time after surgery. This is primarily due to the fact that compensation for behavior is ensured by multiple representation of functions in the cortex, i.e. compensation of functions in the central nervous system is carried out by the preserved elements of the damaged structure, as well as by brain structures localized in other areas of the brain.
An example of such intersystem compensation is cortical compensation of cerebellar motor disorders. Compensation occurs better in higher animals, which have abundant cortico-cerebellar connections.
In humans, the gradual growth of a tumor localized in the cerebellum often does not manifest itself clinically. However, it occurs if there is parallel damage to the frontal cortex or the frontopontine-cerebellar tract.
In the mechanisms of compensatory reactions of the body, the cerebral cortex plays a larger role compared to the subcortical formations.
In unborn organisms, neocortical neurogenesis continues for several weeks after birth due to preserved zones of the wall matrix lateral ventricle, proliferative and migratory processes. The same mechanisms provide recovery processes for defects in brain tissue if they occur in the early postnatal period.
With age, when compensation by neurogenesis mechanisms becomes impossible, the nervous system uses the path of forming new synaptic and temporary connections.
Cortical-subcortical relationships occupy a significant place in the compensation of disorders of the functions of the central nervous system. They can be either facilitating or inhibitory.
In cases of removal of the cortex, subcortical formations are inhibited faster when anesthesia is used than before removal of the cortex. At the same time, an increase in cortical tone, caused by various methods, increases the resistance of subcortical formations to narcotic drugs. Consequently, the intersystem interaction of the cortex and subcortical structures can be both facilitative and inhibitory.
Distinctive feature The human brain is characterized by the great specialization of its structures and the variety of actions that it is capable of learning.
Regarding specialization, we can give an example of the localization of human linguistic abilities - the speech centers of the left hemisphere of the brain. In the cerebral cortex on the lower part inner surface The temporal lobe of the brain and the hippocampus contain structures whose damage impairs facial recognition, musical abilities, etc.
For sensory functions their projections in the cortex are characteristic, but these projection zones are distinguished by a wide range of participation in other brain functions and have homologous areas in their own and symmetrical hemispheres. The multiplicity of representation of sensory functions in the cortex guarantees the possibility of compensating for violations. A classic example in this regard is the localization of speech centers.
Currently, the distribution of speech function between several areas of the cortex is recognized:
visual field 17, auditory field 41, somatosensory fields 1-3, angular gyrus, motor cortex, Broca's area.
It is known that nerve tissue, destroyed, for example, as a result of cessation of blood flow to the speech center, is not capable of regeneration. However, after its damage, speech, although partially, is restored. This occurs due to the normally inactive, but trained to organize speech, symmetrical region of the opposite hemisphere. The same restoration function is also taken over by areas adjacent to the damaged area of the cortex. Normally, they have the same specialization as the damaged one, but react with longer latent periods. It is known that normally fast-responding neurons inhibit the activity of neurons with late latency.
Speech function is better restored in left-handed people, i.e. in individuals with dominance of the right hemisphere in the praxia of the hand.
However, not all brain functions are restored when the structures responsible for them are damaged. Yes, there is brain disorder, accompanied by the inability to visually recognize faces - prosopagnosia. Such a patient can read and name objects correctly, but cannot name a person by looking at him or his photograph. At the same time, recognition by voice occurs normally. In such patients, disorders are localized to bottom side both occipital lobes of the brain. Damage to these areas and compensation of the recognition function occurs only through intersystem, interanalyzer interaction, but not due to intrasystem processes.
The leading role of the cerebral cortex in compensation of motor functions impaired by damage to the motor analyzer at its different levels is known: cortical, conductive, subcortical, spinal. When various levels of the motor analyzer are damaged, new ones form in the cortex functional centers, acting on the conditioned reflex principle.
Compensatory processes are facilitated by the regulatory influences of the cortex on improving the trophism of the newly formed center, on increasing the excitability and lability of the compensating complex.
In the process of restoring the impaired function, several reflex pathways are formed. The reflex mechanism that ensures the best performance of the impaired function becomes dominant and, according to the dominant principle, inhibits other reflex pathways formed in the process of compensation. Compensatory reflex mechanism when motor disorders is accelerated by the activation of various analyzers, since in this case, in addition to the general activation of the brain, it becomes possible to control the correct execution of the reaction by other analyzers.
The formation of a new temporary connection when the motor center in the cortex is damaged requires that a signal coming from the new command center cause movement. The muscle contraction reaction that arose in response to a command from the new center excites the proprioceptors of these muscles, and their feedback signal enters the analyzer and executive parts of the new motor center. This is a reinforcing moment that ensures the fixation of a temporary connection.
The compensatory capabilities of the cerebral cortex are well illustrated by the restoration of its functions after local damage or functional shutdown.
Removal of the motor cortex causes movement disorders. The degree of violation depends on the extent of damage. Unilateral damage to the motor cortex in animals is quickly compensated by a symmetrical hemisphere. If, after restoration of movement in this animal, the motor area of the other hemisphere is destroyed, then motor impairments arise again, their compensation develops slowly and is not complete. In the same case, when damage to the motor cortex is accompanied by damage to the premotor cortex of the frontal region, compensation becomes impossible.
Consequently, there are redundant relationships between symmetrical structures of the motor cortex that provide compensation.
In higher animals and in humans at a young age, compensation for dysfunction of the cortex of the entire hemisphere is possible. There are a significant number of cases where children, due to dropsy of the brain, had almost completely one hemisphere removed. In cases where such an operation was performed before the age of 5 years, compensation motor function in such children was quite high.
Removal of the motor cortex in an adult, when temporary connections of motor skills have already been formed, leads to gross movement disorders, however, specific treatment aimed at the formation of new connections leads to significant compensation for the resulting motor dysfunctions.
