Physiological and psychological bases of mental disorders. Summary: Physiological foundations of the human psyche
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Structure nervous system person.
The nervous system (NS) of a person consists of two sections: central and peripheral. The CNS consists of the brain and spinal cord. The brain consists of the forebrain, midbrain, and hindbrain. In these departments, structures related to the functioning of the human psyche are also distinguished: thalamus, hypothalamus, bridge, cerebellum, medulla. All departments of the central and peripheral nervous systems are involved in receiving and processing information, but the brain is of particular importance for the human psyche, which determines the features of the functioning of consciousness and thinking. The central nervous system is connected with all organs and tissues of the human body. This connection is provided by nerves that carry signals from the CNS to the periphery. The CNS is an accumulation of nerve cells - neurons and tree-like processes called dendrites; one of the processes is elongated and connects the neuron with the bodies of other neurons, such a process is called an axon. The junction of one neuron with another is called a synapse. Axons connect through nerve channels to energy-sensing devices called receptors. There are many of them in the senses to perceive information about the world around. The concept of an analyzer.
Exploring the problem of perception, storage and processing of information, Pavlov introduced the concept of an analyzer. Denotes a relatively autonomous organic structure that provides
processing of specific sensory information and its passage at all levels, including
CNS. Each analyzer consists of receptors, nerve fibers and parts of the central nervous system. Information,
received with the help of receptors is transmitted to the central nervous system, including the cerebral cortex. The primary projective zones of the analyzer are called sensory zones, because they are associated with the formation of a certain type of sensation. There are secondary fields that play a role in ensuring the functioning of the human psyche and the organism as a whole.
Theory of conditional reflex learning I.P. Pavlova.
Sechenov studied the relationship between the work of the brain and the human body with mental phenomena and behavior. Later, his ideas were developed by Pavlov, who discovered the phenomenon of conditioned reflex learning. According to Pavlov, behavior is made up of complex reflexes formed in the process of learning. The conditioned reflex is a simple physical phenomenon. Although after opening conditioned reflex learning, other ways of acquiring skills by living beings were described. The idea of conditioned reflexes was preserved and received further development in the works of Sokolov, Izmailov. They proposed the concept of a reflex arc, consisting of 3 systems of neurons: afferent, effector (responsible for the organs of movement) and modulating (controlling connections between the afferent and effector systems).
The doctrine of N.A. Bernshtein on the participation of the psyche in the regulation of movement.
Bernstein believes that the simplest transformation of movement cannot be carried out without the participation of the psyche. The formation of any motor act is an active psychomotor reaction. In this case, the movement is carried out under the influence of consciousness, which carries out a certain sensory correction of the nervous system, which ensures the implementation of new movements. When the movement is mastered and brought to automatism, the control process leaves the field of consciousness.
Model-functional systems according to P.K. Anokhin.
Anokhin proposed his concept of the regulation of a behavioral act. This concept
called the functional system model. Man cannot exist
isolated from the outside world. Impact external factors called situational
afferentation. Some influences are insignificant or not conscious for a person, but others
evoke a response. This reaction has the character of an orienting reaction. All
objects affecting a person are perceived by a person in the form of an image. In the CNS total
action is presented in the form of a new model, called the acceptor of the result of the action - this is the goal to which the action is directed. In the presence of an action acceptor, formulated by the human consciousness, the execution of the action begins; information passes through the emotional sphere, causing emotions that affect the nature of the installation. But the theory says that mental phenomena and physical processes play a role in the regulation of behavior.
The theory of systemic dynamic localization of higher mental functions A.R. Luria. Luria proposed to identify anatomically autonomous blocks of the brain that ensure the functioning of mental phenomena. The primary block is designed to maintain a certain level of activity, includes the reticular formation of the brain stem, parts of the midbrain, structures of the limbic system, frontal and temporal lobes. The second block is associated with cognitive mental processes and is intended for the processes of obtaining, processing and storing information. The block consists of sections of the cerebral cortex, in the posterior and temporal regions of the hemisphere. The third block provides the functions of thinking, behavioral regulation and control. The structures are located in the anterior regions of the cerebral cortex.
Structure, functioning and properties of the central nervous system.
The problem of the emergence of consciousness is considered from different positions. From one point of view, human consciousness is of divine origin. With another
From the point of view, the emergence of consciousness in humans is considered as a natural stage in the evolution of the animal world. Having reviewed the material of the previous sections, we certain confidence we can state the following:
■ all living beings can be classified according to the level of development of the psyche;
■ level mental development animal is closely related to the level of development of its nervous system;
■ a person, possessing consciousness, has the highest level of mental development.
Having drawn such conclusions, we will not be mistaken if we assert that a person has not only a higher level of mental development, but also a more developed nervous system.
In this section, we will get acquainted with the structure and features of the functioning of the human nervous system. Let us make a reservation right away that our acquaintance will not be of the nature of an in-depth study, since the functional structure of the nervous system is studied in more detail within the framework of other disciplines, in particular, the anatomy of the nervous system, the physiology of higher nervous activity and psychophysiology.
The human nervous system consists of two sections: central and peripheral. The central nervous system (CNS) consists of the brain and spinal cord. The brain consists, in turn, of the forebrain, middle and hindbrain. In these main sections of the central nervous system, the most important structures that are directly related to the functioning of the human psyche are also distinguished: the thalamus, hypothalamus, bridge, cerebellum, medulla oblongata (Fig. 4.3).
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Rice. 4.4. General structure neuron |
Almost all departments and structures of the central and peripheral nervous system are involved in receiving and processing information, however, the cerebral cortex is of particular importance for the human psyche, which, together with the subcortical structures that make up the forebrain, determines the features of the functioning of consciousness and human thinking.
The central nervous system is connected with all organs and tissues of the human body. This connection is provided by nerves that come out of the brain and spinal cord. In humans, all nerves are divided into two functional groups. The first group includes nerves that conduct signals from the outside world and body structures. The nerves included in this group are called afferent. Nerves that carry signals from the CNS to the periphery (organs, muscle tissues etc.), are included in another group and are called efferent.
The central nervous system itself is an accumulation of nerve cells - neurons (Fig. 4.4). These nerve cells are made up of a neuron and tree-like extensions called dendrites. One of these processes is elongated and connects the neuron with the bodies or processes of other neurons. This process is called an axon.
Part of the axons is covered with a special sheath - the myelin sheath, which provides faster impulse conduction along the nerve. The places where one neuron connects to another are called synapses.
Most neurons are specific, that is, they perform certain functions. For example, neurons that conduct impulses from the periphery to the central nervous system are called " sensory neurons". In turn, the neurons responsible for the transmission of impulses from the CNS to the muscles are called "motor neurons". The neurons responsible for ensuring the connection of some parts of the CNS with others are called "local network neurons".
At the periphery, axons connect to miniature organic devices designed to sense various kinds energy (mechanical, electromagnetic, chemical, etc.) and converting it into the energy of a nerve impulse. These organic devices are called receptors. They are located throughout the human body. There are especially many receptors in the sense organs, specially designed for the perception of information about the surrounding world.
Exploring the problem of perception, storage and processing of information, IP Pavlov introduced the concept of an analyzer. This concept denotes a relatively autonomous organic structure that ensures the processing of specific sensory information and its passage at all levels, including the central nervous system. Consequently, each analyzer consists of three structural elements: receptors, nerve fibers and the corresponding parts of the central nervous system (Fig. 4.5).
As we have already said, there are several groups of receptors. This division into groups is caused by the ability of receptors to perceive and process only one type of influence, therefore, receptors are divided into visual, auditory, gustatory, olfactory, skin, etc. The information received with the help of receptors is transmitted further to the corresponding section of the central nervous system, including the cerebral cortex. It should be noted that information from the same receptors comes only to a certain area of the cerebral cortex. The visual analyzer closes on one part of the cortex, the auditory analyzer on another, and so on. d.
It should be emphasized that the entire cerebral cortex can be divided into separate functional areas. In this case, it is possible to distinguish not only the zones of the analyzers, but also motor, speech, etc. Thus, in accordance with the classification of K. Brodman, the cerebral cortex can be divided into 11 regions and 52 fields.
Let us consider in more detail the structure of the cerebral cortex (Fig. 4.6, Fig. 4.7, Fig. 4.8). It is the top layer forebrain, formed mainly by vertically oriented neurons, their processes - dendrites and bundles of axons going down to the corresponding parts of the brain, as well as axons transmitting information from underlying brain structures. The cerebral cortex is divided into areas: temporal, frontal, parietal, occipital, and the areas themselves are divided into even smaller areas - fields. It should be noted that since the left and right hemispheres are distinguished in the brain,
then the areas of the cerebral cortex, respectively, will be divided into left and right.
According to the time of occurrence of the sections of the cerebral cortex in the process of human phylogenesis, the cerebral cortex is divided into ancient, old and new. The ancient cortex has only one layer of cells that are not completely separated from the subcortical structures. The area of the ancient cortex is approximately 0.6% of the area of the entire cerebral cortex.
The old cortex also consists of a single layer of cells, but it is completely separated from the subcortical structures. Its area is approximately 2.6% of the area of the entire cortex. Most of the cortex is occupied by the new cortex. It has the most complex, multi-layered and developed structure.
The information received by the receptors is transmitted along the nerve fibers to the accumulation of specific nuclei of the thalamus, and through them the afferent impulse enters the primary projection zones of the cerebral cortex. These zones represent the end cortical structures of the analyzer. For example, the projective zone of the visual analyzer is located in the occipital regions hemispheres, and the projective zone of auditory analyzers - in the upper sections temporal lobes.
The primary projective areas of the analyzers are sometimes called sensory areas, because they are associated with the formation of a certain type of sensation. If you destroy any zone, then a person may lose the ability to perceive a certain type of information. For example, if the zone of visual sensations is destroyed, then the person goes blind. Thus, human sensations depend not only on the level of development and integrity of the sense organ, in this case, vision, but also on the integrity of the pathways - nerve fibers - and the primary projective zone of the cerebral cortex.
It should be noted that in addition to the primary fields of the analyzers (sensory fields), there are other primary fields, for example, primary motor fields associated with the muscles of the body and responsible for certain movements (Fig. 4.9). It is also necessary to pay attention to the fact that the primary fields occupy relatively little space. large area cerebral cortex - no more than one-third of it. A much larger area is occupied by secondary fields, which are most often called associative or integrative.
The secondary fields of the cortex are, as it were, a "superstructure" over the primary fields. Their functions are to synthesize or integrate individual elements of information into a complete picture. Thus, elementary sensations in sensory integrative fields (or perceptual fields) are formed into a holistic perception, and individual movements, thanks to the motor integrative fields, are formed into a holistic motor act.
Secondary fields play exclusively important role in ensuring the functioning of both the human psyche and the organism itself. If these fields are affected electric shock, for example, on the secondary fields of the visual analyzer, then integral visual images can be evoked in a person, and their destruction leads to the disintegration of the visual perception of objects, although individual sensations remain.
Among the integrative fields of the human cerebral cortex, it is necessary to single out speech centers differentiated only in humans: the center of auditory perception of speech ( The so-called Wernicke Center) AND The motor center of speech (the so-called Broca's center). The presence of these differentiated centers testifies to the special role of speech for the regulation of the psyche and human behavior. However, there are other centers as well. For example, consciousness, thinking, behavior formation, volitional control are associated with the activity of the frontal lobes, the so-called irefrontal and premotor zones.
The representation of the speech function in humans is asymmetrical. It is located in the left hemisphere. Similar phenomenon called functional asymmetry. Asymmetry is characteristic not only for speech, but also for other mental functions. Today it is known that left hemisphere in his work acts as a leader in the implementation of speech and other speech-related functions: reading, writing, counting, logical memory, verbal-logical, or abstract, thinking, arbitrary speech regulation of other mental processes and states. The right hemisphere performs functions not related to speech, and the corresponding processes usually occur at the sensory level.
The left and right hemispheres perform various functions in the perception and formation of the image of the displayed object. The right hemisphere is characterized high speed work on identification, its accuracy and clarity. This way of identifying objects can be defined as integral-synthetic, predominantly holistic, structural-semantic, i.e. the right hemisphere is responsible for the holistic perception of the object or performs the function of global image integration. The left hemisphere functions on the basis of an analytical approach, which consists in a sequential enumeration of the elements of the image, i.e. the left hemisphere displays the object, forming separate parts of the mental image. It should be noted that both hemispheres are involved in the perception of the external world. Violation of the activity of any of the hemispheres can lead to the impossibility of a person's contact with the surrounding reality.
It must also be emphasized that the specialization of the hemispheres occurs in the process of individual development of a person. Maximum specialization is noted when a person reaches a period of maturity, and then, towards old age, this specialization is again lost.
When getting acquainted with the structure of the central nervous system, we must definitely dwell on the consideration of another brain structure - Reticularformations, which plays a special role in the regulation of many mental processes and properties. Such a name is Reticular or reticular- she received because of her structure, since it is a collection of sparse, resembling a thin network of neural structures, anatomically located in the spinal cord, medulla oblongata and hindbrain.
Research functional asymmetry brain
At first glance, the two halves of the human brain appear to be mirror images of each other. But a closer look reveals their asymmetry. Repeated attempts have been made to measure the brain after the autopsy. At the same time, the left hemisphere was almost always larger than the right one. In addition, the right hemisphere contains many long nerve fibers that connect areas of the brain that are far from each other, and in the left hemisphere, many short fibers form a large number of connections in a limited area.
In 1861, the French physician Paul Broca, examining the brain of a patient suffering from loss of speech, discovered that in the left hemisphere a section of the cortex in the frontal lobe was damaged just above the lateral sulcus. This area is now known as Broca's area. She is responsible for the function of speech. As we know today, destruction of a similar area in the right hemisphere usually does not lead to speech impairment, since the areas involved in speech understanding and providing the ability to write and understand what is written are usually also located in the left hemisphere. Only a very few left-handers can have speech centers located in the right hemisphere, but in the vast majority of them they are located in the same place as in right-handed people - the left hemisphere.
Although the role of the left hemisphere in speech activity has been known for a relatively long time, only recently has it become possible to find out what each hemisphere can do on its own. The fact is that normally the brain works as a whole; information from one hemisphere is immediately transmitted to the other along the wide bundle of nerve fibers connecting them, called the corpus callosum. In some forms of epilepsy, this connecting bridge can cause problems due to the fact that the seizure activity of one hemisphere spreads to the other. In an effort to prevent such a generalization of seizures in some seriously ill epileptics, neurosurgeons began to use surgical dissection of the corpus callosum. For some patients, this operation is successful and reduces seizures. At the same time, there are no undesirable consequences: in everyday life, such patients act no worse than people with connected hemispheres. Special tests were required to find out how the separation of the two hemispheres affects mental activity.
So, in 1981, the Nobel Prize was awarded to Roger Sperry, who was one of the first to study the activity of the split brain. In one of his experiments, the subject (who had undergone brain dissection) was in front of a screen covering his arms. The subject had to fix his gaze on a spot in the center of the screen, and the word "nut" was presented on the left side of the screen for a very short time (only 0.1 s).
The visual signal was received at right side brain that governs the left side of the body. With his left hand, the subject could easily select a nut from a pile of objects inaccessible to observation. But he could not tell the experimenter which word was appearing on the screen, since speech is controlled by the left hemisphere, and the visual image of the word "nut" was not transmitted to this hemisphere. Moreover, the split-brained patient apparently did not realize what he was doing. left hand when asked about it. Since the sensory input from the left hand goes to the right hemisphere, the left hemisphere does not receive any information about what the left hand feels or does. All information went to the right hemisphere, which received the initial visual signal of the word "nut".
In carrying out this experiment, it was important that the word appear on the screen for no more than 0.1 s. If this continues longer, the patient has time to shift his gaze, and then the information also enters the right hemisphere. It has been found that if a split-brained subject can look freely, information flows to both hemispheres, and this is one of the reasons why the dissection of the corpus callosum has little to no effect on the daily activities of such a patient.
The reticular formation has a significant effect on the electrical activity of the brain, on functional state cerebral cortex, subcortical centers, cerebellum and spinal cord. It is also directly related to the regulation of the main life processes: circulation and respiration.
Very often, the reticular formation is called the source of the body's activity, since the nerve impulses generated by this structure determine the body's performance, the state of sleep or wakefulness. It is also necessary to note the regulatory function of this formation, since the nerve impulses formed by the reticular formation differ in their amplitude and frequency, which leads to a periodic change in the functional state of the cerebral cortex, which, in turn, determines the dominant functional state of the whole organism. Therefore, the state of wakefulness is replaced by the state of sleep and vice versa (Fig. 4.10).
Violation of the activity of the reticular formation causes a violation of the body's biorhythms. Thus, irritation of the ascending part of the reticular formation has a reaction of changing the electrical signal, characteristic of the state of wakefulness of the body. Constant irritation of the ascending part of the reticular formation leads to the fact that a person’s sleep is disturbed, he cannot fall asleep, the body shows increased activity. This phenomenon is called desynchronization and manifests itself in the disappearance of slow fluctuations in the electrical activity of the brain. In turn, the predominance of waves of low frequency and large amplitude causes prolonged sleep.
There is also an opinion that the activity of the reticular formation determines the nature of the response to the effects of objects and phenomena of the outside world. It is customary to distinguish between specific and non-specific reactions of the body. In a simplified form, a specific reaction is the usual reaction of the body to a familiar, or standard, stimulus. The essence of a specific reaction is the formation of standard adaptive forms of response to a familiar external stimulus. A non-specific reaction is the reaction of the body to an unusual external stimulus. Unusualness can lie both in the excess of the strength of the usual stimulus, and in the nature of the impact of a new unknown stimulus. In this case, the body's response
114 ■ Part I. Introduction to General Psychology
Anokhin Petr Kuzmich (1898-1974) is a well-known Russian physiologist. He offered his own understanding of reinforcement, different from the classical (Pavlovian). He considered reinforcement not as the effect of the action of an unconditioned stimulus, but as an afferent signal about the reaction itself, indicating compliance with the expected result (action acceptor). On this basis, he developed a theory functional systems which has become widely known all over the world. The theory proposed by Anokhin contributed to the understanding of the adaptive mechanisms of a living organism.
It is indicative. Due to the presence of this type of reactions, the body has the ability to subsequently form an adequate adaptive response to a new stimulus, which preserves the integrity of the body and ensures its further normal functioning.
Thus, we can state that the human nervous system performs the functions of a system that regulates the activity of the whole organism. Thanks to the nervous system, a person is able to receive information about the external environment, analyze it and form behavior adequate to the situation, i.e. successfully adapt to changing conditions external environment.
The relationship between the mind and the human brain. In the IV century. BC e. Alcmaeon of Croton formulated the idea that mental phenomena are closely related to the functioning of the brain. This idea was supported by many ancient scientists, such as Hippocrates. The idea of the relationship between the brain and the psyche has evolved throughout the history of accumulation psychological knowledge, as a result of which more and more new versions of it appeared.
At the beginning of the XX century. of two different areas knowledge - psychology and physiology - two new sciences were formed: the physiology of higher nervous activity and psychophysiology. The physiology of higher nervous activity studies the organic processes that occur in the brain and cause various bodily reactions. Psychophysiology, in turn, explores the anatomical and physiological foundations of the psyche.
It should be immediately recalled that the problems of psychophysiology and the fundamentals of the physiology of higher nervous activity are studied in more detail within the framework of courses in psychophysiology and normal physiology. In this section, we consider the problem of the relationship between the brain and the psyche for the purpose of general acquaintance with it, in order to get a holistic view of the human psyche.
I. M. Sechenov made a great contribution to understanding how the work of the brain and the human body is connected with mental phenomena and behavior. Later, his ideas were developed by IP Pavlov, who discovered the phenomenon of conditioned reflex learning. Nowadays, the ideas and developments of Pavlov served as the basis for the creation of new theories, among which the theories and concepts of N. A. Bernshtein, K. Hull, P. K. Anokhin, E. N. Sokolov and others stand out.
I. M. Sechenov believed that mental phenomena are included in any behavioral act and are themselves peculiar complex reflexes, i.e., physiological phenomena. According to IP Pavlov, behavior is made up of complex conditioned reflexes formed in the process of learning. Later it turned out that conditioned reflex- this is a very simple physiological phenomenon and nothing more. However, despite the fact that after the discovery of conditioned reflex learning, other ways of acquiring skills by living beings were described - imprinting, operant conditioning, vicarious learning, the idea of a conditioned reflex as one of the ways of acquiring experience was preserved and further developed in the works of such psychophysiologists as E. N. Sokolov and C. I. Izmailov. They proposed the concept of conceptual reflex arc, consisting of three interconnected, but relatively independent systems of neurons: afferent (sensory analyzer), effector (executive, responsible for the organs of movement) and modulating (controlling connections between the afferent and effector systems). The first system of neurons ensures the receipt and processing of information, the second system ensures the generation of commands and their execution, the third system exchanges information between the first two.
Along with this theory, there are other very promising developments concerning, on the one hand, the role of mental processes in the control of behavior, and, on the other hand, the construction of general models of behavior regulation with the participation of physiological and psychological phenomena in this process. So, N. A. Bernstein believes that even the simplest acquired movement, not to mention complex human activity and behavior in general, cannot be performed without the participation of the psyche. He claims that the formation of any motor act is an active psychomotor reaction. At the same time, the development of movement is carried out under the influence of consciousness, which at the same time performs a certain sensory correction of the nervous system, which ensures the implementation of a new movement. The more complex the movement, the more corrective changes are required. When the movement is mastered and brought to automatism, the control process leaves the field of consciousness and turns into a background one.
The American scientist C. Hull considered a living organism as a self-regulating system with specific mechanisms of behavioral and genetic-biological regulation. These mechanisms are mostly innate and serve to maintain optimal conditions physical and biochemical balance in the body - homeostasis - and are activated when this balance is disturbed.
P. K. Anokhin proposed his own concept of regulation of a behavioral act. This concept has received wide use and is known as the functional system model (Figure 4.11). The essence of this concept is that a person cannot exist in isolation from the outside world. He is constantly exposed to certain environmental factors. The influence of external factors was called by Anokhin situational afferentation. Some influences are insignificant or even unconscious for a person, but others - usually unusual ones - evoke a response in him. This response has the character of an orienting reaction and is a stimulus for the manifestation of activity.
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All objects and conditions of activity affecting a person, regardless of their significance, are perceived by a person in the form of an image. This image correlates with the information stored in the memory and motivational attitudes of a person. Moreover, the process of comparison is carried out, most likely, through consciousness, which leads to the emergence of a decision and a plan of behavior.
In the central nervous system, the expected outcome of actions is presented in the form of a kind of nervous model called Anokhin The acceptor of the result of an action. Action result acceptor is the goal towards which the action is directed. In the presence of an action acceptor and an action program formulated by consciousness, the direct execution of the action begins. This includes the will, as well as the process of obtaining information about the fulfillment of the goal. Information about the results of an action has the character feedback(reverse afferentation) and is aimed at forming an attitude towards the action being performed. Since information passes through the emotional sphere, it causes certain emotions that affect the nature of the installation. If the emotions are positive, then the action stops. If emotions are negative, then adjustments are made to the performance of the action.
The theory of functional systems by P. K. Anokhin has become widespread due to the fact that it makes it possible to approach the solution of the question of the relationship between physiological and psychological processes. This theory says that mental phenomena and physiological processes play an important role in regulating behavior. Moreover, behavior is in principle impossible without the simultaneous participation of mental and physiological processes.
There are other approaches to considering the relationship between the psyche and the brain. Thus, A. R. Luria proposed to single out anatomically relatively autonomous blocks of the brain that ensure the functioning of mental phenomena. The first block is designed to maintain a certain level of activity. It includes the reticular formation of the brainstem, the deep parts of the midbrain, the structures of the limbic system, the mediobasal parts of the cortex of the frontal and temporal lobes of the brain. The second block is associated with cognitive mental processes and is intended for the processes of obtaining, processing and storing information. This block consists of sections of the cerebral cortex, which are mainly located in the posterior and temporal regions of the cerebral hemispheres. The third block provides the functions of thinking, behavioral regulation and self-control. The structures included in this block are located in the anterior sections of the cerebral cortex.
This concept was put forward by Luria as a result of an analysis of the results of his experimental studies functional and organic disorders and diseases of the brain. However, it should be noted that the problem of localization of mental functions and phenomena in the brain is interesting in itself. At one time, the idea was put forward that all mental processes associated with certain areas of the brain, i.e. localized. According to the idea of localizationism, each mental function can be "attached" to a specific organic area of the brain. As a result, detailed maps of the localization of mental functions in the brain were created.
However, after a certain time, facts were obtained indicating that various disorders of mental processes are often associated
With damage to the same brain structures, and vice versa, damage to the same areas in certain cases can lead to various disorders. The presence of such facts led to the emergence of an alternative hypothesis - anti-localizationism - stating that the work of individual mental functions is associated with the activity of the entire brain. In terms of this hypothesis, various sites the brain has developed certain connections that ensure the functioning of certain mental processes. But even this concept could not explain many of the brain disorders that speak in favor of localization-zionism. So, a violation of the occipital cortex leads to visual impairment, and the temporal lobes of the cerebral hemispheres - to speech impairment.
The Problem of Localizationism - anti-localizationism not resolved so far. May with full confidence to argue that the organization of brain structures and the relationship between individual parts of the brain is much more complex and multifaceted than currently available information about the features of the functioning of the central nervous system. You can also say that there are areas of the brain that are directly related to certain bodies feelings and movement, as well as the realization of the abilities inherent in a person (for example, speech). However, it is quite probable that these areas are to a certain extent interconnected with other parts of the brain, which ensure the implementation of this or that mental process in full.
Psychophysiological problem in psychology. Considering the relationship between the psyche and the brain, we cannot but get acquainted with the so-called psychophysiological problem.
Speaking about the natural scientific foundations of the psyche, today we have no doubt that there is a certain relationship between the psyche and the brain. However, even today the problem, known since the end of the 19th century, continues to be discussed. as psychophysiological. It is an independent problem of psychology and is not of a concrete scientific, but of a methodological nature. It is related to the solution of a number of fundamental methodological issues, such as the subject of psychology, ways scientific explanation in psychology, etc.
What is the essence of this problem? Formally, it can be expressed as a question: how do physiological and mental processes correlate? There are two main answers to this question. The first in a naive form was stated by R. Descartes, who believed that in the brain there is a pineal gland, through which the soul acts on animal spirits, and animal spirits on the soul. Or, in other words, the mental and physiological are in constant interaction and influence each other. This approach is called the principle of psychophysiological interaction.
The second solution is known as the principle of psychophysiological parallelism. Its essence consists in asserting the impossibility of a causal interaction between mental and physiological processes.
At first glance, the truth of the first approach, which consists in the approval of the psycho-physiological interaction, is beyond doubt. We can give many examples of the impact of the physiological processes of the brain on the psyche and the psyche on physiology. Nevertheless, despite the evidence of the facts of psychophysiological interaction, there are a number of serious objections to this approach. One of them is the denial of the fundamental law of nature - the law of conservation of energy. If material processes, what
If physiological processes were caused by a mental (ideal) cause, then this would mean the emergence of energy from nothing, since the mental is not material. On the other hand, if physiological (material) processes gave rise to mental phenomena, then we would encounter an absurdity of a different kind - energy disappears.
Of course, one can object to this that the law of conservation of energy is not entirely correct, but in nature we are unlikely to find other examples of violation of this law. It is possible to speak about the existence of a specific "mental" energy, but in this case it is again necessary to give an explanation of the mechanisms for the transformation of material energy into some kind of "non-material". And finally, we can say that all mental phenomena are material in their essence, that is, they are physiological processes. Then the process of interaction between the soul and the body is the process of interaction between the material and the material. But in this case, you can agree to complete absurdity. For example, if I raised my hand, then this is an act of consciousness and at the same time a brain physiological process. If after that I want to hit someone with it (for example, my interlocutor), then this process can go to the motor centers. However, if moral considerations make me refrain from doing this, then this means that moral considerations are also a material process.
At the same time, despite all the arguments given as evidence of the material nature of the mental, it is necessary to agree with the existence of two phenomena - subjective (primarily the facts of consciousness) and objective (biochemical, electrical and other phenomena in the human brain). It would be quite natural to assume that these phenomena correspond to each other. But if we agree with these statements, then we go over to the side of another principle - the principle of psychophysiological parallelism, which asserts the impossibility of the interaction of ideal and material processes.
It should be noted that there are several streams of parallelism. These are dualistic parallelism, proceeding from the recognition of the independent essence of the spiritual and material principles, and monistic parallelism, which sees all mental and physiological phenomena as two sides of one process. The main thing that unites them is the assertion that mental and physiological processes proceed in parallel and independently of each other. What happens in the mind corresponds to what happens in the brain, and vice versa, but these processes are independent of each other.
We could agree with this statement if the reasoning in this direction did not constantly end with the denial of the existence of the mental. For example, independent of mental brain process most often triggered by a push from the outside: external energy (light rays, sound waves etc.) is transformed into a physiological process, which is transformed in the conducting paths and centers, takes the form of reactions, actions, behavioral acts. Along with this, without influencing him in any way, events unfold on a conscious plane - images, desires, intentions. At the same time, the mental process does not affect physiological processes, including behavioral reactions. Consequently, if the physiological process does not depend on the mental, then the entire life activity of a person can be described in terms of physiology. In this case, the psyche becomes an epiphenomenon - a side effect.
Thus, both approaches we are considering are unable to solve the psychophysiological problem. Therefore, there is no single methodological approach to the study of the problems of psychology. From what positions shall we proceed when considering psychic phenomena?
From the foregoing, it follows that there is a close relationship between mental and physiological processes. Therefore, considering mental phenomena, we will always remember that they are in close interaction with physiological processes, that they, most likely, determine each other. At the same time, the human brain is the material "substratum" that provides the possibility of the functioning of mental phenomena and processes. Therefore, mental and physiological processes are interrelated and mutually determine human behavior.
TABLE OF CONTENTS
Introduction…………………………………………………………………..…...... 3
1. The structure of the human psyche………… ……………………………….…...... 5
2. Basic human mental processes…………………………….. ..... 7
3. Mental states. Their impact on people's activities .................... 14
4. Mental properties of a person……………………………………………….. 19
Conclusion………………………………………………………………………... 24
Bibliography………………………………….…...…. .... 25
INTRODUCTION
The theme of this test work "The main forms of manifestation of the human psyche" occupies an important place in the study of personality psychology within the discipline "Psychology and Pedagogy".
The relevance of the topic is determined by the need for a modern person to have scientific knowledge about the human psyche. Such knowledge helps in solving problems, both in everyday life and in the field of professional activity. In a broader sense, such knowledge is actively used by specialists from various industries to solve, for example, the problems of rational distribution of functions between a person and a computer, the problems of designing automated workstations for specialists in various fields, the problems of developing artificial intelligence systems, robotics, and others.
The problematic presentation of the topic is due to the fact that the manifestations of the human psyche cannot be considered only through the study of brain activity. Of course, “the close connection between the psyche and the activity of the brain is beyond doubt, damage or physiological inferiority of the brain leads to the inferiority of the psyche. Although the brain is an organ whose activity determines the psyche, the content of this psyche is not produced by the brain itself, its source is the external world. That is, it is through the interaction of a person with the material and spiritual environment that surrounds him that the development, formation, functioning and manifestation of the mental takes place. Therefore, in the work it is necessary to consider the main forms of manifestation of the human psyche, not just as a result of the work of our nervous system, but first of all, as a result of a person’s social and labor activity, his communication with other people.
A person does not just penetrate the world with the help of his cognitive processes. He lives and acts in this world, creating it for himself in order to satisfy his needs, performs certain actions. Mental processes, states and properties can hardly be comprehended to the end, if they are not considered depending on the conditions of a person's life, on how his interaction with nature and society is organized. Although all forms of manifestation of the psyche are studied separately, in reality they are connected with each other and form a single whole.
1. The structure of the human psyche
The human psyche is a qualitatively higher level than the psyche of animals (Homo sapiens is a reasonable person). Consciousness, the human mind developed in the process labor activity, which arose due to the need to carry out joint actions to obtain food during a sharp change in the living conditions of primitive man. And although the specific biological and morphological features of a person have been stable for millennia, the development of the human psyche took place in the process of labor activity. Labor activity is productive; labor, carrying out the process of production, is imprinted in its product, i.e., there is a process of incarnation, objectification in the products of people's activity of their spiritual forces and abilities. Thus, the material, spiritual culture of mankind is an objective form of embodiment of the achievements of the mental development of mankind.
The human psyche is complex and diverse in its manifestations. There are three large groups of mental phenomena (see table 1).
Table 1. The structure of the human psyche.
mental processes
mental states
Mental Properties
Feel
Perception
Attention
Thinking
Imagination
emotional
cognitive
Volitional
Character
Temperament
Abilities Orientation
Mental processes are a dynamic reflection of reality in various forms of mental phenomena. The mental process is the course of a mental phenomenon that has a beginning, development and end, manifested in the form of a reaction. At the same time, it must be borne in mind that the end of a mental process is closely connected with the beginning of a new process. Hence the continuity of mental activity in the waking state of a person. Mental processes are caused both by external influences and by irritations of the nervous system coming from internal environment organism. Mental processes provide the formation of knowledge and the primary regulation of human behavior and activities.
A mental state should be understood as a relatively stable level of mental activity that has been determined at a given time, which manifests itself in increased or decreased activity of the individual. Every person experiences different mental states on a daily basis. In one mental state, mental or physical work is easy and productive, in another it is difficult and inefficient. Mental states are of a reflex nature: they arise under the influence of the situation, physiological factors, the course of work, time and verbal influences.
The mental properties of a person are the highest and most stable regulators of mental activity. The mental properties of a person should be understood as stable formations that provide a certain qualitative-quantitative level of activity and behavior that is typical for a given person.
Each mental property is formed gradually and is the result of reflective and practical activity.
2. Basic human mental processes
Sensations are a reflection of the individual properties of objects that act on the senses. Sensations are objective, since they always reflect an external stimulus, and on the other hand, they are subjective, since they depend on the state of the nervous system and individual characteristics. How do we feel? In order for us to become aware of any factor or element of reality, it is necessary that the energy emanating from it (thermal, chemical, mechanical, electrical or electromagnetic) first of all be sufficient to become a stimulus, that is, to excite any of our receptors. Only when electrical impulses arise in the nerve endings of one of our sense organs, can the process of sensation begin. The most common classification of sensations - I. Sherrington:
1) exteroceptive - arise when exposed to external stimuli on receptors located on the surface of the body;
2) interoreceptive - signal what is happening in the body (hunger, thirst, pain);
3) proprioceptive - located in the muscles and tendons.
I. Sherrington's scheme allows us to divide the total mass of exteroceptive sensations into distant (visual, auditory) and contact (tactile, gustatory) sensations. Olfactory sensations occupy an intermediate position in this case. The most ancient is organic sensitivity (the feeling of hunger, thirst, satiety, as well as complexes of pain and sexual sensations), then contact, primarily tactile (sensations of pressure, touch) forms appeared. And the most evolutionarily young should be considered auditory, and especially visual receptor systems.
Reception and processing by a person of information received through the senses ends with the appearance of images of objects or phenomena. The process of forming these images is called perception ("perception"). The main qualities of perception include the following:
1) Perception depends on past experience, on the content of a person's mental activity. This feature is called apperception. When the brain receives incomplete, ambiguous or contradictory data, it usually interprets them in accordance with the already established system of images, knowledge, individual psychological differences (according to needs, inclinations, motives, emotional states). People who live in round dwellings (Aleuts) find it difficult to navigate in our houses with an abundance of vertical and horizontal straight lines. The aperception factor explains significant differences in the perception of the same phenomena by different people or by the same person in different conditions and at different times.
2) Behind the existing images of objects, perception retains their size and color, regardless of the distance from which we look at them and at what angle we see. (A white shirt remains white for us even in bright light and shade. But if we saw only a small piece of it through the hole, it would seem to us rather gray in the shade). This feature of perception is called constancy.
3) A person perceives the world in the form of separate objects, existing independently of him, opposing him, that is, perception is of an objective nature.
4) Perception, as it were, “completes” the images of the objects it perceives, supplementing the data of sensations with the necessary elements. This is the integrity of perception.
5) Perception is not limited only to the formation of new images, a person is able to realize the processes of “his” perception, which allows us to speak of a meaningful generalized nature of perception.
For the perception of any phenomenon, it is necessary that it be able to cause a reaction, which will allow us to "tune" our senses to it. Such an arbitrary or involuntary orientation and concentration of mental activity on some object of perception is called attention. Without it, perception is impossible.
Attention has certain parameters and features, which are largely a characteristic of human abilities and capabilities. The main properties of attention usually include the following:
1. Concentration. This is an indicator of the degree of concentration of consciousness on a particular object, the intensity of communication with it. Concentration of attention means that a temporary center (focus) of all psychological activity of a person is formed.
2. Intensity. Characterizes the efficiency of perception, thinking and memory in general.
3. Stability. The ability to maintain high levels of concentration and intensity of attention for a long time. It is determined by the type of nervous system, temperament, motivation (novelty, importance of needs, personal interests), as well as external conditions human activity.
4. Volume - the number of homogeneous stimuli that are in the focus of attention of an adult - from 4 to 6 objects, for a child - no more than 2-3. The amount of attention depends not only on genetic factors and on the ability of an individual's short-term memory. The characteristics of the perceived objects and the professional skills of the subject also matter.
5. Distribution, that is, the ability to focus on several objects at the same time. At the same time, several focuses, centers of attention are formed, which makes it possible to perform several actions or monitor several processes at the same time, without losing any of the field of attention. Napoleon could, according to some evidence, dictate seven important diplomatic documents to his secretaries at the same time.
6. Switching attention is understood as the possibility of a more or less easy and fairly quick transition from one type of activity to another. Switching is also functionally related to two processes in different directions: turning attention on and off. Switching can be arbitrary, then its speed is an indicator of the degree of volitional control of the subject over his perception, and involuntary, associated with distraction, which is either an indicator of the degree of mental instability or indicates the appearance of strong unexpected stimuli.
Memory is a cognitive quality, mechanisms and processes that ensure that a person remembers, preserves and reproduces experience and significant information. Memorization, preservation, recognition, recall and reproduction are the main processes of memory. / 3, p. 94 /
It is customary to distinguish between mechanical and semantic memorization. The process of rote memorization is boring. In this case, the internal, essential connections of phenomena and events are not revealed; multiple repetitions are required. Semantic, or logical, memorization is based on a deep penetration into the meaning of phenomena or objects. Retention is a non-passive process of retaining information. In psychology, the dependence of preservation on personality settings (professional orientation of memory, rancor of emotional memory), conditions and organization of memorization has been revealed. special role in the preservation of information, action algorithms, their practical application, practice plays. Playback is the process of retrieving stored material from memory. Reproduction is involuntary, when a thought pops up in memory without the intention of a person, and arbitrary, when the identity of the perceived and stored in memory is established. The best aid to recall is the reliance on recognition. By comparing several similar ideas or images, a person can more easily remember, and sometimes just recognize the right ones among them.
Memory develops in the fight against forgetting. Forgetting is the reverse process of remembering. Forgetting turns out to be the deeper, the less often certain material is included in the activity, the less significant it becomes for achieving actual life goals.
There are the following types of memory: verbal-logical and figurative. Figurative memory is divided into visual, auditory, motor. Depending on the setting for the duration of storage (remember for a few minutes or keep in mind for a long time), short-term and long-term memory are distinguished.
Thinking is a mental cognitive process consisting in a person's mediated and generalized reflection of reality in its essential and complex connections and relationships. Thinking is impossible without language. Thanks to thinking, a person learns not only what can be directly perceived with the help of our senses, but also what is hidden from direct perception and can be known only as a result of analysis, comparison, generalization.
The main forms of thinking are: concepts, judgments and conclusions. A concept is a thought that reflects the general, essential and distinctive (specific) features of objects and phenomena of reality. The content of concepts is revealed in judgments, which are always expressed in verbal form - orally or in writing, aloud or to oneself. A judgment is a reflection of the connections between objects and phenomena of reality or between their properties and features. Judgments are either true or false. Inference - a conclusion about certain objects, phenomena, processes. There are two main types of inference:
1) inductive (induction) inference from particular cases to a general position
2) deductive (deduction) - from general position(judgment) to a particular case.
Synthesis is the restoration of what has been dissected into a whole on the basis of essential connections revealed by analysis. The comparison operation consists in comparing things, phenomena, their properties and identifying commonality or differences between them. The operation of abstraction consists in the fact that a person is mentally distracted from the non-essential features of the subject being studied, highlighting the main, main thing in it. Generalization is reduced to the unification of many objects of phenomena according to some common feature. Concretization is the movement of thought from the general to the particular, often this is the allocation of some specific aspects of an object or phenomenon. Classification involves the assignment of an individual object, phenomenon to a group of objects or phenomena. This is the summing up of the particular under the general, usually carried out according to the most significant features. Systematization is the mental arrangement of many objects in a certain order. Depending on the nature of human cognitive activity, psychology distinguishes visual-effective, figurative and abstract thinking.
Visual-effective thinking is manifested directly in the process of human activity. Figurative thinking proceeds on the basis of images, ideas that a person perceived and learned earlier. Abstract, abstract thinking is carried out on the basis of concepts, categories that have a verbal design and are not figuratively represented.
The thinking of each person is characterized by certain qualities: depth, flexibility, breadth, speed, purposefulness, independence, and some others.
Speech is the mental process of using language to exchange information, communicate, and solve other problems. Human speech develops and manifests itself in unity with thinking. The content and form of a person's speech depend on his profession, experience, temperament, character, abilities, interests, states, etc. With the help of speech, people communicate with each other, transfer knowledge, influence each other, influence themselves. Speech in professional activity is a carrier of information and a means of interaction. In the speech activity of a specialist, speech can be distinguished oral and written, internal and external, dialogic and monologue, everyday and professional, prepared and unprepared.
Imagination is a mental process of creating new images, ideas and thoughts based on existing experience, by restructuring a person's ideas. Imagination is closely connected with all other cognitive processes and occupies a special place in human cognitive activity. Thanks to this process, a person can anticipate the course of events, foresee the results and consequences of his actions and deeds. It allows you to create programs of behavior in situations characterized by uncertainty.
Imagination is active and passive. In psychology, two types of active imagination are distinguished: recreative and creative. For example, an experienced lawyer on the basis of individual facts, traces of the incident, as it were, recreates a fairly complete picture of the situation. Creative imagination is the process of creating new images, i.e. images of objects that do not exist in reality. Invention, rationalization, development of new forms of education and upbringing are based on creative imagination. Imagination can also be passive, leading a person away from reality, from solving practical problems. A person, as it were, goes into a fantasy world and lives in this world, doing nothing (Manilovism), and thereby moving away from real life. The value of a person is determined by what types of imagination prevail in it: the more active and significant, the more mature the person.
3. Mental states. Their impact on human activities
Mental states of a person are characterized by integrity, mobility and relative stability, interconnection with mental processes and personality traits, individual originality and typicality, extreme diversity, polarity. They can be personal and situational, deep and superficial, short-term and lingering, positive and negative. But some type of process may predominate in them, giving them a special color. On this basis, they are divided into emotional (excitement, experience, anxiety, etc.), cognitive (interest, attentiveness), volitional (collection, mobilization). The actions of a person, his activity depend on his mental state.
Consider how positive and negative mental states of a person affect professional activity.
Of great importance for the effectiveness of labor activity is the mental state of professional interest. A specialist with a strong professional interest is looking for situations that would allow him to survive the state of professional interest, that is, he works actively, with full dedication of strength, knowledge and abilities. The state of professional interest is characterized by: awareness of the importance of professional activity; the desire to learn more about it and to be active in its field; concentration of attention on the range of objects associated with a given area, and at the same time these objects begin to occupy a dominant position in the mind of a specialist. Finally, the state of professional interest in the overwhelming majority of cases is accompanied by pleasant emotional experiences.
The diversity and creative nature of professional activity make it possible for an employee to develop mental states that are similar in content and structure to the state of creative inspiration characteristic of scientists, writers, artists, actors, and musicians. The state of creative inspiration is a complex set of intellectual and emotional components. It is expressed in a creative upsurge; sharpening of perception; increasing imagination; the emergence of a number of combinations of original impressions; the manifestation of an abundance of thoughts and the ease of finding the essential; full concentration and the growth of physical energy, which lead to a very high efficiency, to a mental state of joy in creativity and insensitivity to fatigue .. The inspiration of a professional is always the unity of his talent, knowledge and painstaking everyday work.
In many professions, decisiveness plays an important role as a mental state of readiness to quickly make a decision and carry it out. However, decisiveness is by no means haste, haste, thoughtlessness, excessive self-confidence. The necessary conditions for decisiveness are breadth of thinking, insight, courage, great life and professional experience, knowledge, and systematic work. Hasty “decisiveness”, like indecision, that is, a mental state characterized by a lack of psychological readiness to make a decision and leading to an unreasonable delay or failure to perform actions, is fraught with adverse consequences and more than once led to life, including professional, mistakes.
Along with positive states in a person in the process of his life, negative (asthenic) mental states can also occur. For example, indecision as a mental state can arise not only when a person lacks independence, self-confidence, but also due to novelty, ambiguity, confusion of a particular life situation in extreme (extreme) conditions. Such conditions lead to the emergence of a state of mental tension.
Let us note the state of "business" tension, that is, the tension that arises as a result of the complexity of the activity performed or work in extreme conditions. Here the emotional tension is necessary condition productive intellectual activity, since a conscious assessment is always preceded by an emotional one, which performs the function of a preliminary selection of hypotheses. Speaking against erroneous verbal assessments, emotions can perform a positive function of "correcting" search activity, leading to objectively correct results.
That is, even negative emotions can play a positive role due to the fact that there is an interaction between "intellectual" and "situational" emotions.
But exposure to extreme conditions of activity can lead to the emergence of a specific state of neuro-psychological tension in a person, called stress. This is such an emotional stress that, to one degree or another, worsens the course of life, reduces a person’s working capacity and his reliability in work. In relation to stress, a person does not have purposeful and adequate reactions. This is the main difference between stress and a tense and difficult task, to which (regardless of its severity) the person performing it responds adequately. In a state of stress, difficulties arise in the implementation of functions related to the orientation of thinking towards solving certain problems. This is due to the fact that stress acts as a factor that destroys the preliminary "emotional planning", and ultimately the entire scheme of the forthcoming activity or communication. With severe stress, a general arousal reaction occurs, and a person's behavior becomes disorganized, the level of performance drops sharply. An even greater increase in stress leads to general inhibition, passivity, and inactivity. The cause of stress is emotionally negative stimuli (for example, failures in activities and communication, fear of criticism or making a responsible decision, "time pressure", information overload, etc.).
The state of stress in a person can often be accompanied by such a complex mental state as “anxiety”, “anxiety”, “anxiety”. Anxiety is a psychological state that is caused by possible or probable troubles, unexpectedness, changes in the usual environment and activities, a delay in the pleasant, desirable, and is expressed in specific experiences and reactions. But the state of anxiety does not always prevent successful activity. Everything here depends, on the one hand, on the specific content, depth and duration of the state of anxiety, and on the other hand, on the adequacy of this state to the stimuli that caused it, on the presence or absence of self-control, on the forms of reaction and the degree of "viscosity" of this state. So, anxiety will be a positive mental state if it is caused in a person due to the fact that he takes the fate of other people to heart, the cause he serves. "Mild" forms of anxiety serve as a signal to a person to eliminate shortcomings in work, to cultivate determination, courage, and self-confidence. If anxiety arises for insignificant reasons, is inadequate to the objects and situations that caused it, takes forms that indicate a loss of self-control, is long-term, “viscous”, is poorly overcome, then such a state, of course, negatively affects the implementation of activities and communication.
Difficulties and possible failures in life under certain conditions can lead to the emergence in a person of not only mental states of stress and anxiety, but also a state of frustration. In relation to a person, frustration in the most general form can be defined as a complex emotional and motivational state, expressed in the disorganization of consciousness, activity and communication and resulting from prolonged blocking of goal-directed behavior by objectively insurmountable or subjectively presented difficulties.
Frustration manifests itself when a personally significant motive remains unsatisfied or its satisfaction is inhibited, and the resulting feeling of dissatisfaction reaches a degree of severity that exceeds the "tolerance threshold" of a particular person, and shows a tendency to stabilize. Typical reactions to the impact of frustrators, i.e., situations that cause frustration, are aggression, fixation, retreat and substitution, autism, regression, depression, etc.
The action of frustrators can also lead to the fact that a person replaces an activity that has turned out to be blocked with another one that is most accessible to or seems to be so. A private way out of the state of frustration by changing activities leads to the loss of perseverance, diligence, perseverance, organization, focus.
4. Mental properties of a person
Character is called individual (peculiar this person) a combination of stable mental characteristics, traits, attributes, data. Character largely determines the way a person behaves in various life situations and circumstances. From the definition of character it follows that
etc.................
INTRODUCTION
1. THE CONCEPT OF THE HUMAN PSYCHE
3. MAIN MECHANISMS OF THE ACTIVITY OF THE NERVOUS SYSTEM
4. FEATURES OF FUNCTIONING OF THE LEFT AND RIGHT HEMISPHERES OF THE BRAIN
5. BASICS OF HEALTH OF THE PSYCHE
CONCLUSION
BIBLIOGRAPHY
INTRODUCTION
Human health is determined by several components
shchi. One of the most important are the state of the nervous system and the nature of the processes occurring in it. A particularly important role in this is played by that part of the nervous system, which is called the central, or brain. The processes that go on in the brain, interacting with the signals of the surrounding world, play crucial in the formation of the psyche.
The material basis of the psyche is the processes occurring in the functional formations of the brain. These processes are currently very strongly influenced by the various conditions in which the human body. One of these conditions is stress factors.
An increase in the number of stresses is humanity's retribution for technical progress. On the one hand, the share of physical labor in the production of material goods and in everyday life has decreased. And this, at first glance, is a plus, as it makes life easier for a person. But, on the other hand, a sharp decrease in motor activity disrupted the natural physiological mechanisms of stress, the final link of which should be movement. Naturally, this also distorted the nature of the flow of life processes in the human body, weakened its margin of safety.
The purpose of this work: the study of the physiological foundations of the human psyche and the factors influencing it.
Object of study: processes that determine mental activity.
Subject of study: the mechanisms of the central nervous system, which determines the mental state and factors influencing its work.
The tasks of this work:
1) to study the basic mechanisms and features of the functioning of the brain,
2) consider some factors that affect health and psyche.
1. THE CONCEPT OF THE HUMAN PSYCHE
The psyche is the property of the brain to perceive and evaluate the world, to recreate on the basis of this the internal subjective image of the world and the image of oneself in it (worldview), to determine, on this basis, the strategy and tactics of one's behavior and activities.
The human psyche is arranged in such a way that the image of the world that is formed in it differs from the true, objectively existing, first of all, by the fact that it is necessarily emotionally, sensually colored. A person is always biased in building an internal picture of the world, therefore, in some cases, a significant distortion of perception is possible. In addition, perception is influenced by desires, needs, interests of a person and his past experience (memory).
According to the forms of reflection (interaction) with the outside world in the psyche, two components can be distinguished, to some extent independent and at the same time closely interconnected - consciousness and the unconscious (unconscious). Consciousness is the highest form of brain reflectivity. Thanks to him, a person can be aware of his thoughts, feelings, actions, etc. and, if necessary, control them.
Significant specific gravity in the human psyche is the form of the unconscious, or unconscious. It presents habits, various automatisms (for example, walking), drives, intuition. As a rule, any mental act begins as an unconscious one and only then becomes conscious. In many cases, consciousness is not a necessity, and the corresponding images remain in the unconscious (for example, vague, "vague" sensations of internal organs, skeletal muscles, etc.).
The psyche manifests itself in the form of mental processes or functions. These include sensations and perceptions, ideas, memory, attention, thinking and speech, emotions and feelings, will. These mental processes are often called components of the psyche.
Mental processes are manifested in different people in different ways, they are characterized by a certain level of activity that forms the background against which the practical and mental activity of the individual takes place. Such manifestations of activity that create a certain background are called mental states. These are inspiration and passivity, self-confidence and doubt, anxiety, stress, fatigue, etc. And finally, each individual is characterized by stable mental features which are manifested in behavior, activity, - mental properties(features): temperament (or type), character, abilities, etc.
Thus, the human psyche is a complex system of conscious and unconscious processes and states that are implemented in different ways in various people, creating certain individual characteristics personality.
2. CENTRAL NERVOUS SYSTEM - THE PHYSIOLOGICAL BASIS OF PSYCHE
The brain is great amount cells (neurons) that are connected to each other by numerous connections. functional unit activity of the brain is a group of cells that perform a specific function and is defined as a nerve center. Similar formations in the cerebral cortex are called nerve networks, columns. Among these centers there are congenital formations, which are relatively few, but they are of great importance in the control and regulation of vital functions, such as respiration, thermoregulation, some motor and many others. Structural organization such centers are specified in to a large extent genes.
Nerve centers are concentrated in different parts of the brain and spinal cord. Higher Functions, conscious behavior is more associated with the anterior part of the brain, the nerve cells of which are arranged in a thin (about 3 mm) layer, forming the cerebral cortex. Certain parts of the cortex receive and process information received from the sense organs, and each of the latter is associated with a specific (sensory) area of the cortex. In addition, there are zones that control movement, including the vocal apparatus (motor zones).
The most extensive areas of the brain are not associated with a specific function - these are associative zones that perform complex operations between different sections brain. It is these zones that are responsible for the higher mental functions of the human being.
A special role in the implementation of the psyche belongs to the frontal lobes of the forebrain, which is considered the first functional block of the brain. As a rule, their defeat affects the intellectual activity and emotional sphere of a person. At the same time, the frontal lobes of the cerebral cortex are considered the block of programming, regulation and control of activity. In turn, the regulation of human behavior is closely related to the function of speech, in the implementation of which the frontal lobes also participate (in most people, the left).
The second functional block of the brain is the block for receiving, processing and storing information (memory). It is located in back departments the cerebral cortex and includes the occipital (visual), temporal (auditory) and parietal lobes.
The third functional block of the brain - the regulation of tone and wakefulness - provides a full-fledged active state of a person. The block is formed by the so-called reticular formation, structurally located in the central part of the brain stem, that is, it is a subcortical formation and provides changes in the tone of the cerebral cortex.
Examples of general particular phenomena studied in modern psychology(according to Nemov R.S.)
| № | Phenomena studied by psychology | Concepts characterizing these phenomena |
| Processes: individual, internal (mental) | Imagination, recollection, perception, forgetting, memorization, ideomotorics, insight, introspection, motivation, thinking, learning, generalization, sensation, memory, personalization, repetition, presentation, addiction, decision making, reflection, speech, self-actualization, self-hypnosis, self-observation, self-control , self-determination, creativity, recognition, conclusion, assimilation. | |
| States: individual, internal (mental) | Adaptation, affect, attraction, attention, arousal, hallucination, hypnosis, depersonalization, disposition, desire, interest, love, melancholy, motivation, intention, tension, mood, image, alienation, experience, understanding, need, distraction, self-actualization, self-control, inclination, passion, aspiration, stress, shame, temperament, anxiety, conviction, level of claims, fatigue, attitude, fatigue, frustration, feeling, euphoria, emotion. | |
| Properties individual, internal (mental) | Illusions, constancy, will, inclinations, individuality, inferiority complex, personality, giftedness, prejudice, efficiency, determination, rigidity, conscience, stubbornness, phlegm, character, egocentrism. | |
| Processes: individual, external (behavioral) | Action, activity, gesture, game, imprinting, facial expressions, skill, imitation, deed, reaction, exercise. | |
| States: individual, external (behavioral) | Willingness, interest, installation | |
| Properties: individual, external (behavioral) | Authority, suggestibility, genius, perseverance, learning ability, giftedness, organization, temperament, diligence, fanaticism, character, ambition, selfishness. | |
| Processes: group, internal | Identification, communication, conformity, communication, interpersonal perception, interpersonal relations, formation of group norms. | |
| States: group, internal | Conflict, cohesion, group polarization, psychological climate. | |
| Compatibility, leadership style, rivalry, cooperation, group performance. | ||
| Processes: group, external | Intergroup relations. | |
| States: group, external | Panic, openness of the group, closeness of the group. | |
| Properties: group, external | Organization. |
Mental activity is carried out through a variety of special physiological mechanisms. Interaction different parts organisms among themselves and the establishment of the relationship with the environment is carried out nervous system. The psyche is reflexive.
The entire nervous system is divided into central and peripheral. TO central nervous system includes the brain and spinal cord. From them, nerve fibers diverge throughout the body - peripheral nervous system. It connects the brain with the sense organs and with the executive organs - the muscles and glands.
Stimuli of the external environment (light, sound, smell, touch, etc.) are converted by special sensitive cells ( receptors) into nerve impulses - a series of electrical and chemical changes in the nerve fiber. Nerve impulses are transmitted along sensory ( afferent) nerve fibers in the spinal cord and brain. Here, the corresponding command impulses are generated, which are transmitted through the motor ( efferent) nerve fibers to the executive organs (muscles, glands). These executive bodies are called effectors.
Structural unit nervous system is a nerve cell - neuron. It consists of a cell body, a nucleus, branched processes - dendrites- along them, nerve impulses go to the cell body - and one long process - axon- through it the nerve impulse travels from the cell body to other cells or effectors. The processes of two neighboring neurons are connected by a special formation - synapse. It plays an essential role in filtering nerve impulses: it passes some impulses and delays others. Neurons are connected to each other and carry out joint activities.
The main mechanism of nervous activity is reflex. Reflex- the reaction of the body to external or internal influences. All reflexes are divided into two groups: conditioned and unconditioned.
Unconditioned reflex- an innate reaction to a certain external influence. It does not require any conditions for its production (for example, the blinking reflex, salivation at the sight of food).
Conditional reflexes are such reactions of the body that are not innate, but are developed in various lifetime conditions. They arise under the condition of constant precedence of various phenomena by those that are vital for the animal. If the connection between these phenomena disappears, then the conditioned reflex fades away.
3. Consciousness. The development of the human psyche.
The psyche as a reflection of reality in the human brain is characterized different levels. Highest level psyche, characteristic of man, forms consciousness. The human mind includes totality knowledge about the world around us.
IN structure Consciousness, thus, includes the most important cognitive processes, with the help of which a person constantly enriches his knowledge. These processes may include Feel And perception, memory, imagination And thinking.
For example, using sensations And perceptions with a direct reflection of the stimuli affecting the brain in the mind, a sensual picture of the world is formed, as it appears to a person in this moment.
The second characteristic of consciousness- fixed in it distinct distinction between subject and object, i.e., what belongs to the “I” of a person and his “not-I” (separation of oneself as a person from the surrounding world, the world of nature).
The third characteristic of consciousness- a person's ability to purposeful activity. The functions of consciousness include the formation of the goals of activity, while adding up and weighing its motives, accepting volitional decisions, the progress of the actions is taken into account and the necessary adjustments are made to it, etc.
The fourth characteristic of consciousness associated with experiences, with a sensual attitude to the world. for example, emotional assessments of interpersonal relationships are represented in the human mind.
Functions of Consciousness:
1. reflective,
2. generative (creative-creative),
3. regulatory and evaluation,
4. reflexive function - the main function, characterizes the essence of consciousness.
As an object of reflection may perform:
1. reflection of the world,
2. thinking about it,
3. ways a person regulates his behavior,
4. the processes of reflection themselves,
5. your personal consciousness.
The interaction of consciousness and subconsciousness.
The basis of the theory of Z. Freud. In the zone of clear consciousness, a small part of signals simultaneously coming from the external and internal environment of the body is reflected. Signals that have fallen into the zone of clear consciousness are used by a person to consciously control their behavior. The rest of the signals are also used by the body to regulate certain processes, but at a subconscious level. Awareness of the circumstances that impede the regulation or solution of the problem helps to find a new mode of regulation or a new way of solving, but as soon as they are found, control is again transferred to the subconscious, and consciousness is freed to resolve newly emerging difficulties. This continuous transfer of control, which provides a person with the opportunity to solve ever new tasks, is based on the harmonious interaction of consciousness and subconsciousness. Consciousness is attracted to this object only for a short period of time and ensures the development of hypotheses at critical moments of lack of information.
Region preconscious, sometimes called "accessible memory", includes all experiences that are not currently consciously conscious, but can easily return to consciousness either spontaneously or as a result of minimum effort. For example, you can remember everything you did last Saturday night; all the cities in which you happened to live; your favorite books or the argument you made to your friend yesterday. From Freud's point of view, the preconscious builds bridges between the conscious and unconscious areas of the psyche.
The lowest level of the psyche creates the unconscious. Unconscious- this is a set of mental processes, acts and states caused by influences, in the influence of which a person does not give himself a reference.
A person is not aware of all mental processes and states, that is, he is not aware of his actions, deeds, and thoughts.
The area of the unconscious includes mental phenomena that occur in a dream (dreams); movements that were conscious in the past, but due to repetition were automated and therefore more unconscious walking, skills, habits, methods of action (for example, solving problems, etc.); some urges to activity, for example, to take small objects with three fingers, to perceive a large object as heavier, etc. Some of the unconscious phenomena are pathological phenomena arising in the psyche of a sick person: delusions, hallucinations, etc.
A person can come into conflict with numerous social taboos, if conflict his internal tension grows and isolated foci of excitation appear in the cerebral cortex. In order to remove excitement, one must first of all realize the conflict itself and its causes, but awareness is impossible without difficult experiences, and a person prevents awareness, these difficult experiences are forced out of the field of consciousness.
To exclude such a morbid influence, it is necessary to recognize the traumatic factor and reassess it, introduce it into the structure of other factors and assessments. inner peace and thereby defuse the focus of excitation and normalize the mental state of a person. Only such a consciousness eliminates the traumatic effect of an "unacceptable" idea or desire. Freud's merit lies in the fact that he formulated this dependence and included it in the basis of the therapeutic practice of "psychoanalysis".
Defense mechanisms protect a person from overwhelming anxiety. Freud believed that the ego reacts to the threat of a breakthrough of id impulses in two ways: 1) by blocking the expression of impulses in conscious behavior, or 2) by distorting them to such an extent that their original intensity is noticeably reduced or deviated to the side.
Crowding out. Freud considered repression as the primary defense of the Self, repression is the process of removing thoughts and feelings that cause suffering from consciousness. The constant striving of the displaced material towards open expression may receive short-term satisfaction in dreams, jokes, reservations and other manifestations.
Projection The process by which an individual attributes their own unacceptable thoughts, feelings, and behaviors to other people or environments. Thus, projection allows a person to place the blame on someone or something for their shortcomings or blunders. Projection also explains social prejudice and the scapegoat phenomenon.
substitution- redirection from a more threatening object or person to a less threatening one. A common example is the child who, after being punished by his parents, pushes his little sister, kicks her dog, or breaks her toys. Sometimes hostile impulses addressed to others are redirected to themselves, which causes a feeling of depression or self-judgment.
Rationalization is to distort reality and thus protect self-esteem. For example, a man who was humiliated by a woman when he asked her out on a date consoles himself with the fact that she is completely unattractive.
Reactive education. This protective process is carried out in two stages: first, the unacceptable impulse is suppressed; then, on the level of consciousness, the opposite is manifested. For example, a woman who is anxious about her own pronounced sexual desire may become a staunch fighter against pornographic films in her circle.
Regression. Regression is characterized by a return to childish, childish behavior patterns, i.e. to an early life, safer and more enjoyable. For example, "pouting and not talking" to others, resisting authority, or driving a car at recklessly high speeds.
Sublimation is seen as the only healthy, constructive strategy for curbing unwanted impulses. The energy of instincts is diverted through other channels of expression - those that society considers acceptable. For example, a woman with strong unconscious sadistic tendencies may become a surgeon or a first-rate novelist. In these activities, it can demonstrate its superiority over others, but in a way that will produce a socially useful result.
Negation. When a person refuses to admit that an unpleasant event has occurred, this means that he turns on such defense mechanism, How negation. Imagine a father who refuses to believe that his daughter has been raped and brutally murdered.
Differences in the psyche of animals and humans proven in L.S. Vygotsky.
There is no comparison between the "language" of animals and the language of man. Whereas an animal can only signal to its fellows about phenomena limited to a given, immediate situation, a person can use language inform other people about the past, present and future, transfer them social experience.
Concrete, Practical Animal Thinking subject them to direct impression from this situation human ability to abstract thinking eliminates its direct dependence on this situation. A person is able to reflect not only the direct effects of the environment, but also those that await him. A person is able to act according to a recognized need - consciously. This first significant difference the human psyche from the animal psyche.
Second difference man from the animal lies in his ability to create and save tools. Unlike an animal a person creates a tool according to a premeditated plan, uses it for its intended purpose and saves it.
Third distinguishing feature mental activity of a person transfer of public experience. Both animal and man have in their arsenal the well-known experience of generations in the form of instinctive actions on a certain type of stimulus. Both of them acquire private experience in all sorts of situations that life offers them. But only man appropriates social experience, the experience of generations.
fourth, a very significant difference between animals and humans is difference in feelings. Objects and phenomena of reality can cause in animals and humans certain types attitudes towards what affects - positive or negative emotions. However, only in man can be concluded developed ability empathize with the grief and joy of another person.
If during the development of the animal world the development of the psyche proceeded according to the laws of biological evolution, then development of the human psyche, human consciousness obeys the laws socio-historical development. Without assimilation of the experience of mankind, without communication with one's own kind, there will be no developed, actually human feelings, the ability to voluntary attention and memory, the ability to abstract thinking will not develop, the human personality will not be formed. This is evidenced by the cases of raising human children among animals. So, all Mowgli children showed primitive animal reactions, and it was impossible to detect in them those features that distinguish a person from an animal.
