The main organ of the respiratory system - The outside of the lungs is covered with the pulmonary. Breath
All life on Earth exists thanks to solar heat and energy reaching the surface of our planet. All animals and humans have adapted to extract energy from organic substances synthesized by plants. To use the solar energy contained in the molecules of organic substances, it must be released by oxidizing these substances. Most often, air oxygen is used as an oxidizing agent, since it makes up almost a quarter of the volume of the surrounding atmosphere.
Unicellular protozoa, coelenterates, free-living flat and roundworms breathe the entire surface of the body. Special respiratory organs - feathery gills appear in marine annelids and aquatic arthropods. The respiratory organs of arthropods are trachea, gills, leaf-shaped lungs located in the recesses of the body cover. The respiratory system of the lancelet is presented gill slits piercing the wall anterior section intestines - pharynx. In fish, under the gill covers there are gills, abundantly permeated with the smallest blood vessels. In terrestrial vertebrate organs breathing are lungs. The evolution of respiration in vertebrates followed the path of increasing area pulmonary septa involved in gas exchange, improving transport systems delivery of oxygen to cells located inside the body, and the development of systems that provide ventilation to the respiratory system.
Structure and functions of the respiratory organs
A necessary condition for the life of the body is constant gas exchange between the body and environment. The organs through which inhaled and exhaled air circulate are combined into a breathing apparatus. The respiratory system is made up of nasal cavity, pharynx, larynx, trachea, bronchi and lungs. Most of them are airways and serve to conduct air into the lungs. Gas exchange processes take place in the lungs. When breathing, the body receives oxygen from the air, which is carried by the blood throughout the body. Oxygen participates in complex oxidative processes of organic substances, during which it is released necessary for the body energy. The final products of decomposition - carbon dioxide and partly water - are removed from the body into the environment through the respiratory system.
| Department name | Structural features | Functions |
| Airways | ||
| Nasal cavity and nasopharynx | Tortuous nasal passages. The mucosa is equipped with capillaries, covered with ciliated epithelium and has many mucous glands. There are olfactory receptors. The nasal cavity opens air sinuses bones. |
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| Larynx | Unpaired and paired cartilages. The vocal cords are stretched between the thyroid and arytenoid cartilages, forming the glottis. The epiglottis is attached to thyroid cartilage. The laryngeal cavity is lined with mucous membrane covered with ciliated epithelium. |
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| Trachea and bronchi | Tube 10–13 cm with cartilaginous half rings. Back wall elastic, borders the esophagus. In the lower part, the trachea branches into two main bronchi. The inside of the trachea and bronchi are lined with mucous membrane. | Ensures free flow of air into the alveoli of the lungs. |
| Gas exchange zone | ||
| Lungs | Paired organ - right and left. Small bronchi, bronchioles, pulmonary vesicles (alveoli). The walls of the alveoli are formed by single-layer epithelium and are intertwined with a dense network of capillaries. | Gas exchange through the alveolar-capillary membrane. |
| Pleura | On the outside, each lung is covered with two layers of connective tissue membrane: the pulmonary pleura is adjacent to the lungs, the parietal pleura is adjacent to chest cavity. Between two layers of pleura there is a cavity (gap) filled pleural fluid Yu. |
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Functions of the respiratory system
- Providing the body cells with oxygen O 2.
- Removing carbon dioxide CO 2 from the body, as well as some end products of metabolism (water vapor, ammonia, hydrogen sulfide).
Nasal cavity
The airways begin with nasal cavity, which connects with the environment through the nostrils. From the nostrils, air passes through the nasal passages, which are lined with mucous, ciliated and sensitive epithelium. The external nose consists of bone and cartilage formations and has the shape of an irregular pyramid, which varies depending on the structural features of the person. The bony skeleton of the external nose includes the nasal bones and the nasal part frontal bone. The cartilaginous skeleton is a continuation of the bony skeleton and consists of hyaline cartilage various shapes. The nasal cavity has a lower, upper and two side walls. The lower wall is formed hard palate, upper - by the cribriform plate of the ethmoid bone, lateral - upper jaw, lacrimal bone, orbital plate of the ethmoid bone, palatine bone And sphenoid bone. The nasal septum divides the nasal cavity into right and left parts. The nasal septum is formed by the vomer, perpendicular to the plate of the ethmoid bone, and anteriorly supplemented by the quadrangular cartilage of the nasal septum.
On the side walls of the nasal cavity there are turbinates - three on each side, which increases inner surface nose, with which the inhaled air comes into contact.
The nasal cavity is formed by two narrow and tortuous nasal passages. Here the air is warmed, humidified and freed from dust particles and microbes. The membrane lining the nasal passages consists of cells that secrete mucus and ciliated epithelial cells. By the movement of the cilia, mucus, along with dust and germs, is directed out of the nasal passages.
The inner surface of the nasal passages is richly supplied with blood vessels. The inhaled air enters the nasal cavity, is heated, humidified, cleaned of dust and partially neutralized. From the nasal cavity it enters the nasopharynx. Then air from the nasal cavity enters the pharynx, and from it into the larynx.
Larynx
Larynx- one of the sections of the airways. Air enters here from the nasal passages through the pharynx. There are several cartilages in the wall of the larynx: thyroid, arytenoid, etc. At the moment of swallowing food, the neck muscles raise the larynx, and the epiglottic cartilage lowers and closes the larynx. Therefore, food only enters the esophagus and does not enter the trachea.
Located in the narrow part of the larynx vocal cords, in the middle between them there is a glottis. As air passes through, the vocal cords vibrate, producing sound. The formation of sound occurs during exhalation with human-controlled air movement. The formation of speech involves: the nasal cavity, lips, tongue, soft palate, facial muscles.
Trachea
The larynx goes into trachea(windpipe), which has the shape of a tube about 12 cm long, in the walls of which there are cartilaginous half-rings that do not allow it to fall off. Its posterior wall is formed by a connective tissue membrane. The cavity of the trachea, like the cavity of other airways, is lined with ciliated epithelium, which prevents the penetration of dust and other substances into the lungs. foreign bodies. The trachea occupies a middle position, at the back it is adjacent to the esophagus, and on the sides of it there are neurovascular bundles. Front cervical region the trachea covers the muscles, and at the top it is also covered thyroid gland. Thoracic region trachea is covered in front by the manubrium of the sternum, the remains thymus gland and vessels. The inside of the trachea is covered with a mucous membrane containing a large number of lymphoid tissue and mucous glands. When breathing, small particles of dust adhere to the moist mucous membrane of the trachea, and the cilia of the ciliated epithelium push them back to the exit from the respiratory tract.
The lower end of the trachea is divided into two bronchi, which then branch repeatedly and enter the right and left lungs, forming a “bronchial tree” in the lungs.
Bronchi
In the chest cavity, the trachea divides into two bronchus- left and right. Each bronchus enters the lung and there is divided into bronchi of smaller diameter, which branch into the smallest air tubes - bronchioles. Bronchioles, as a result of further branching, transform into extensions - alveolar ducts, on the walls of which there are microscopic protrusions called pulmonary vesicles, or alveoli.
The walls of the alveoli are built from a special thin single-layer epithelium and are densely intertwined with capillaries. The total thickness of the alveolar wall and the capillary wall is 0.004 mm. Through this the thinnest wall Gas exchange occurs: oxygen enters the blood from the alveoli, and carbon dioxide enters back. There are several hundred million alveoli in the lungs. Their total surface in an adult is 60–150 m2. thanks to this, it enters the blood sufficient quantity oxygen (up to 500 liters per day).
Lungs
Lungs occupy almost the entire cavity of the thoracic cavity and are elastic, spongy organs. In the central part of the lung there is a gate where the bronchus, pulmonary artery, nerves enter, and the pulmonary veins exit. The right lung is divided by grooves into three lobes, the left into two. The outside of the lungs is covered with a thin connective tissue film - the pulmonary pleura, which passes to the inner surface of the wall of the chest cavity and forms the wall pleura. Between these two films there is a pleural gap filled with fluid that reduces friction during breathing.
There are three surfaces on the lung: the outer, or costal, the medial, facing the other lung, and the lower, or diaphragmatic. In addition, in each lung there are two edges: anterior and inferior, separating the diaphragmatic and medial surfaces from the costal surface. At the back, the costal surface, without a sharp border, passes into the medial surface. The anterior edge of the left lung has a cardiac notch. The hilum is located on the medial surface of the lung. Enters the gates of each lung main bronchus, the pulmonary artery, which carries venous blood to the lung, and the nerves that innervate the lung. Two pulmonary veins emerge from the gates of each lung, which carry arterial blood and lymphatic vessels to the heart.
The lungs have deep grooves dividing them into lobes - upper, middle and lower, and in the left there are two - upper and lower. The lung sizes are not the same. The right lung is slightly larger than the left, while it is shorter and wider, which corresponds to the higher position of the right dome of the diaphragm due to the right-sided location of the liver. Color of normal lungs childhood pale pink, and in adults they acquire a dark gray color with a bluish tint - a consequence of the deposition of dust particles that enter them with the air. Lung tissue is soft, delicate and porous.
Gas exchange of the lungs
IN complex process There are three main phases of gas exchange: external breathing, gas transfer by blood and internal, or tissue, respiration. External respiration combines all processes occurring in the lung. It is carried out breathing apparatus, which includes the chest with the muscles that move it, the diaphragm and the lungs with the airways.
The air entering the lungs during inhalation changes its composition. The air in the lungs gives up some of its oxygen and becomes enriched carbon dioxide. The carbon dioxide content in venous blood is higher than in the air in the alveoli. Therefore, carbon dioxide leaves the blood into the alveoli and its content is less than in the air. First, oxygen dissolves in the blood plasma, then binds to hemoglobin, and new portions of oxygen enter the plasma.
The transition of oxygen and carbon dioxide from one environment to another occurs due to diffusion from higher to lower concentrations. Although diffusion is slow, the surface of contact between blood and air in the lungs is so large that it completely ensures the necessary gas exchange. It is estimated that complete gas exchange between blood and alveolar air can occur in a time that is three times shorter than the time the blood remains in the capillaries (i.e., the body has significant reserves of providing tissues with oxygen).
Deoxygenated blood Once in the lungs, it releases carbon dioxide, becomes enriched with oxygen and turns into arterial fluid. In a large circle, this blood disperses through the capillaries to all tissues and gives oxygen to the cells of the body, which constantly consume it. There is more carbon dioxide released by cells as a result of their vital activity than in the blood, and it diffuses from the tissues into the blood. Thus, arterial blood, passing through the capillaries of the systemic circulation, it becomes venous and right half The heart is sent to the lungs, here it is again saturated with oxygen and gives off carbon dioxide.
In the body, breathing is carried out using additional mechanisms. Liquid media that make up blood (its plasma) have low solubility of gases in them. Therefore, in order for a person to exist, he would need to have a heart 25 times more powerful, lungs 20 times more powerful, and pump more than 100 liters of fluid (not five liters of blood) in one minute. Nature has found a way to overcome this difficulty by adapting a special substance - hemoglobin - to carry oxygen. Thanks to hemoglobin, blood is able to bind oxygen 70 times, and carbon dioxide - 20 times more than the liquid part of the blood - its plasma.
Alveolus- a thin-walled bubble with a diameter of 0.2 mm filled with air. The alveolar wall is formed by a single layer of squamous epithelial cells, outer surface of which a network of capillaries branches. Thus, gas exchange occurs through a very thin septum formed by two layers of cells: the capillary wall and the alveolar wall.
Exchange of gases in tissues (tissue respiration)
The exchange of gases in tissues occurs in capillaries according to the same principle as in the lungs. Oxygen from tissue capillaries, where its concentration is high, goes into tissue fluid with lower oxygen concentration. From the tissue fluid it penetrates into the cells and immediately enters into oxidation reactions, so there is practically no free oxygen in the cells.
Carbon dioxide, according to the same laws, comes from cells, through tissue fluid, into capillaries. The released carbon dioxide promotes the dissociation of oxyhemoglobin and itself combines with hemoglobin, forming carboxyhemoglobin, is transported into the lungs and released into the atmosphere. In the venous blood flowing from the organs, carbon dioxide is found both in a bound and dissolved state in the form of carbonic acid, which easily breaks down into water and carbon dioxide in the capillaries of the lungs. Carbonic acid can also combine with plasma salts to form bicarbonates.
In the lungs, where venous blood enters, oxygen saturates the blood again, and carbon dioxide from the zone high concentration(pulmonary capillaries) passes into a zone of low concentration (alveoli). For normal gas exchange, the air in the lungs is constantly replaced, which is achieved by rhythmic attacks of inhalation and exhalation, due to the movements of the intercostal muscles and the diaphragm.
Transport of oxygen in the body
| Oxygen Path | Functions |
| Upper respiratory tract | |
| Nasal cavity | Humidification, warming, air disinfection, removal of dust particles |
| Pharynx | Passing warmed and purified air into the larynx |
| Larynx | Conduction of air from the pharynx into the trachea. Protection of the respiratory tract from food ingress by the epiglottic cartilage. Production of sounds by vibration vocal cords, movements of the tongue, lips, jaw |
| Trachea | |
| Bronchi | Free air movement |
| Lungs | Respiratory system. Respiratory movements are carried out under the control of the central nervous system and humoral factor contained in the blood - CO 2 |
| Alveoli | Increase the respiratory surface area, carry out gas exchange between the blood and lungs |
| Circulatory system | |
| Lung capillaries | Transports venous blood from the pulmonary artery to the lungs. According to the laws of diffusion, O 2 moves from places of higher concentration (alveoli) to places of lower concentration (capillaries), while at the same time CO 2 diffuses in the opposite direction. |
| Pulmonary vein | Transports O2 from the lungs to the heart. Oxygen, once in the blood, first dissolves in the plasma, then combines with hemoglobin, and the blood becomes arterial |
| Heart | Push arterial blood through big circle blood circulation |
| Arteries | Enrich all organs and tissues with oxygen. The pulmonary arteries carry venous blood to the lungs |
| Body capillaries | Carry out gas exchange between blood and tissue fluid. O 2 passes into tissue fluid, and CO 2 diffuses into the blood. Blood becomes venous |
| Cell | |
| Mitochondria | Cellular respiration - assimilation of O2 air. Organic matter Thanks to O 2 and respiratory enzymes, the final products are oxidized (dissimilation) - H 2 O, CO 2 and the energy that goes into the synthesis of ATP. H 2 O and CO 2 are released into the tissue fluid, from which they diffuse into the blood. |
The meaning of breathing.
Breath- is a collection physiological processes, ensuring gas exchange between the body and external environment (external breathing), And oxidative processes in cells, as a result of which energy is released ( internal breathing). Exchange of gases between blood and atmospheric air ( gas exchange) - carried out by the respiratory system.
The source of energy in the body is nutrients. The main process that releases the energy of these substances is the process of oxidation. It is accompanied by the binding of oxygen and the formation of carbon dioxide. Considering that the human body has no reserves of oxygen, its continuous supply is vital. Stopping the access of oxygen to the body's cells leads to their death. On the other hand, carbon dioxide formed during the oxidation of substances must be removed from the body, since the accumulation significant amount its life threatening. The absorption of oxygen from the air and the release of carbon dioxide occurs through the respiratory system.
The biological significance of breathing is:
- providing the body with oxygen;
- removing carbon dioxide from the body;
- oxidation organic compounds BZHU with energy release, necessary for a person for life;
- removal of metabolic end products ( water vapor, ammonia, hydrogen sulfide, etc.).
§38. Structure and functions of the lungs
Lungselastic, fibrous, spongy organ. The lungs are red because they are supplied with blood. They are closely adjacent to the walls of the chest cavity. A person has 2 lungs: right and left.Right lungdivided into 3 parts by groovesleft lung- on 2. These grooves are clearly visible from the outside (see Fig. 111).
The space between the two lungs contains the heart. It is shifted to the left from the median plane of the body. Therefore, the left lung is slightly smaller than the right. On the outside, the lungs are covered with a dense, hermetically sealed connective tissue membranepulmonary pleural swarm.The same shell lines inner wall chest cavity -parietal pleura.Between them there ispleural cavity.U healthy people it's fullpleural fluidand does not contain air. During breathing movements, it reduces the friction of the lungs against the walls of the chest cavity, because the lungs are always closely pressed against them.
Rice. 109. Airways. Structure of the bronchi and lungs:
Inasal cavity: 2 larynx; 3 - epiglottis; /- trachea: 5 right and left lungs; 6 - bronchi; 7 bronchi and alveoli; 8 structure of the alveoli: 9 blood vessels: 10 - alveoli: II- alveoli in section: 12 - alveolar capillaries
The lungs consist of many pulmonary alveoli and branched bronchi (Fig. 109). The alveoli are intertwined with a dense network of capillaries. Gas exchange occurs between capillaries and alveoli. The walls of the alveoli and capillaries are very thin, so carbon dioxide (C0 2) freely penetrates from the capillaries into the alveoli, and oxygen (0 2) from the alveoli into the capillaries. Oxygen-rich arterial blood flows through the pulmonary veins into the heart (left atrium, then left ventricle). From here, it spreads throughout the body through the large circulation. Carbon dioxide is removed from the lungs during exhalation.
Respiratory movements are carried out during inhalation and exhalation (Fig. 110). A newborn makes 60 breathing movements in 1 minute, and an adult calm state 16-18. Atinhalebetween the costal muscles raise the ribs, the diaphragm lowers and pushes aside the organs abdominal cavity down. At the same time, the volume of the chest cavity increases and its pressure drops. The lungs stretch and fill with air.Aperture -This is a dome-shaped muscle that separates the chest cavity from the abdominal cavity.
Atexhalethe volume of the chest cavity and lungs decreases. Respiratory muscles relax, the diaphragm rises, and the air flows out through the airways. With frequent breathing, the internal intercostal muscles and the muscles of the abdominal wall contract. If during breathing the intercostal muscles are most active, then such breathing type calledchestThis type of breathing is more common in women. More common in menabdominal type of breathing,since their diaphragm is very active when breathing.
Gas exchange in the lungs. When a person inhales, atmospheric air containing 79% nitrogen enters the lungs. 21°/. oxygen and 0.03% carbon dioxide. When exhaling, the amount of oxygen decreases to 16%, and carbon dioxide increases to !%. Volume of nitrogen and inert
Rice. BY.Change in chest volume: a) during inhalation:b)when exhaling
Rice. Sh.Gas exchange and lungs:
1 composition of inhaled air;
2 - composition of exhaled air
of gases does not change (Fig. 111). Thus, in the lungs, the blood releases carbon dioxide and is saturated with oxygen. Oxygen-rich blood is distributed throughout the systemic circulation to all tissues.
Gas exchange in tissues. There is more oxygen in arterial blood than in tissue cells. Through the walls of capillaries, oxygen passes into tissue cells and is used by them for life. Carbon dioxide passes from tissue cells into the blood, and arterial blood turns into venous blood. Thus, in the tissues, the blood gives off oxygen and is saturated with carbon dioxide. Venous blood enters the heart, then pulmonary arteries- into the pulmonary (pulmonary) circulation.
Lightweight, player, pleural cavity, pleural fluid, diaphragm. thoracic and abdominal types of breathing.
1. Where are the lungs located in the body? Is there a difference between left and right lungs?
2.What is pleura? Where is it?
3.Compare the composition of inhaled and exhaled air.
1.What's happened breathing movements? When do the chest cavity and lungs become larger? Explain why.
2.What function does the diaphragm perform besides breathing?
3.What is the difference between breast and abdominal types breathing?
1.Tell us about the structure of the lungs.
2.Explain the difference between gas exchange in the lungs and tissues, compare.
3.What muscles are involved in inhalation? What changes occur when you inhale and exhale?
The outside of the lung is covered visceral pleura, which is the serous membrane. In the lungs, a distinction is made between the bronchial tree and the alveolar tree, which is the respiratory section where gas exchange actually occurs. The bronchial tree includes the main bronchi, segmental bronchi, lobular and terminal bronchioles, the continuation of which is the alveolar tree represented by respiratory bronchioles, alveolar ducts and alveoli. The bronchi have four membranes: 1.Mucous membrane 2.Submucosal 3.Fibrocartilaginous 4.Adventitial.
The mucous membrane is represented by epithelium, the lamina propria of loose fibrous connective tissue and the muscular lamina, consisting of smooth muscle cells(the smaller the diameter of the bronchus, the more developed the muscular plate). The submucosa, formed by loose connective tissue, contains sections of simple branched mixed mucous-protein glands. The secret has bactericidal properties. When assessing clinical significance bronchi, it must be taken into account that mucosal diverticula are similar to mucous glands. The mucous membrane of the small bronchi is normally sterile. Among benign epithelial tumors of the bronchi, adenomas predominate. They grow from the epithelium of the mucous membrane and mucous glands of the bronchial wall.
As the caliber of the bronchi decreases, the fibrocartilaginous membrane “loses” cartilage—in the main bronchi there are closed cartilaginous rings formed by hyaline cartilage, and in the medium-caliber bronchi there are only islands cartilage tissue(elastic cartilage). The fibrocartilaginous membrane is absent in small caliber bronchi.
The respiratory department is a system of alveoli located in the walls of the respiratory bronchioles, alveolar ducts and sacs. All this forms an acinus (translated bunch of grapes), which is the structural and functional unit of the lungs. Here gas exchange takes place between the blood and the air in the alveoli. The beginning of the acinus is the respiratory bronchioles, which are lined with single-layer cuboidal epithelium. The muscular plate is thin and breaks up into circular bundles of smooth muscle cells. The outer adventitial membrane, formed by loose fibrous connective tissue, transforms into loose fibrous tissue related to it in structure connective tissue interstitium. The alveoli have the appearance of an open bubble. The alveoli are separated by connective tissue septa, in which they pass blood capillaries with a continuous, non-fenestrated endothelial lining. Between the alveoli there are communications in the form of pores. The inner surface is lined with two types of cells: type 1 cells—respiratory alveolocytes and type 2 cells—secretory alveolocytes.
Respiratory alveolocytes have an irregular flattened shape and many short apical outgrowths of the cytoplasm. They provide gas exchange between air and blood. Secretory alveolocytes are much larger, in the cytoplasm there are ribosomes, the Golgi apparatus, a developed endoplasmic reticulum, and many mitochondria. There are osmiophilic lamellar bodies—cytophospholiposomes—that are markers of these cells. In addition, secretory inclusions with an electron-dense matrix are visible. Respiratory alveolocytes produce surfactant, which in the form of a thin film covers the inner surface of the alveoli. It prevents the collapse of the alveoli, improves gas exchange, prevents the migration of fluid from the vessel into the alveoli, and reduces surface tension.
Pleura.
It is a serous membrane. Consists of two layers: parietal (lining the inside chest) and visceral, which directly covers each lung, merging tightly with them. Contains elastic and collagen fibers, smooth muscle cells. The parietal pleura has fewer elastic elements, and smooth muscle cells are less common.
Questions for self-control:
1. How does the epithelium change in different departments respiratory system?
2.Structure of the nasal mucosa.
3.List the tissues that make up the larynx.
4.Name the layers of the tracheal wall and their features.
5.List the layers of the wall bronchial tree and their changes with a decrease in the caliber of the bronchi.
6. Explain the structure of the acini. Its function
7.Structure of the pleura.
8. Name it, and if you don’t know, find it in the textbook and remember the phases and chemical composition surfactant.
1.When allergic reactions attacks of suffocation may occur due to spasm of the smooth muscle cells of the intrapulmonary bronchi. What caliber of bronchi are predominantly involved?
2.Due to what structural components Is the nasal cavity cleaned and warmed by the inhaled air?
Date added: 2015-05-19 | Views: 411 | Copyright infringement
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