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pronominal forms

One of the characteristic features of the Lithuanian language is the presence of the so-called. pronominal forms, which are most often used with adjectives (but pronouns can also have them). There are no pronominal forms in most Western European languages ​​(formally preserved in Russian as "full adjectives", here they have lost their original meaning). Pronominal forms are used to distinguish an object with its properties from a set of similar ones. The formation of pronominal forms occurs by adding a pronominal postfix to adjectives, and goes back to the combination of the full form of the adjective with the pronoun jis And ji("he and she"). A postfix can consist of several syllables (eg. -iesiems, -uosiuose, -osiomis).

Adverbs

Adverbs can be formed from adjectives. For this, the endings of masculine adjectives are changed as follows:

To form a comparative degree of an adverb, the ending is added to the base -iau, for an excellent education - -iausiai.

Degrees

Adjectives and adverbs in Lithuanian, as in most languages, change in degrees. Degrees from three to five: three main (positive, comparative, superlative) and two intermediate.

Numerals

Number agreement

Examples: 1 slut= 1 man, 2= 2 men, Chapter 10= 10 men, keletas vyrų= several men. Also worth noting: when ordering beer: "Vienna alaus", Where vienna= "one/one" (accusative), "alaus"= “beer” (i.e. genitive), the word “glass” / “mug” is implied between these words (i.e.: “one mug of beer”). Similarly "du alaus"= "two beers", etc.

Declension of numerals

Vocabulary

The basic vocabulary of the Lithuanian language contains a small number of borrowings. There are old borrowings ( senieji skoliniai) from the languages ​​of neighboring regions. Among them: stiklas from

Geographically located in the Baltics in northern Europe, the Republic of Lithuania has a single language as its official language. In Lithuania, he proclaimed Lithuanian, belonging to the Baltic group Indo-European languages. It also "comprises" the modern Latvian and the now dead Old Prussian and Yatvingian languages.

Some statistics and facts

Lithuanian: history and modernity

Proto-Baltic is the forefather of the modern Lithuanian language. It was he who also served as the basis for the current Latvian. Both Baltic languages ​​began to separate around the 1st century new era, and three centuries later, two branches were finally formed. In the 13th century, two Lithuanian dialects appeared - the Aukštaitian and Samogitian dialects. Those who spoke the first of them lived upstream of the Neman River, and the second lived downstream.
Each dialect has three groups of dialects, and modern literary Lithuanian is based on the Western Aukstait dialect.
The old period of Lithuanian history lasted from the 16th to the 18th centuries, and at that time its literary variant began to take shape. The gap between it and folk dialects intensified throughout the period, and in the first half of the 19th century began new stage in Lithuanian history. Literary Lithuanian began to penetrate into most spheres public life and extended to all areas of communication.
Prayers are considered to be the earliest written monument of the Lithuanian language. They are written by hand on a treatise published in Strasbourg in Latin. The inscription dates from 1503. Printing in Lithuanian began forty years later, and the catechism became the first book.

Note to the tourist

Average and older generation Lithuanians speak excellent Russian, and young people speak English, which will help Russian tourists avoid language barrier in Lithuania. It is preferable to communicate in English, because due to some historical reasons Lithuanians are in no hurry to admit their knowledge of the Russian language.

"Lithuanian language".

"Aukstaitian Lithuanian was used until the uprising of 1863, then very soon - within a few years - it was completely forgotten."

What does this term mean? What kind of language is this: Lithuanian or still Aukštaitian? The very doubling of the term "Aukštaitian Lithuanian" is the same gibberish as, for example, "Russian Tatar" or "Latvian Estonian".

The absurdity is obvious - after all, one language does not need a double name.

The double name means that the Aukshtaites had their own language and that they began to “rank” it with the Lithuanian language only in the period between the uprisings of 1830-31 and 1863-64, when tsarism actively turned our ethnos Litvins into the ethnos of “Belarusians”.

Little of, we are talking not about the historical language of the Aukstaites, but only about the literary language. For example, in the work of Academician of the Academy of Sciences of the Lithuanian SSR K. Korsakas and senior researcher of the Institute of the Lithuanian Language and Literature of the Academy of Sciences of the Lithuanian SSR A. Sabaliauskas "Baltic Languages", published in the journal "Russian speech" in 1971 (No. 4), it is said: "Lithuanian the literary language was formed on the basis of the dialects of the Western Aukshtaits. That is: literary, which arose after the ethnic experiments of tsarism, and not Lithuanian.

Incidentally, Pope Pius II (1405-1464) wrote in his History of the Czech Republic:

“Lituania et ipsa late patents regio Polonis ad orientem connexa est… Rara inter Lituanos opida, neque frequentes villae… Sermo gentis Sclavonicus est, latissima est enim haec lingua et in varias divisa sectas. Ex Sclavis enim alii Romanam ecclesiam sequuntur, ut Dalmatae, Croatini, Carni ac Poloni. Alii Graecorum sequuntur errores, ut Bulgari, Rutheni et multi ex Lituanis."

Translated, this means:

“Lithuania, with its expanses, borders on Poland from the east ... The Litvins have few cities, as well as few villages ... The language of the people is Slavic. This language is the most widely spoken and is divided into different dialects. Among the Slavs, some are subject to the Roman Church, like the Dalmatians, Croats, Carnians and Poles. Others adhere to the mistakes of the Greeks, like the Bulgarians, Rusyns and many of the Litvins.

Are the Aukshtaites, in the opinion of the Pope of Rome, really “Slavs”? No, he was well versed in his flock ...

From the book Between Asia and Europe. History of the Russian state. From Ivan III to Boris Godunov author Akunin Boris

"Lithuanian" period Second Rus' The entire western half of pre-Mongolian Rus' - modern Ukraine, Belarus, as well as a large piece of Great Russia from Smolensk almost to Kaluga - after the Batu invasion ended up in the zone of "soft occupation" and by the middle of the XIV century

From the book of Saint Demetrius of the Don [Ill. Sergei Mikhailovich Goncharov] author Voskoboynikov Valery Mikhailovich

Prince Olgerd of Lithuania Only Rus' did not rest long from the battles. As soon as the thunderclouds dissipated in the east, they approached from the west. Grand Duke Lithuanian Olgerd gathered a huge army and moved it to Moscow. If he had set out alone, Demetrius would have dealt with him. But him

From the book Individual and Society in the Medieval West author Gurevich Aron Yakovlevich

3. The language of bureaucracy and the language of autobiography Opicin appears in many respects as a unique and stand-alone personality. He was in the service of the papal court in Avignon, but there is no record of any of his human connections. It's his social loneliness

From the book Our Prince and Khan author Weller Michael

Russian-Lithuanian balance Question: Did Lithuania not understand that the war with Muscovite Russia, that is, with the Grand Duchy of Vladimir, as well as Suzdal or Tver, was a war with the Horde ulus, an armed conflict with the vast Mongol Empire? Suicides lived in Lithuania or

From the book Unperverted History of Ukraine-Rus Volume I the author Wild Andrew

Statute The Lithuanian Statute was written in Russian (Old Russian, "bookish") language of that time and establishes this language as the state language throughout the territory of Lithuania, for all acts, courts, administrative communications. Ukrainian and Belarusian chauvinist separatists, distorting

From the book Secrets of Belarusian History. author Deruzhinsky Vadim Vladimirovich

"Lithuanian language". The authors of the current Lietuva can be found a strange term "Aukshtaitian Lithuanian". For example: “Aukstaitian Lithuanian was used before the uprising of 1863, then very soon - within a few years - it was completely forgotten.” Which means

From the book Eastern Volunteers in the Wehrmacht, Police and SS the author Karashchuk Andrey

Lithuanian SS legion. In January 1943, the German authorities, represented by the head of the SS and police of Lithuania, Brigadeführer Vysotsky, attempted to organize an SS legion from volunteers of Lithuanian nationality. However, this event ended in failure. In response, the Germans closed

author Zuev Georgy Ivanovich

LITHUANIAN CASTLE Behind the complex of brick buildings of the Naval Barracks, the Kryukov Canal intersects with the Moika River. In this place, along the axis of the embankment on the left bank of the Moika in 1782–1787, a wooden Prison Bridge was built, located near the vast land plot, on which

From the book Where the Kryukov Canal is ... author Zuev Georgy Ivanovich

LITHUANIAN MARKET After the completion of the construction of the Lithuanian Castle at the corner of the even side of Officerska Street and the odd Kryukov Canal embankment at site No. 6/34, in 1787–1789 the Lithuanian meat market was built according to the project of the architect J. Quarenghi. Stone shopping malls

From the book 1812 - the tragedy of Belarus author Taras Anatoly Efimovich

"Lithuanian plan" The plan for a surprise attack by Russia, together with Prussia, on the Duchy of Warsaw remained unrealized. The Kaiser became afraid and at the decisive moment abandoned the war, and then completely went over to the side of Napoleon. Seeing the hesitations and vacillations of his “friend, brother and

author Zuev Georgy Ivanovich

From the book Petersburg Kolomna author Zuev Georgy Ivanovich

From the book History of Lithuania from ancient times to 1569 author Gudavičius Edvardas

b. Lithuanian language The emergence of the state gave rise to the need to establish and strengthen ties between the elites of various areas, and the state organization for its service required new concepts and means of expression. All this affected

From the book Beginning of Russia author Shambarov Valery Evgenievich

21. Vytautas of Lithuania The Lithuanians were one of the most backward peoples in Europe. How many millennia they sat in their swamps! Having snatched off a fair part of Kievan Rus, Lithuania absorbed a much higher culture. Masters studied with Russian builders, gunsmiths, jewelers,

From the book Russia - Ukraine. Roads of history author Ivanov Sergey Mikhailovich

Lithuanian period Formation of the Grand Duchy of Lithuania. The history of the formation of the Lithuanian principality is amazing. Squeezed from the west by the Polish tribes of the Mazovians and Pomeranians, from the east by the Russian Krivichi and Dregovichi, the Lithuanian tribes until the end of the 12th century lived along the banks of

From the book The Missing Letter. The unperverted history of Ukraine-Rus the author Wild Andrew

Statute The Lithuanian Statute was written in Russian (Old Russian "bookish") language of that time and establishes this language as the state language throughout Lithuania, for all acts, courts, administrative communications. Ukrainian and Belarusian chauvinist-separatists, distorting

LITHUANIAN LANGUAGE, the language of Litov-tsev is the state language of the Litov-Republic of Lithuania.

It is a native language for 2 million 856 thousand inhabitants of Lithuania and a second language for 356 thousand people (2001, re-writing). Ras-pro-country is also in Russia (35 thousand people; 2002, re-writing), Be-lo-Russian-this (4 thousand people; 2009, estimate) , Latvia (13.2 thousand people; 2000, re-writing), Sweden (2 thousand people; 2009, estimate), Poland (5.6 thousand people. ; 2009, estimate), Germany (20 thousand people; 2009, estimate), Great Britain (80 thousand people; 2009, estimate), Ir- lands (22 thousand people; 2006, re-writing), USA (38.3 thousand people; 2009, estimate), Ka-na-de (8.6 thousand people; 2009, estimate), Bra-si-lii (10 thousand people; 2009, estimate), Ar-gen-ti-ne (8 thousand people; 2009, estimate), Ko-lum -bii (5 thousand people; 2009, estimate), Urug-vae (5 thousand people; 2009, estimate), Av-st-ra-lii (4 thousand people; 2009, estimate -ka) and other countries. The total number of speakers is over 3.7 million people

The Lithuanian language is from no-sit-sya to the eastern group of the Baltic languages. In ot-li-chie from la-tysh-sko-th, subjected-to-she-go-xia to strong influence of the Baltic-Finnish languages, better preserved the original language system, which was inherited from the cities of the southern part of the East Baltic area.

You-de-la-ut 2 main dialects - auk-shtait-sky (in Central, Southern and Eastern Lithuania) and same-mait-sky (on se-ve-ro-za-pa-de ). Formal criterion of their difference - the fate of the great-li-tov-skys *o̅, *e̅: in the Auk-shtait-sky dialect under the ud-re-ni -em in the root they correspond to-from-vet-st-vu-yut uo, ie, but raz-but-o-raz-their ref-leks-sov in the same-mait-sky (̅o, ̅e on the -pa-de, ou, ei on the se-ve-re and, ī in the south) serves as the basis for you-de-le-niya of the three main groups of the same-mait-sky go-vo-ditch. The main criterion of the group-pi-ditch-ki of the auk-shtait-skih-go-vo-ditch is the fate of tav-to-sil-la-bi-che-sky co-che-ta-ny with no- co-you-mi (an, ᶐ, en, ᶒ in the west, an, en, ī in the south and un, in, ī in the east). Kha-rak-ter-naya line of the southeastern mountains - dze-ka-nye (pro-from-no-she-nie c ', ʒ' where before-hundred-vi-te- whether other Auk-Stait-sky towns pro-from-no-syat č', ̌ʒ' and t', d'; nie af-fri-kat less ha-rak-ter-no). Go-in-frames of the eastern part of Lit-you are your own-st-ven-but so-called. “From-ver-de-nie l” before the voices-we-mi before-red-not-th row-yes-not-up-not-go rise-e-ma, in the south in pri-le-zha- There are no soft r, š, ž, č, ̌ʒ, c, ʒ areas that go to Be-lo-Rus-this. In the right-le-ni from south to north in the Lithuanian mountains usi-li-va-et-sya ten-den-tion to re-no-su ud-re-nia from the last syllables closer to the beginning of the word, especially ben-but brightly manifested in the same Mait dialect and se-ve-ro-pa-ne-vezh-go-vo-re of the stoch-noa-uk-shteit group and advancing to the reduction of windows -cha-ny. The Auk-shtait-sky dialect as a whole is more ar-hai-chen than the same-mayt-sky, in-no-va-tsi-on-nye devil-you for some-ro-th hour something is connected with the influence of the Curonian language. With the pro-ty-in-pos-tav-le-nii of the slo-go-vy ak-cents in the same Mait dialect, the movement plays a big role -on (in auk-shtait-sky - co-whether-che-st-ven-nye and ka-che-st-vein-nye ha-rak-te-ri-sti-ki slo-go-no-si- te-la), in the north-but-same-mayt-sky go-in-rakh, it is real-li-zu-et-sya as a pre-ry-vis-ty ac-cent. In the same Mait-dia-lec-te, raz-ru-she-but sl-n-n-nie ad-la-ha-tel-nyh with u-os-no-howl, conjugation of the verb fishing with i-base-new, in the northwestern part of this dialect for vy-ra-zhe-ing the meaning of the past many times th time-me-no use-pol-zu-et-sya ana-ly-tic con-st-hand-tion. In the east-but-auk-shteit-sky go-in-rakh shi-ro-ko upot-reb-la-et-sya me-st-ny pa-dezh on-right-le-nia (ill-la -tiv), ras-pro-stra-nyon su-ping. For the same-mai-t-sko-go dialect and the northeastern part of the auk-shtait-sko-go dialect, ha-rak-ter-but the use of part for pe-re-da-chi pe-re-ska-zy-va-tel-no-sti. In the Eastern Auk-Stait-sky go-in-rah, there is a sign-chi-tel-but number of glorious for-im-st-in-va-ny.

Vo-ka-lism or-ga-ni-zo-van in four-you-rekh-coal-system-te-mu pro-ti-vo-post-tav-le-niya-mi in a row (ne -red-ny - back-ny) and rise-e-mu (lower, middle, upper) and count-you-va-et 6 short and 8 long vowels (among-di-next-them - 2 in-leaf-ton-ha ie and uo, ar-ti-ku-li-rue-my with from-me-not-no-it rise-yo-ma and by -this-mu-sometimes on-zy-vae-my slip-za-schi-mi). Kha-rak-ter-naya feature of con-so-nan-tiz-ma - development of cor-re-la-tion by soft-to-sti-tver-to-sti (oh-wa -you-vayu-shaya all consonants, except for j). Pe-ri-feriy-ny-mi are-la-yet-s-s-s-s-s-s-s-s-s-s only in-im-st-in-va-ni-yah short vowels of the middle go-e-ma o, e and consonant vowels f, f', x, x', h, h' (voiced back-non-lingual), c, c', ʒ, ʒ ', hard č, ̌ʒ, as well as soft t', d'. In the phono-logical system, long syllables play an important role, because they are the basis for the realization of the ak-cent-no-go hit-re-niya of two types: aku-ta (nis-ho-dya-shche-go, sharp-ko-go) and cir-kum-flek-sa (vos-ho- da-sche-th, smooth-no-go): ru̅gti 'kiss-kick' - ru̅gti 'smoke'. In addition to long vowels, long syllables are about-ra-zu-yut-xia di-fton-ga-mi ti-pa au, ei, ui (in vi-di-mo-mu , i-lya-schi-mi-sya bi-fo-nem-ny-mi co-che-ta-niya-mi short vowels with j and v) and di-phthonic co-che-ta -niya-mi short vowels with but-with-you-mi and fluent-mi (al, er, un, im, etc.). For co-che-ta-ny consonant ha-rak-ter-ny: ab-so-lut-naya re-gres-siv-naya as-si-mi-la-tion according to firm-to-sti - soft-to-sti (exclusion-to-start-up-ka-yut-sya only in complex words; at the end of the word in the literature of the Lithuanian language they meet only solid consonant vowels), ringing-ko-sti-glu-ho-sti (at the end of the word before the pause pro-is-ho-dit og-lu-she -nie), as-si-mi-la-tion according to the place of ob-ra-zo-va-nia (ru̅pesčiai 'troubles', banga 'wave-on'), up-ro-sche-nie ge-mi -nat (i ̌s ̌soko 'jumped out'). Shi-ro-ko represented-by-staving-le-we into-calic-che-re-do-va-niya - like ref-lek-sy in-do-ev-ro-pei-sko-go ab-lau- that (a / e, ė / e [æ], er / ir, etc.) connected with mo-no-fton-gi-for-qi-her tav-to-sil-la-bi-che-so-che-ta-ny with but-with-you-mi). Strike free, movable: galvа̀ ‘head’ - gálva ‘head’.

Mor-fo-lo-gi-che-ski Lithuanian language - ti-pich-ny pre-sta-vi-tel in-do-ev-ro-pei-s languages, has a raz-vi-thuyu flak -tiv-nuyu system-te-mu slope-non-niya and conjugation. Gram-ma-tic ka-te-go-rii name - gender (male and female; in ad-la-ha-tel-nyh, chi-sli-tel-nyh and me-sto-name -ni-yah so-storage-ny-yut-sya re-lic-you are middle-not-go), number (singular and plural, in dialects it’s also double- st-ven-noe), case [nominative, genitive, dative, accusative, instrumental, local (inees-siv), vocative; in dia-lects and pa-myat-ni-kah write-men-no-sti fi-si-ru-et-sya up to 4 local pas-de-zh: ines-siv (active -but also used in the mountains of Eastern Lithuania), il-la-tiv, ades-siv, al-la-tiv]. System-the-mu of personal forms of the gla-go-la or-ga-ni-zu-yut ka-te-go-rii of the face (1st, 2nd, 3rd), numbers (singular and plural, in dialects it is also double-st-ven-noe), tense (present tense, past tense, future; with as- pek-tu-al-ny-mi-zna-che-niya-mi connection-for-but about-ti-in-post-ta-le-ing forms of the past one-but-fold-but- go and pro-shed-she-go many-fold-no-go), on-clo-non-niya (ex-I-vi-tel-noe, conditional, in-ve-li- body). Ana-li-ti-che-ski about-ra-zu-yut-xia forms per-fek-ta and pass-siv-no-go for-lo-ha. They have special media-st-va pe-re-da-chi pe-re-ska-zy-va-tel-no-sti, os-but-van-nye on the use-reb-le-nii when -part-ty in the function of personal forms of the gla-go-la. Ka-te-go-riya vi-yes only partly-stich-but gram-ma-ti-ka-li-zo-va-na. As in other Baltic languages, the form of the 3rd person of the gla-go-la in the Lithuanian language does not have a ka-te-go-ri number. Kha-rak-ter-on-branch-linen-system-te-ma with-part-of-st-forms, in go-in-rah so-storage-nya-et-sya su-pin.

For syn-tak-si-sa ha-rak-ter-ny pre-po-zi-tion not-co-gla-so-van-no-go op-re-de-le-nya in the genitive case, obi- a lie of different-but-about-different-at-parts-of-ro-to-tov, after-to-va-tel-but dif-fe-ren-tsi-ro-van-nyh in for- vi-si-mo-sti from owls-pa-de-nia or not-owls-pa-de-nia of the subjects of the main-no-go and second-ro-step-pen-no-go dey-st -via, so-storage-nya-yut-sya ar-ha-ich-nye con-st-hand-tion with double-pas-de-zha-mi. Belonging to you-ra-zha-et-sya with the help of the gla-go-la turėti ‘to have’ (different from the Latvian language). In the mountains, it is not rare to meet con-st-hands with an object in the nominative case.

In the is-kon-noy lek-si-ke, the words of a different degree of antiquity are represented: general-in-to-ev-ro-pey-skie (for example, avis 'sheep', diena 'day'), Bal-to-Sla-Vyan-skie (galva 'head', liepa 'linden'), common-Baltian (šak-nis 'root', tur ̇eti 'to have'), East-Baltic (lietus 'rain', siena 'wall'), own-st-ven-but Li-tov-sky (̌zmona 'wife ', ̌sau-kštas 'spoon'). Languages-to-you-mi con-so-ta-mi explain-nya-is-not-a-small number for-im-st-in-va-ny: slav-vyan-sky (lenkas 'Pole', baž-ny-čia 'church', grybas 'mushroom', parakas 'in powder'), Germanic (yla 'awl', amatas 'craft', kambarys 'room'). Creation-on-the-tel-word-in-creation-che-st-in the way-sob-st-in-va-lo in full-non-niyu lek-si-ki of the Lithuanian language words-va-mi, cos -given-us-mi on the basis of-no-ve is-con-element-men-tov according to own-st-ven-no-lithuanian mo-de-lam, as well as introducing-den-ny-mi from cities (degtu-kas 'match', ateitis 'future', mokykla 'school', vaikaitis 'grandson', ru̅kyti 'to smoke', vi-ešbutis 'hotel', rinkmena 'file', traškučiai 'chips' ).

Language history

By the time of the appearance of the first written memories, the Lithuanian language would have been in two states - su-dar-st-wah - East Prussia and Ve- Li-com of the prince-same-st-ve Li-tov-skom (ON). The first Lithuanian book is Lu-te-ran-sky ka-te-khi-zis Mar-ti-na-sa Mazh-vi-da-sa (“Catechismvsa prasty sza-dei”, from Dan in Kö-nigs-berg in 1547), further development of the Lithuanian printed word in East Prussia in la-chi-lo in labor B. Vi-len-ta-sa, J. Bret-ku-na-sa, S. Vaish-no-ra-sa, Y. Re-zy, D. Klein-na (av-to-ra first gram-matik of 1653 and 1654, which played a big role in the establishment of the language norm). The first book, from-given on the territory of the GDL, is a kind of personal ka-te-hi-sis M. Da-uk-shi (went to Vil-no in 1595). Ka-te-hi-zis and Po-steel-la (a collection of pro-po-ve-dey) of the same av-to-ra (from da-na to Ville-no in 1599) - the first ak-tsen-tui-ro-van-nye (from the point of view of the place of ud-re-niya) pa-myat-ni-ki of the Lithuanian language. On the territory of the Grand Duchy of Lithuania, there were two variants of the Lithuanian language: central and eastern (the language of pa-myat-nik-kov, creating-yes-vav-shih-sya in East Prussia, consider-ta-et-xia to be a western variant). In the central variant of the literary Lithuanian language (with a center in Ke-dai-nyai), except for Da-uk-shi, pi-sa-li M. Pyat-kya-vi-chus, Y Mor-ku-us, S.M. li-ko-van a new re-re-water of a personal ka-te-hi-zi-sa (also ak-tsen-tui-ro-van-ny), you went to work K. Sir-vi-da-sa [aut-to-ra of the first word-va-rya (circa 1620), re-re-ra-bo-tan-naya version of ko-to-ro th (1631) you-de-zha-la 4 from-give and eye-for-la su-sche-st-ven-noe influence on the development of the language], J. Yak -on-wee-chu-sa. Due to the lo-ni-za-tion of Vil-no, the eastern variant of the literary Lithuanian language, by the beginning of the 18th century, had ceased its su-sche-st-in-va-nie, in the 18th century -step-pen-no de-gra-di-ro-val and its central variant, and only in East Prussia did the development of the Lithuanian language, despite the German -for-tion, not pre-beautiful-elk (here, in 1765-1775, the creation of a poem by K. published by L. Rezoy in 1818). In East Prussia, the first scientific gram-ma-ti-ka of the Lithuanian language was published by A. Schlei-he-ra (1856), Lithuanian-German dictionary G. Nes-sel-ma-na (1851), gram-ma-ti-ka (1876) and words-va-ri (1870-1874, 1883) F. Kur-shay-ti-sa; the first Lithuanian newspapers “Auszra” (“Dawn”, 1883-1886) and “Varpas” (“Bell”, 1889-1905) appeared. In Lithuania, after the 3rd time-de-la Re-chi Po-po-li-toy (1795) and entering the Russian Empire in-lo- ni-for-tion changed ru-si-fi-ka-qi-ey. For the promotion of the pa-gan-dy of the Lithuanian language in the 1st half of the 19th century, many authors from Zhe-mai-tia made a lot - S. Dau-kan-tas, M. Va-lan -chus, pi-sav-shie on-scientific works-bo-you in the same-mayt-sky dialect-te. The development of the Lithuanian language was again os-ta-nov-le-but behind-the-pre-Lithuanian pe-cha-ti with Latin boo-to-va-mi (1864-1904), in-ro -div-shim moving books-go-nosh, dos-tav-lyav-shih books from East Prussia.

Ma-te-ri-al of the Lithuanian language, b-go-da-rya to his ar-ha-ich-no-mu ha-rak-te-ru, active-but is-pol-zo-val- Xia in-do-ev-ro-pei-hundred-mi with time-me-no rise-nick-but-ve-niya in language-to-knowledge compare-no-tel-but-is-to-ri -th-method-yes (F. Bopp, R. Rusk, A. Pott); various in-pro-li-tua-ni-sti-ki and bal-ti-sti-ki in the sacred work of A. Les-ki-na, K. Brug-ma-na, A . Betz-tsen-ber-ge-ra (Germany), O. Wie-de-ma-na (Germany), A. Bruck-ne-ra (Poland), Ya. Roz-va-dov-sko-go, A. Meillet, F. de Saus-su-ra and others. ki in Russia is connected with the names of F.F. yes-va-nie L. Ya. in Moscow University), V. Po-rzhe-zin-sko-go, G. Ul-ya-no-va, etc.

Na-cha-lo to the Lithuanian national language-to-knowledge in lo-zhi-li A. Ba-ra-nau-skas, K. Yau-nyus (Yav-nis) and K. Bu-ga ( author of fun-dam. os-no-howl for the 20th volume of the aka-de-mic word-va-rya of the Lithuanian language). J. Jab-lon-skis contributed to the formation of the modern literary Lithuanian language. . Among other well-known literary figures of the 1st half of the 20th century: P. Skard-jus, A. Sa-lis, Y. Bal-chi-ko-nis, Y. Ge-ru -fox (G. Ge-rul-lis), as well as J. Ot-remb-sky (Poland), E. Fren-kel (author of this mo-logical dictionary ; Germany), K. Stang (Norway), A. Zenn (Senn; Lithuania, USA), in Russia - M. N. Peter-son, B. A La-rin. In the 2nd half of the 20th century, aka-de-mic gram-ma-ti-ki were created: three-volume (1965-1976) and one-but-volume-naya, having several re- dak-tsy (in Russian, 1985; in Lithuanian, 1994; in English language, 1997), aka-de-mic dictionary (1941-2002) and other lek-si-ko-graphic works, works on dia-lek-to-logia [dia- lek-to-logic at-las (volume 1 - lek-si-ka, 1977; volume 2 - fo-ne-ti-ka, 1982; volume 3 - mor-fo-logia, 1991), dia -lectic words-va-ri], theo-rheic gram-ma-ti-ke, fo-not-ti-ke, historical gram-ma-ti-ke and is-to-rii Lithuanian language, it-ma-sti-ke.

The most famous researches-sle-do-va-te-li: J. Pau-lau-skas, A. Va-letz-ke-ne, V. Gri-na-vets-kis, Z. Zin-kya-vi-chus, V. Ma-ju-lis, A. Wi-du-gi-ris, K. Mor-ku-nas, A. Sa-ba-lyau-skas, V. Ur- but-tis, V. Am-bra-sas, J. Kaz-lau-skas, N. Sli-same-ne, A. Va-na-gas, V. Wit-kau-skas, A. Pow-lau- ske-ne, S. Ka-ra-lyu-us, A. Gir-dya-nis, V. Chek-mo-us, E. Ge-nyu-she-ne, A. Ro-si-nas, A. Pa-kya-ris, A. Kau-ke-ne, B. Stund-zha, A. Hol-foot and others. V. N. To-po-ditch, Vyach.Vs. Ivanov, T. V. Bu-ly-gi-na, Yu. S. Ste-pa-nov, T. M. Sud-nik, Yu. V. Ot-kup-shchi-kov, A. E. Ani-kin (Russia); A. P. Not-to-kup-ny (Uk-rai-na); V. V. Mar-ty-nov (Be-lo-rus-sia); V. Smo-chinsky (Poland); I. Mar-van (Czech Republic); V. P. Schmidt, R. Eckert, I. Range (Germany); T. Ma-ti-as-sen (Nor-ve-gia); K. Luk-ko-nen (Fin-lyan-diya); F. Kortlandt (Netherlands); G. Mi-ke-li-ni, P. U. Di-ni (Italy); D. Petite (France); W. Schmol-stig, S. Young (USA).

Centers for the study of the Lithuanian language - University of Vilnius, Institute of the Lithuanian Language, University of Wi-tau-ta-sa We-li-ko-go in Kau-na-se, Klai- Ped-sky and Shiau-lyai-sky universities. The Lithuanian language is included in the program of under-go-to-ki years-to-no-stov and bal-ti-stov in Latvia, as a ness of study in Russia (St. Petersburg, Moscow), Poland (Po-znan, Warsaw), Czech Republic (Brno, -ha), Finland-lyan-dia (Hel-sin-ki), Ger-ma-nii (Greifs-wald), pre-yes-et-sya also in the universities of Be-lo-rus- these countries, Hungary, Italy, France, Sweden, the USA and other countries.

Writing-men-ness on the basis of the Latin al-fa-vi-ta from the 16th century. In the first texts, the Gothic font is used (see. Gothic writing), in East Prussia 2nd world war howl, and in Lithuania in a step-pen-but (by the 18th century) ousted an-tik-howl (see Latin script -mo). For a long time, var-i-ro-va-lo denotes the meaning of shi-five consonant and long vowels (bu-k-vo-so-che- ta-niya, different-but-ob-different di-ak-ri-tic signs). Modern look al-fa-vit adopted at the beginning of the 20th century: shi-pya-schi designations according to the Czech model (č, š, ž), soft-bone con-glas- nyh before the voices of the back row - as in Polish, with the help of i (myliu 'I love'). Designation of long vowels not-after-before-va-tel-but: with the help of letters u̅, y, ė, as well as o in use con-words or no-co-letters ᶐ, ᶒ, ų, ᶖ (according to these mo-lo-gich. principle-qi-pu - in the place of mo-no-phthon-gi-zi- ro-vav-shih-sya co-che-ta-niy an, en, un, in), boo-to-you a, e in unstressed-on-lo-same-no-sign-cha- they make short sounds, in shock they can mean both short and long ones. Ringing af-fri-ka-you denoting-cha-yut-sya di-gra-fa-mi dz and dž, in bodice-ton-gi ie and uo - di-gra-fa-mi ie ​​and uo, deaf-hoy back-ne-lingual-linguistic x - di-gra-fom ch.

Slo-va-ri:

Lietuvių kalbos žodynas. Vilnius, 1941-2002. T. 1-20;

Fraenkel E. Litauisches etymologisches Wörterbuch. HDlb., 1962-1965. Bd 1-2;

Rusų-lietuvių kalbų žodynas. Vilnius, 1982-1985. T. 1-4;

Lemchenas Ch., Macaitis J. Rusų-lietuvių kalbų žodynas. Wilnius, 2003;

Da-bartinės lietuvių kalbos žodynas. Wilnius, 2006;

Lyberis A. Lietuvių-rusų kalbų žodynas. Wilnius, 2008.

home ultrasound during pregnancy

Lithuanian (lit. Lietùvių kalbà) is the language of Lithuanians, the official language of Lithuania and one of official languages European Union. Lithuanian is spoken by about 2 million people in Lithuania and about 170 thousand outside of it. It belongs to the Baltic group of the Indo-European family of languages, by origin it is close to the modern Latvian language, the Latgalian dialect (although mutual understanding between the speakers of Lithuanian and these two languages ​​is currently impossible) and the dead Old Prussian and Yatvingian languages.

mental experience. intelligence as a form of organization of mental experience
See also: Project:Linguistics

Geographic distribution

The earliest written monument of the Lithuanian language dates back to 1503 and is a prayer ("Ave Maria" and "Nicene Creed"), handwritten on the last page of the book "Tractatus sacerdotalis" published in Strasbourg. The text follows the Dzukian dialect and appears to have been copied from an earlier original. There is no doubt that Lithuanian church texts existed even earlier, perhaps even at the end of the 14th century, because Christianity introduced in Aukštaitija certainly required such texts for religious practice (in historical sources it is mentioned that the first church texts were translated into Lithuanian by himself Jagiello).

Lithuanian prayer book, printed in Cyrillic. 1866

Typography begins with the catechism of Martynas Mažvydas, written in the Samogitian dialect and published in Königsberg (now Kaliningrad). The book contains the first Lithuanian textbook - "Easy and quick science of reading and writing", in which the author gives the alphabet and several grammatical terms invented by him on 4 pages. The literacy rate of Lithuanians during the 18th century remained low, so books were not available to the public, and yet, with the release of the first book, the development of the literary Lithuanian language begins.

The literary Lithuanian language has gone through the following stages of development:

  • I. Pre-national period (XVI-XVIII centuries):
  1. Lithuanian literary language of the 16th-17th centuries;
  2. Lithuanian literary language of the 18th century.
  • II. National period:
  1. Lithuanian literary language from the first half of the 19th century to 1883;
  2. Lithuanian literary language from the end of the 19th century to the beginning of the 20th century (1883-1919);
  3. Lithuanian literary language of the times of the Republic of Lithuania (1919-1940);
  4. Lithuanian literary language since the times of the LSSR as part of the USSR (since 1940).

In each period, the Lithuanian literary language had its own stylistic, written, lexical, morphological, phonetic, and other features.


Alphabet

Since the 16th century, a slightly modified Latin alphabet has been used to write the Lithuanian language. Started in the second half of the 1860s, the planting of the Cyrillic alphabet (a, b, c, d, e, f, g, h, i, k, l, m, n, o, ô, p, r, s, t, y, c, h, w, u, b , ѣ, u, i, io, iô, th, ў) caused resistance; and in 1904 the Cyrillic alphabet was rejected. B - the spelling reform carried out included changes in the alphabet. There are 32 letters in the modern Lithuanian alphabet:

A a Ą ą Bb c c Č č D d e e Ę ę
Ė ė F f G g H h I i Į į Y y Jj
K k l l M m N n O o Pp R r S s
Š š T t U u Ų ų Ū ū Vv Zz Ž ž

To record some sounds, consonants and vowels, combinations are used, for example, ch - X. There are also sounds uo - wow And ie - ye.

Dialects

The Lithuanian language is divided into two main dialects: Aukštaitian and Samogitian (these names, respectively, aukštaičių ir žemaičių tarmės, come from the Lithuanian words "high" and "low" and denote the settlement of their carriers relative to the course of the Neman River). These dialects themselves, in turn, are divided into dialects, etc. At present, three main dialects are distinguished in the Aukstaitian dialect: Eastern, Western and -Western or Telšiai (douninininkai), and Southern or Raseinish (dūnininkai) (the words in brackets are the way the speakers of these adverbs pronounce the word duona, "bread"). See the adverb distribution map, eng.

The modern literary Lithuanian language is based on the dialect of the Western Aukshtaites (Suvalkians).

Phonetics

Vowels

Lithuanian has 12 vowels. In addition to the standard Latin letters, diacritics are used to indicate long vowels (nosinė - a hook under the letters ą, ę, į, ų) left over from the time when these letters were pronounced nasally, like some vowels in modern Polish.

uppercase A Ą E Ę Ė I Į Y O U Ų Ū
Lowercase a ą e ę ė i į y o u ų ū
IFA a aː ɛ ɛː eː i iː iː o u uː uː

Consonants

Lithuanian has 20 consonants of Latin origin, as well as the digraph "Ch" representing the velar fricative (IPA [x]); the pronunciation of the other digraphs follows from their components.

uppercase B C Č D F G H J K L M N P R S Š T V Z Ž
Lowercase b c č d f g h j k l m n p r s š t v z ž
IFA b ts ʧ d f g ɣ j k l m n p r s ʃ t ʋ z ʒ

Phonology

Consonants

labial dental alveo-
dental		 alveolar alveo-
palatal		 velar
explosive deaf p t k
voiced b d g
fricatives deaf f s ʃ x
voiced z ʒ ɣ
affricates voiced ʣ ʤ
deaf ʦ ʧ
nasal m n
smooth lateral l
glide ʋ j
trembling r

All consonants except "j" have two forms: palatalized ("soft") and non-palatalized ("hard").

Accent system

The Lithuanian language has most fully preserved the system of the ancient Indo-European musical stress, therefore, specific signs (˜, ́) are used for it.

Long Lithuanian vowels, elements of ascending diphthongs, as well as r, l, m, n in diphthongoid combinations can be pronounced with a rising tone (marked with a tilde):

Ãã Ą̃ą̃ Ẽẽ Ę̃ę̃ Ė̃ė̃ Ĩĩ Į̃į̃ Ỹỹ Õõ Ũũ Ų̃ų̃ Ū̃ū̃ R̃r̃ L̃l̃ M̃m̃ Ññ

all long vowels, as well as elements of descending diphthongs, can also be pronounced with a descending tone (marked with acute stress):

Áá Ą́ą́ Éé Ę́ę́ Ė́ė́ Íí Į́į́ Ýý Óó Úú Ų́ų́ Ū́ū́

stress on short vowels - expiratory, marked by grave stress:

Àà (Èи) Ìì (Òò) Ùù, and the short stressed è is relatively rare, and the short o is atypical for the proper Lithuanian vocabulary.

Accentology

One of the features of the Lithuanian language is accentuation. Few languages ​​have this type of stress (for example, Spanish). If in other languages ​​(for example, in English) the stress is individual and you just need to learn it for each word, or it is fixed on a certain syllable (for example, in Hungarian and Czech - on the first, in Polish - on the penultimate, and in French and Turkish - on the last), then in Lithuanian there are rules indicating which syllable is stressed and the intonation of this syllable. In addition to the fact that the stress in the Lithuanian language is tonic, it has three syllabic intonations - one short and two long (descending and drawling); so, in the words laukti and laukas, the stressed diphthong au pronounced with different intonation. Almost the same stress system is present in Prussian and Sanskrit.

Grammar

Lithuanian is a language with a developed system of inflections, and thus similar to Latin, especially in its fixation of case endings and the use of adjectives or other nouns placed in front of it to describe nouns (which are put in genitive case).

Two examples:

  • naujas vyrų ir moterų drabužių salonas= new men's and women's clothing, but verbatim: new men and women's clothing salon
  • nationalinis dramos teatras= National Drama Theatre, but literally: National Drama Theatre.
  • Nouns with endings -as, -ias, -ys or -jas, belong to the first declension. With endings -a, -ia or -ė to the second slope. With endings -us or -ius- to the 4th declension. With the end -uo, as well as a few -ė - to the fifth declension. The main difficulty here is presented by nouns in -is, since they can refer to the 1st or 3rd declension.
1 declination
masculine
case Singular Plural
Nominative -as -ias -is -ys -jas -ai -iai -iai -iai -jai
Genitive -o -io -io -io -jo -ų -ių -ių -ių -jų
Dative -ui -iui -iui -iui -jui -ams -iams -iams -iams -jams
Accusative -ą -ia -į -į -ja -us -ius -ius -ius -jus
Instrumental -u -iu -iu -iu -ju -ais -iais -iais -iais -jais
Local -e -yje -yje -yje -juje -uose -iuose -iuose -iuose -juose
Vocative -e, -ai -e -i -y -jau -ai -iai -iai -iai -jai

Examples:

  • vakaras(vakaro) - evening
  • tarnautojas(tarnautojo) - employee
  • butelis(butelio) - bottle
2 declension
Feminine
case Singular Plural
Nominative (Vardininkas Kas?) -a -ia -ė -os -ios -es
Genitive (Kilmininkas Ko?) -os -ios -es -ų -ių -ių
Dative (Naudininkas Kam?) -ai -iai -ei -oms -ioms -ems
Accusative (Galininkas Ką?) -ą -ia -ę -as -ias -es
Creative (Įnagininkas Kuo?) -a -ia -e -omis -iomis -emis
Local (Vietininkas Kur?) -oje -ioje -eje -ose -iose -ese
Vocal (Šauksmininkas-o!) -a -ia -e -os -ios -es

Examples:

  • daina(dainos) - song
  • giesme(giesmės) - song
3 declension
Feminine and some masculine exceptions
  • A small number of masculine nouns also belong to the 3rd declension: dantis(tooth), debesis(cloud), vagis(thief), žvėris(beast) and some others.
  • Most nouns of the third declension in them. cases have an accent on the last syllable, that is, on the ending -is. Exceptions (emphasis based): iltis(fang) ietis(a spear), kartis(pole), etc.

Examples:

  • akis(akies) - eye
  • ausis(ausies) - ear
  • dalis(dalies) - part
4th and 5th declensions

According to the 4th and 5th declensions, mainly native Lithuanian (Baltic) words are inclined.

Singular

Im.p. -us (m.) -ius (m.) -uo (m.) -uo/-ė (female) menuo
Rod.p. -aus -iaus -(e)ns -ers -esio
Data p. -ui -iui -(e)niui -eriai -esiui
Win.p. -ų -ių -(e)ni -eri -esi
Tv.p. -umi -iumi -(e)niu -eria -esiu
Local -uje -iuje -(e)nyje -eryje -esyje
Sv.p. -au -iau -(e)nie -erie -esi
Plural
Im.p. -ūs (m.) -iai (m.) -(e)nys (m.) -erys (f.) menesiai
Rod.p. -ų -ių -(e)nų -erų -esių
Data p. -ums -iams -(e)nims -erims -esiams
Win.p. -us -ius -(e)nis -eris -esius
Tv.p. -umis -iais -(e)nimis -erimis -esiais
Local -uose -iuose -(e)nyse -eryse -esiuose
Sv.p. -us -iai -(e)nys -erys -esiai

Examples:
4 declension:

  • alus(alaus) - beer
  • sunus(sūnaus) - son

5 declension:

  • vanduo(vandens) - water
  • Akmuo(akmens) - stone
  • Suo(šuns) - dog
  • sesuo(sesers) - sister
  • dukte(dukters) - daughter
  • menuo(mėnesio) - month

Verbs and personal pronouns

To conjugate Lithuanian verbs, you need to know what type of conjugation the given verb belongs to. You can determine this by the endings of the 3rd person (single or plural - it doesn’t matter, they coincide in the lit. language). Based on these endings, three conjugations are distinguished in the present tense and two in the past. Present tense: 1 conjugation: -a or -ia, 2 conjugation: -i, 3 conjugation: -o; past tense (single): 1 conjugation -o, 2 conjugation -ė . For reflexive verbs at the end is added -si. Indefinite verbs end in -ti, reflexive verbs in -tis. If the verb has a prefix or a negative particle ne-(which is always written together), then the return particle -si (-s) is carried forward and placed between the prefix and the stem of the verb.

Nast. time, 1 conjugation:

Nast. time, 2nd (-i) and 3rd (-o) conjugation:

Past tense, 1st (-o/-jo) and 2nd (-ė) conjugations

-o -osi (return) -jo -josi (return) -ė -ėsi (return)
1 l. unit -au -ausi -jau -jausi -iau -iausi
2 l. unit -ai -aisi -jai -jaisi -ei -eisi
3 l. unit -o -osi -jo -josi -ė -esi
1 l. plural -ome -omes -jome -jomes -eme -ėmes
2 l. plural -ote -otes -jote -jotes -ėtė -ėtės
3 l. plural -o -osi -jo -josi -ė -esi

There are no types of conjugations in the multiple past and future tenses, all regular verbs are conjugated in the same way:

multiple past multiple past (return) Future Future (return)
1 l. unit -davau -davausi -siu -siuos
2 l. unit -davai -davaisi -si -sies
3 l. unit -davo -davosi -s -sis
1 l. plural -davome -davomes -sime -simes
2 l. plural -davote -davotes -site -sites
3 l. plural -davo -davosi -s -sis

Verb conjugations buti(be):

  • as esu- I am (I am)
  • tu esi- you are (are)
  • jis/ji yra (esti)- he/she is (is)
  • mes esame- we are (we are)
  • jus esate- you are (are)
  • jie/jos yra (esti)- they are (are)

(Old Slavic forms of the verb “to be” are used here as Russian analogues, which are not used in modern Russian)

Verb conjugations turėti(to have, also used in the meaning of "to be due"):

  • as turiu- I have
  • tu turi- do you have
  • jis/jituri- he/she has
  • mes turime- we have
  • jus turite- you have
  • jie/jos turi- they have

In Russian, “I have”, “you have”, etc. is used less frequently, and more often as part of phrases, for example: “You have the right”, “I have the right to evict you”, “you have the opportunity”.

For polite address, use the form 2 person plural. numbers: Jesus(i.e. "you"). The pronoun is written with a capital letter. The respectful form of the pronoun "you" has also been preserved - tam(i)sta, although in modern language it is used less often.

Declension of personal pronouns

unit 1 l. 2 l. 3 l. (m.) 3 l. (and.)
Im.p. as tu jis ji
Rod.p. manes taves jo jos
Data p. man tau jam jai
Win.p. mane tave ji ją
Tv.p. manimi tavimi juo ja
Local manyje tavyje jame joje
Plural 1 l. 2 l. 3 l. (m.) 3 l. (and.)
Im.p. mes jus jie jos
Rod.p. mūsų jusų jų jų
Data p. mums jums jiems joms
Win.p. mus jus juos jas
Tv.p. mumis jumis jais jomis
Local mumyse jumyse juose jose

Demonstrative pronouns

Degrees of demonstrative pronouns

Demonstrative pronouns in Lithuanian have three degrees. 1. When talking about something that is near the speaker (šitas, šis, šita, ši, šitai, šit) 2. When talking about something that is not near the speaker, but near the listener (tas, ta, tai, tat ) 3. When talking about an object remote from both (anas, ana).

  • 1. Masculine
  • sitas this one (here)
  • tas this one (there)
  • anas That
  • kitas another
  • 2. Feminine
  • sita this one (here)
  • ta this (there)
  • ana that
  • kita another
  • 3. sis this, si this
  • 4. Invariable pronouns
  • tai This
  • sitai(this
  • Tai… This …

Declension of demonstrative pronouns

1. 2. sis si
Rod.p. -o -os -io -ios
Data p. -am -ai -iam -iai
Win.p. -ą -ą -į -ia
Tv.p. -uo -a -iuo -ia
Local -ame -oje -iame -ioje

Adjectives and adverbs

adjectives

Adjectives in Lithuanian are placed before nouns and agree with them in gender, number and case. Masculine adjectives have endings -as, -ias, -us or -is; feminine adjectives - -a, -ia, -i, -ė . For comparative and superlatives a suffix is ​​inserted between the stem and the ending respectively. -esn- or -(i)aus-.

Neutr. Comp. Excellent
m. -(i)as / -us -esnis -iausias
and. -(i)a / -i -esne -iausia
m. -i/-ūs -esni -iausi
and. -(i)os -esnes -iausios

Declension of adjectives:

  • 1 cl. units hours:
Them. P. -as (m.) -is (m.) -a (f.)
Genus. P. -o -io -os
Date P. -am -iam -ai
Vin. P. -ą -į -ą
Tv. P. -u -iu -a
Places P. -ame -iame -oje
  • 1 cl. pl. hours:
Them. P. -i -i -os
Genus. P. -ų -ių -ų
Date P. -iems -iems -oms
Vin. P. -us -ius -as
Tv. P. -ais -iais -omis
Places P. -uose -iuose -ose

From adjectives with an ending -is in the first declension, only the adjective is inflected didelis(big) and comparative adjectives in -esnis; other adjectives with ending -is hide in the third declension.
  • 2 fold. pl. hours:
  • 3 fold. pl. hours:
Them. P. -iai -es
Genus. P. -ių -ių
Date P. -iems -ems
Vin. P. -ius -es
Tv. P. -iais -emis
Places P. -iuose -ese
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