The problem of universal values in the work of a psychologist. The main ethical guideline of a psychologist-practitioner

pedagogical teenager universal society

Interest in the processes of interaction between people and their value orientations arose in the early stages of social development. The first observations of these processes were recorded in the works of Aristotle, Democritus, Confucius and other thinkers of the past. They paid attention to some processes leading to the development of social and cultural values, the formation of the spiritual world of man.

XVIII-XIX centuries synthesized the main trends in the development of the theory of value attitudes in such sciences as aesthetics, philosophy, ethics and developed them further. Confirmation of this can be found in the works of V. V. Hegel, I.F. Herbart, F. Nietzsche, and many others.

In the XX century. E. Hartmann, I. Kohn, P. Lapi, G. Münsterberg were engaged in the development of axiological thought. Various approaches to understanding values have emerged. Such scientists as M. Varosh, M. Weber, N. Lossky, V. Stern and others worked in this direction. But almost all the works were reduced to listing value orientations. However, only O. Kraus decided to classify various theoretical approaches to the study of such a concept as universal values.

In the second half of the XX century. almost the central place was occupied by the discussion of the relationship between good and evil (S. Lyman, Ts. Makigushi, E. Montague, F. Matson, E. Fromm, and others). In Russia, the development of the theory of spiritual values was carried out by B.N. Bugaev, A.I. Vvedensky, N.O. Lossky, A.V. Lunacharsky, S.L. Frank and others. The ideas of focusing on the values of humanity were expressed in their works by V.G. Belinsky, A.I. Herzen, N.M. Karamzin, D.I. Pisarev, A.N. Radishchev, L.N. Tolstoy, K.D. Ushinsky, N.G. Chernyshevsky, ST. Shatsky and others.

The turn towards universal human landmarks in modern society gave the prerequisites for the appearance of the works of E.V. Bondarevskaya, O.S. Gazman, and others.

At the present stage, the problem of universal human values is one of the most complex, affecting the interests of various social groups. Consider several options for interpreting universal human values.

Human values- a complex of concepts included in the system of philosophical doctrine of man and constituting the most important subject of study of axiology. Human values stand out among other values in that they express the common interests of the human race, free from national, political, religious and other predilections, and in this capacity they act as an imperative for the development of human civilization. Any value as a philosophical category denotes the positive significance of the phenomenon and comes from the priority of human interests, i.e. characterized by anthropocentrism. Anthropocentrism of universal human values has a socio-historical character, independent of specific socio-cultural manifestations and based on the historically emerging unity of ideas about the existence of certain universal essential properties of human existence.

The universal human values recognized by the world community include: life, freedom, happiness, as well as the highest manifestations of human nature, revealed in his communication with his own kind and with the transcendent world. Violation of universal human values is regarded as a crime against humanity.

In the past, the universalism of those values that are now commonly called universal human values was realized only within the framework of an ethnocultural and social community, and their significance was justified by a divine establishment. Such were, for example, the Old Testament ten commandments - the fundamental norms of social behavior given to the "God's chosen people" from above and did not apply to other peoples. Over time, as the unity of human nature was realized and peoples leading a primitive way of life joined the world human civilization, universal human values began to be affirmed on an all-planetary scale. The concept of natural human rights was of exceptional importance for the establishment of universal human values. In Modern and Contemporary times, attempts have been repeatedly made to completely deny universal values or to pass off the values of individual social groups, classes, peoples and civilizations as such. [Global issues and universal values. M., 1990; SalkJon., SalkJonsth. World Population and Human Values: A New Reality. New York, 1981.

The latest philosophical dictionary gives the following interpretation

Human values are a system of axiological maxims, the content of which is not directly related to a specific historical period in the development of society or a specific ethnic tradition, but, being filled in each socio-cultural tradition with its own specific meaning, is nevertheless reproduced in any type of culture as a value. The problem of universal values is dramatically renewed in the era of social catastrophism: the prevalence of destructive processes in politics, the disintegration of social institutions, the devaluation of moral values and the search for options for a civilized socio-cultural choice. At the same time, the fundamental value at all times of human history has been life itself and the problem of its preservation and development in natural and cultural forms. The variety of approaches to the study of universal human values gives rise to a plurality of their classifications according to various criteria. In connection with the structure of being, natural values (inorganic and organic nature, minerals) and cultural values (freedom, creativity, love, communication, activity) are noted. According to the structure of personality, values are biopsychological (health) and spiritual order. According to the forms of spiritual culture, values are classified into moral (the meaning of life and happiness, goodness, duty, responsibility, conscience, honor, dignity), aesthetic (beautiful, sublime), religious (faith), scientific (truth), political (peace, justice, democracy), legal (law and order). In connection with the object-subject nature of the value relation, one can note the subject (results of human activity), subjective (attitudes, assessments, imperatives, norms, goals) values. In general, the polyphony of universal human values also gives rise to the conventionality of their classification. Each historical epoch and a certain ethnos express themselves in a hierarchy of values that determined the socially acceptable. Value systems are in the making and their time scales do not coincide with the socio-cultural reality. In the modern world, the moral and aesthetic values of antiquity, the humanistic ideals of Christianity, the rationalism of the New Age, the non-violence paradigm of the 20th century are significant. and many others. etc. Universal human values form value orientations as priorities for the socio-cultural development of ethnic groups or individuals, fixed by social practice or human life experience. Among the latter, value orientations to the family, education, work, social activities, and other areas of human self-affirmation are singled out. In the modern era of global changes, the absolute values of goodness, beauty, truth and faith are of particular importance as the fundamental foundations of the corresponding forms of spiritual culture, suggesting harmony, measure, balance of the integral world of man and his constructive life-affirmation in culture. And, since the actual socio-cultural dimension today is determined not so much by being as by its change, goodness, beauty, truth and faith mean not so much adherence to absolute values as their search and acquisition. Among universal human values, it is necessary to specially highlight moral values, which traditionally represent the universally significant in its relationship with the ethno-national and individual. In universal human morality, some common forms of community life are preserved, the continuity of moral requirements associated with the simplest forms of human relationships is noted. Biblical moral commandments are of lasting importance: the Old Testament Ten Commandments of Moses and the New Testament Sermon on the Mount of Jesus Christ. Universal in morality is the form of presenting a moral requirement, associated with the ideals of humanism, justice and dignity of the individual.

Based on various literature sources, it can be said that

a stunning variety of points of view on this issue fit between two polar opposites: (1) there are no universal values; (2) there are universal human values.

Arguments first can be divided into three types:

a) there were not, are not and cannot be universal human values; this follows from the fact that, firstly, all people and human communities had and have special, different and even incompatible interests, goals, beliefs, etc.; secondly, like any worldview problem, the problem of determining value cannot have an unambiguous solution at all, it is difficult to formulate it; thirdly, the solution of this problem is largely due to epochal and concrete historical conditions, which are very different; fourthly, values were and are only local in time and space;
b) there were and are no universal human values, but the concept itself is used or can be used for good or selfish purposes to manipulate public opinion;
c) there were not and are no universal values, but since different communities do not exist in isolation from each other, then for the peaceful coexistence of various social forces, cultures, civilizations, etc. it is necessary to develop an actually artificial set of certain "universal values". In other words, although such values did not actually exist and do not exist, they can and should be developed and imposed on all people, communities, and civilizations.

Arguments second points of view can be summarized as follows:

a) universal human values are a phenomenon only material, i.e. physical or biological: (wealth, satisfaction of physiological needs, etc.);
b) universal human values are purely spiritual phenomenon (abstract dreams about Truth, Goodness, Justice…);
c) human values are combination both material and spiritual values.

At the same time, some consider “values” to be stable, unchanged, while others consider them to be changing depending on changes in economic, political, military and other conditions, on the policy of the ruling elite or party, on changes in the socio-political system, etc. For example, in Russia the dominance of private property was replaced by the dominance of public property, and then private property. Values have changed accordingly.

Each person, any society certainly enters into various relationships with himself, with his parts, with the outside world. The whole variety of such relations can be reduced to two types: material and spiritual or material-spiritual and spiritual-material. The former includes all types of practical activities: the production of material goods, economic relations, transformations in the material sphere of society, in everyday life, experiments, experiments, etc. IN spiritual and material includes, first of all and mainly, cognitive, evaluative, normative relations. Cognitive relations certainly contain the search for a solution and the process of solving such universal questions: “what is it?”, “what is it like?”, “how much is it?”, “where (where, from where)?”, “when (how long, until or after)?”, “how (how)?”, “why?”, “why?” and etc.

Evaluative relations are also associated with the search for universal questions, but of a different kind (questions concerning the meaning of the known or known, its essentiality, attitude towards people: “truth or error (false)?”, “interesting or uninteresting?”, “useful or harmful? ”,“ Necessary or unnecessary? ”,“ Good or bad? ”, etc.

Of course, it is possible to evaluate only what is at least to some extent known. Evaluation and the degree of its adequacy is directly dependent on the level, depth, comprehensiveness of knowledge of the person being evaluated. Further, it has a reverse effect on the further course of the process of cognition. If values are impossible without evaluation, this does not mean that they depend entirely on it. All universal human values are connected with the objective reality of nature and society, i.e. really exist. Consciousness can contain only desires, ideas, understanding of values that differ in different people, communities, etc. But there must be, indeed, something in the values general even for very different people, i.e. have always been and still are human values.

On the basis of evaluative relations and the experience of their application to nature, society and man, norms and rules of behavior are formed, which are the denominator, the general result of social experience, by which people are guided in further cognitive, evaluative and practical activities. The elements of such normative relations are usually referred to by the terms: “principle”, “rule”, “requirement”, “norm”, “law”, “setting”, “commandment”, “covenant”, “prohibition”, “taboo”, “punishment”. ”, “definition”, “creed”, “creed”, “canon”, etc.

That valuable, which as such is realized by people in the course of their activity, is very heterogeneous. Therefore, it is impossible not to distinguish:

1) values as such, as initial, fundamental, absolute (in the sense of indisputable), eternal (in the sense of always existing), etc.
2) values that are of a private nature.

Since axiological (evaluative) activity directly depends on cognitive activity, then values cannot be something that is incomprehensible to our thinking, that is unreal, impossible, unfeasible, unattainable, unrealizable, imaginary, fantastic, utopian, chimerical, etc. "Value is a term used in philosophical and sociological literature to indicate the human, social and cultural significance of certain phenomena of reality." Means, value- something real that is (exists) and at the same time has greater or lesser significance and importance for people.

S.F. Anisimov identifies the following groups of values:

absolute values: life, health, knowledge, progress, justice, spiritual perfection, humanity.

anti-values(pseudo-values): illness, death, ignorance, mysticism, human degradation;

relative(relative) values that are inconstant and change depending on historical, class, worldview positions: ideological, political, religious, class, group. ; values of people's material life; social values; values of the spiritual life of society.

When using the term "universal" one should keep in mind at least three interrelated aspects:

1) universal (in the sense: common to all) as something that concerns every practically healthy and sane person (from primitive to modern);
2) universal as something that represents an absolute, enduring and highly significant need for humanity as a whole(eg environmental values);
3) universal as something that is or should be in the spotlight each state(for example, national and international security).

Thus, we can argue that universal human values are something that is really important for people, which is certainly necessary, desirable, which has enduring, essential significance for almost every normal person, regardless of their gender, race, citizenship, social status, etc. . Human values are highly significant for humanity as a unity of all people, as well as for any state, since it meets or should meet the needs, interests, needs of society and the citizen.

In accordance with the three areas of existence of universal values, three types of systems of these values should be distinguished: 1) common personal values, 2) values common to all mankind, 2) values of the sphere of activity of states or a union of states. The initial, as we believe, is the system of personal or general personal values.

As a result, this structure has nailed the following form in our work:

moral values: kindness, justice, honesty, sincerity, humanity, responsibility, dignity, mercy, tolerance, modesty, care, etc.;

ethical values: beauty, truth, intelligence, etc.;

artistic values: beauty, creativity, acceptance of cultural values, etc.

spiritual values: faith, love, hope.

Leading in the study I'm wallowing universal moral values: kindness, justice, honesty, sincerity, humanity, responsibility, dignity, mercy, tolerance, modesty, care, etc.; focused on the internal qualities of a person, taking into account the norms of behavior and helping schoolchildren in social adaptation, closely interacting with social, civic, and communicative values. The main feature of moral humanistic values is that their orientation is aimed at the benefit of man and life on earth. They permeate other values, so it is not uncommon to single them out.

In our work, we will consider the values: goodness, honesty and dignity.

"good" "honesty" and "dignity".

Dobro Ozhegov's Explanatory Dictionary

Something positive, good, useful, the opposite of evil; good deed.

In the only dictionary of V.I. Dahl writes that "Good-

materially, everything good cf. property or wealth, acquisition, dobrishko, esp. movable. All goodness or goodness of mine was gone. They have an abyss of good in chests. All goodness is dust.

In the spiritual value the good, which is honest and useful, all that the duty of a person, citizen, family man requires from us; the opposite of bad and evil. Do good, do not be afraid of anyone. Good does not go bad. Good is not repaid with evil. [

The outstanding scientist, humanist and thinker Ali Apsheroni spoke about goodness as follows: “Goodness is enduring spiritual and moral values and good deeds committed under their influence.”

IN AND. Dahl gives the following interpretation of the concept of honesty: "Directness, truthfulness, steadfastness in one's conscience and duty, the denial of deceit and theft, reliability in the fulfillment of promises." A quality especially valued by native Russian people. In the ancient Russian instructions of the fathers to their sons, this quality comes first - "to live in good conscience, honestly and without deceit", "honestly fulfill your duty."

The Russians had such expressions: “I give my word of honor”, “Honest gentlemen”, “Honest guests”, “He was honestly received and escorted with honors”.

Folk proverbs: “Honest greetings to the heart for joy”, “Honest refusal is better than a puff”, “Honest deeds are not hidden”, “Honest and bow to an honest husband”, “A good (honest) wife and an honest husband”. IN AND. Dal

Dignity - a set of properties that characterize high moral qualities, as well as consciousness of the value of these properties and self-respect. Lose your dignity. Speak with dignity (Ozhegov I.S. Dictionary of the Russian language)

The eminent German scientist Immanuel Kant spoke about dignity as follows: "Dignity is a person's respect for the law of humanity in his own person."

Dignity - the concept of moral consciousness, expressing the idea of the value of the individual, the category of ethics, reflecting the moral attitude of man to himself and society to the individual. Consciousness of one's own dignity is a form of self-control of the personality, on which the exactingness of the individual to himself is based; in this respect, the demands coming from society take the form of specifically personal (to act in such a way as not to humiliate one's dignity). Thus, dignity, along with conscience, is one of the ways a person realizes his duty and responsibility to society. The dignity of the individual also regulates the attitude towards her on the part of others and society as a whole, containing the requirements of respect for the individual, recognition of her rights, and so on.

The problem of universal human values is one of the most complex (difficult to formulate, research and solve), confusing, clearly affecting the interests of representatives of different strata and ideologies. It is not surprising that there have been and are many opinions, approaches to solving, points of view, and teachings on it. You can verify this by referring, for example, to the Internet or to specialized literature, to ideological disputes, political battles, election campaigns, public opinion polls, etc.

In the overwhelming variety of opinions and points of view on this issue of universal human values, two extreme types should be distinguished: 1) there are no universal human values; 2) there are universal human values.

1. The first type is divided into three types.

a) There were not, are not and cannot be universal human values, because, firstly, all people, their communities had and have special, different and even incompatible interests, goals, beliefs, etc.; secondly, like any worldview problem, it cannot have an unambiguous solution; thirdly, this problem is very difficult to understand and solve; fourthly, its solution is significantly influenced by various approaches (moral, legal, religious, political, etc.); fifthly, its decision is largely due to epochal and specific historical conditions, and they were and are very different; sixth, the values were and are only local in time and space.

b) There were not and are no universal human values, but the concept of them is used by some social circles for good or selfish purposes to manipulate public opinion.

c) There were and are no universal values, but since different communities do not exist in isolation from each other, then for the peaceful coexistence of various social forces, cultures, civilizations, etc. it is necessary to develop an appropriate set, a system of "universal values". It turns out that these values did not exist and do not exist, but they can and even need to be artificially developed and imposed on all people, communities, civilizations.

2. There are universal human values. But they are interpreted very differently.

a) Universal human values are only material (wealth, satisfaction of sexual passions, etc.).

b) Human values are purely spiritual (from the religious, moral, legal, etc. spheres).

c) Human values are a combination of both material and spiritual factors.

At the same time, some consider “values” to be stable, unchanged, while others consider them to be changing depending on changes in economic, political, military and other conditions, on the policy of the ruling elite or party, on changes in the socio-political system, etc. For example, in Russia, the dominance of private property after the October Revolution was replaced by the domination of public property, and then again private (hence, they say, all values each time completely changed according to the principle: “Long live “down”!” - “Down with “long live”!”) .

1. Social anti-values. Confrontation of values and anti-values.

Anti-value - everything that has a negative significance for a person, society.

Hostility - it is some derivative of suspiciousness and aggressiveness. A hostile person is able to find his enemies anytime and anywhere. The whole world for him, viewed through the prism of subjective hostility, depreciates and is perceived as anti-value.

A special form of hostility is aggressiveness 1 , which most likely has a positive source, which we talked about: a sense of self-preservation, self-defense, providing living space, etc. However aggression in the narrow or proper sense of the word is an unprovoked attack, a hostile action in relation to another. To a certain extent, aggressiveness makes us related to animals. However, unlike human aggressiveness, the aggressiveness of animals is almost always motivated by the need for survival and self-preservation, protection of their family, genus or habitat.

Aggressiveness is cruelty and violence, which are not caused by any vital necessity, are not motivated by reason, but stem from anti-humanity, this dark side of a human being.

Compared to the manifestations of inhumanity discussed above, bad habits seems to be a trifle, which, perhaps, should not have been mentioned. But the review of the sphere of anti-values should be relatively complete, although it is practically impossible to make it exhaustively comprehensive. Bad habits include a lot of errors in our behavior, thinking style, etiquette. Basically, they are relative and reflect the general level of culture of a society or its subcultures. However, they all symbolize that lower limit, the limit of normal and reasonable, morally, emotionally-mentally, aesthetically and socially acceptable behavior, tacitly accepted in this society, beyond which begins the unacceptable and intolerant, immoral or illegal. For example, picking your nose or eating pasta with your hands is an obvious violation of the rules of decorum or etiquette. Bad habits are apparently invisible, so it makes no sense to make a register of them. It is important to understand their bad consequences. From the social point of view, harmful attachments or habits, generating hostility or even feelings of disgust of one person or group of people towards the subject of these habits, spoil the atmosphere of communication, lower its moral, intellectual and aesthetic level, make the joint activity of people less effective. Perhaps the worst harm they do to their wearer. A bad habit can speak of many things: poor upbringing or self-education, low culture and lack of self-respect, inner laxity and poor self-discipline, an underdeveloped moral or aesthetic sense, or a simple unwillingness to think about one's way of life.

In general, a bad habit is a kind of licentiousness, a greater or lesser flaw in the way of life, psychology and thinking of a person. We are deeply convinced that in the vast majority of cases, external disorder determines or reflects disorder in the human soul, reduces the adaptive and productive capabilities of the individual. Life should not be mechanical, automatic and boring. But it must be rational and as meaningful as possible, especially in its external expression.

The sphere of anti-humanity and anti-values is multifaceted and tends to penetrate into the entire internal and external reality of a person: from the family and everyday thinking to ecology and space. One of these anti-values is lies, deceit.

In the proper sense, deceit is a deliberate selfish lie, misleading a person, fraught with damage to his dignity, health, his property, etc.

Identification of value and anti-value occurs with the help of evaluation.

The world of values and anti-values is exceptionally rich throughout life

human there is a change in the quantitative composition of both

peace. New values appear, but unfortunately also anti-values. There is a reassessment of values, a reassessment can go along the path of revealing true values and getting rid of anti-values. It depends primarily on what type of culture a person is attached to, what type of culture dominates in society. Today, unfortunately, mass culture is beginning to dominate, which voluntarily or involuntarily forces us to accept many anti-values as values.

There is absolutely nothing about the confrontation between values and anti-values .. So I won’t lie .. Here is the most basic ..

7. Moral meaning of the 10 commandments of the Old Testament

Precepts, ten fundamental laws, which, according to the Pentateuch, were given by God himself to Moses, in the presence of the sons of Israel, on Mount Sinai on the fiftieth day after the Exodus from Egypt (Ex. 19:10-25).

The Ten Commandments are contained in the Pentateuch in two versions that differ little from each other. In another place, part of the commandments is reproduced in the form of a commentary put into the mouth of the Almighty, while moral norms are not commented on, but prescriptions are formulated in the religious and cult field. According to Jewish tradition, the version contained in the 20th chapter of the book of Exodus was on the first, broken tablets, and the version of Deuteronomy was on the second.

The setting in which God gave Moses and the children of Israel the Ten Commandments is described in the Bible. Sinai stood in flames, shrouded in thick smoke, the earth trembled, thunder rumbled, lightning flashed, and, in the noise of the raging elements, covering it, the voice of God resounded, pronouncing the commandments. Then the Lord himself inscribed the "Ten Words" on two stone tablets, the "Tables of Testimony" or "Tables of the Covenant," and gave them to Moses. When Moses, after a forty-day stay on the mountain, descended with the tablets in his hands and saw that the people, forgetting about God, were dancing around the Golden Calf, he fell into such a terrible anger at the sight of the unbridled feast that he broke the tablets with the commandments of God on the rock. After the ensuing repentance of all the people, God told Moses to carve out two new stone tablets, and bring them to Him to rewrite the Ten Commandments.

The text of the ten commandments according to the Synodal translation of the Bible.

I am the Lord your God; Thou shalt have no other gods before Me.
Do not make for yourself an idol or any image of what is in heaven above, what is on the earth below, and what is in the water below the earth. Don't worship them and don't serve them; for I am the Lord your God, a jealous God, punishing the children for the guilt of the fathers to the third and fourth [kind] who hate Me, and showing mercy to a thousand generations to those who love Me and keep My commandments.
Do not take the name of the Lord your God in vain; for the Lord will not leave without punishment the one who pronounces his name in vain.
Remember the Sabbath day to keep it holy. Work six days, and do all your work; and the seventh day is the Sabbath of the Lord your God: on it you shall do no work, neither you, nor your son, nor your daughter, nor your servant, nor your maidservant, nor your livestock, nor the stranger that is in your dwellings. For in six days the Lord made heaven and earth, the sea, and all that is in them; and rested on the seventh day. Therefore the Lord blessed the Sabbath day and hallowed it.
Honor your father and your mother, that your days may be long in the land which the Lord your God is giving you.
Dont kill.
Don't commit adultery.
Don't steal.
Do not bear false witness against your neighbor.
Do not covet your neighbor's house; Thou shalt not covet thy neighbor's wife, nor his manservant, nor his maidservant, nor his ox, nor his donkey, nor anything that is thy neighbor's.

8. Tanakh and Talmud are the basis of Jewish morality.

Tanakh(Hebrew תנַ"ךְ‎) - the name of the Jewish Holy Scripture accepted in Hebrew (in the Christian tradition, it almost completely corresponds to the Old Testament).

The Tanakh contains 24 books. The composition of the books is identical to the Protestant Old Testament, but differs in the order of the books. However, the Babylonian Talmud indicates an order different from the current one. The Catholic and Orthodox canons of the Old Testament may include additional books of the Septuagint not found in the Tanakh.

The Jewish canon is divided into three parts according to the genre and time of writing of certain books.

Law, or Torah, including the Pentateuch of Moses
Prophets, or Neviim, including, in addition to prophetic, some books that today are considered to be historical chronicles.

The Nevi'im are further subdivided into two sections.

"Early Prophets": Joshua, Judges, 1 and 2 Samuel (1 and 2 Samuel) and 1 and 2 Kings (3 and 2 Samuel)
"Later Prophets", including 3 books of "great prophets" (Isaiah, Jeremiah and Ezekiel) and 12 "minor prophets". In the manuscripts, the "minor prophets" made up one scroll and were considered one book.

Scriptures, or Ketuvim, including the writings of the wise men of Israel and prayer poetry.

As part of Ketuvim, a collection of “five scrolls” stood out, including the books Song of Songs, Ruth, Lamentations of Jeremiah, Ecclesiastes and Esther, collected in accordance with the annual cycle of readings in the synagogue.

The division of the Tanakh into three parts is attested by many ancient authors at the turn of our era. The mention of “the law, the prophets and other books” Sir.1:2) we find in the book of the Wisdom of Jesus, the son of Sirach, written about 190 BC. e. The three sections of the Tanakh are also named by Philo of Alexandria (circa 20 BC - c. 50 AD) and Josephus Flavius (37 AD - ?).

Many ancient authors count 24 books in the Tanakh. The Jewish counting tradition combines the 12 minor prophets into one book, and considers the pairings of Samuel 1, 2, Kings 1, 2, and Chronicles 1, 2 in one book. Ezra and Nehemiah are also combined into one book. In addition, sometimes pairs of books of Judges and Ruth, Jeremiah and Eich are conditionally combined, so that the total number of books of the Tanakh is equal to 22 according to the number of letters of the Hebrew alphabet. In the Christian tradition, each of these books is treated as separate, thus talking about 39 books of the Old Testament.

Talmud(Hebrew תָלְמוּד‎, “teaching, study”) is a multi-volume set of legal and religious-ethical provisions of Judaism, covering the Mishnah and the Gemara in their unity.

In addition to legislative texts, called Halakha, the Talmud includes a large number of fabulous and mythological plots, folk beliefs, historical, medical and magical texts, [ source not specified 927 days] . All this is called Haggadah.

Talmudic creativity is based on the commentary of the Tanakh, especially its first part - the Pentateuch, or Torah.

The literal meaning of the word Talmud is “teaching” (from Hebrew למד‎, “to teach”), this word denoted the discussions of the Tannais concerning any halacha, as well as the teachings of the Amoraites dedicated to the Mishnah. A later understanding of the word Talmud, which is widespread in our time, is the Mishna, along with the teachings of the Amoraites dedicated to it. In the Gemara and in its commentaries, the expression "Talmud said" (תלמוד לומר) means a reference to the Written Torah.

The Talmud is the original title of the work, given to it by the Amoraites. The Gemara is a later name for the Talmud, which apparently arose in the era of printing in connection with censorship and persecution of the Talmud as an anti-Christian work. Regarding the literal understanding of the word "Gemara", the opinions of researchers differ: "teaching" - from the Aramaic גמיר, that is, the literal translation of the word "Talmud", or "completion", "perfection" - from the Hebrew גמר.

III. The problem of mental development of a child. In this rank, under which approach, the independence of processes for the development of processes for the development of

III. The problem of mental development of a child. Like a child, it is not possible to fulfill a task (available for children of a given age) or independently

the concept of cultural studies, which characterizes the totality of ideals, principles, moral norms, rights that have priority in people's lives, regardless of their social status, nationality, religion, education, age, gender, etc. They allow you to most fully embody the generic essence of a person. They are opposed to class values, which, within the framework of the class approach, claim the role of universal human values, and replace them. Universal values are close and understandable to everyone (at least potentially), unite people on the basis of the generally significant nature of the interests and needs they express, orient in relations to each other, to society. The system-forming principle for universal human values is the principle of humanism, the absolute priority of the value of human life. Fundamental importance in the system of universal values belongs to the nature of a person for an original existence and free development, the priority of the personal over the public. Human values usually include the right to life, freedom, respect for elders, property, love for children, care for loved ones, patriotism, hard work, honesty, etc. The establishment of such values presupposes the existence of appropriate conditions - economic, political, spiritual. Human values are an essential factor in the success of modern integration processes, a kind of universal language for the dialogues of different Cultures.

Great Definition

Incomplete definition ↓

HUMAN VALUES

a system of axiological maxims, the content of which is not directly related to a specific historical period in the development of society or a specific ethnic tradition, but, being filled in each socio-cultural tradition with its own specific meaning, is nevertheless reproduced in any type of culture as a value. O.C. problem dramatically resumes in the era of social catastrophism: the prevalence of destructive processes in politics, the disintegration of social institutions, the devaluation of moral values and the search for options for a civilized socio-cultural choice. At the same time, the fundamental value at all times of human history has been life itself and the problem of its preservation and development in natural and cultural forms. The variety of approaches to the study of O.Ts. generates a plurality of their classifications according to various criteria. In connection with the structure of being, natural values (inorganic and organic nature, minerals) and cultural values (freedom, creativity, love, communication, activity) are noted. According to the structure of personality, values are biopsychological (health) and spiritual order. According to the forms of spiritual culture, values are classified into moral (the meaning of life and happiness, goodness, duty, responsibility, conscience, honor, dignity), aesthetic (beautiful, sublime), religious (faith), scientific (truth), political (peace, justice, democracy), legal (law and order). In connection with the object-subject nature of the value relation, one can note the subject (results of human activity), subjective (attitudes, assessments, imperatives, norms, goals) values. In general, the polyphony of O.Ts. gives rise to the conditionality of their classification. Each historical epoch and a certain ethnos express themselves in a hierarchy of values that determined the socially acceptable. Value systems are in the making and their time scales do not coincide with the socio-cultural reality. In the modern world, the moral and aesthetic values of antiquity, the humanistic ideals of Christianity, the rationalism of the New Age, the non-violence paradigm of the 20th century are significant. and many others. Dr. O.Ts. form value orientations as priorities for the socio-cultural development of ethnic groups or individuals, fixed by social practice or human life experience. Among the latter, value orientations to the family, education, work, social activities, and other areas of human self-affirmation are singled out. In the modern era of global changes, the absolute values of goodness, beauty, truth and faith are of particular importance as the fundamental foundations of the corresponding forms of spiritual culture, suggesting harmony, measure, balance of the integral world of man and his constructive life-affirmation in culture. And, since the actual socio-cultural dimension today is determined not so much by being as by its change, goodness, beauty, truth and faith mean not so much adherence to absolute values as their search and acquisition. Among O.Ts. moral values, traditionally representing the universally significant in its relationship with the ethno-national and individual, should be specially singled out. In universal human morality, some common forms of community life are preserved, the continuity of moral requirements associated with the simplest forms of human relationships is noted. Biblical moral commandments are of lasting importance: the Old Testament Ten Commandments of Moses and the New Testament Sermon on the Mount of Jesus Christ. Universal in morality is the form of presenting a moral requirement, associated with the ideals of humanism, justice and dignity of the individual. (See Value).

Topic Philosophy - the problem of interpretation of universal values in the history of philosophical thought

Introduction…………………………………………………………………………… 3

1. The concept of “universal values”, classification of values……. 4

2. Formation of the theory of value in the history of European philosophy…...... 12

Conclusion…………………………………………………………………….. 21

List of used literature…………………………………………….. 23

Introduction

The relevance of this topic is determined by the fact that the problem of values always comes first in transitional periods of social development. This is the time our society is going through today, with its instability and dramatic social shifts. What are the values, so are the individual and the society.

Values occupy the most important place in the life of a person and society, since it is the values that characterize the actual human way of life, the level of separation of a person from the animal world. The problem of values acquires special significance in transitional periods of social development, when cardinal social transformations lead to a sharp change in the value systems that existed in it, thereby putting people in front of a dilemma: either maintain established, familiar values, or adapt to new ones that are widely offered, even imposed. representatives of various parties, public and religious organizations, movements. Therefore questions: what are values; what is the ratio of value and evaluation; what values are the main for a person, and what are secondary - are vital today.

Values are connected with the real activity of a person. Only when we consider the social existence of people in the aspect of the subject-object relationship, we can fix the phenomenon of values. The world of values is a special world, characterized by the fact that values express the social and personal form of being of the phenomena of reality. Value is a property of society and its constituent components. It is inseparable from the person himself.

In this paper, we will consider such issues as the concept of universal human value in the history of philosophical thought and the classification of values.

The concept of "universal values", classification of values

The problem of interpreting universal human values is one of the most difficult, affecting the interests of different social groups. A stunning variety of points of view on this issue fit between two polar opposites: (1) there are no universal values; (2) there are universal human values.

"Arguments first can be divided into three types:

a) there were not, are not and cannot be universal human values; this follows from the fact that, firstly, all people and human communities had and have special, different and even incompatible interests, goals, beliefs, etc.; secondly, like any worldview problem, the problem of determining value cannot have an unambiguous solution at all, it is difficult to formulate it; thirdly, the solution of this problem is largely due to epochal and concrete historical conditions, which are very different; fourthly, values were and are only local in time and space;

b) there were and are no universal human values, but the concept itself is used or can be used for good or selfish purposes to manipulate public opinion;

c) there were not and are no universal values, but since different communities do not exist in isolation from each other, then for the peaceful coexistence of various social forces, cultures, civilizations, etc., it is necessary to develop an actually artificial set of some “universal human values”. In other words, although such values did not actually exist and do not exist, they can and should be developed and imposed on all people, communities, and civilizations.

Arguments second points of view can be summarized as follows:

a) universal human values are a phenomenon only material, i.e. physical or biological: (wealth, satisfaction of physiological needs, etc.);

b) universal human values are purely spiritual phenomenon (abstract dreams about Truth, Goodness, Justice…);

c) universal human values combination both material and spiritual values.

At the same time, some consider “values” to be stable, unchanged, while others consider them to be changing depending on changes in economic, political, military and other conditions, on the policy of the ruling elite or party, on changes in the socio-political system, etc. For example, in Russia the domination of private property was replaced by the domination of public, and then - private. Values have changed accordingly.

Each person, any society certainly enters into various relationships with himself, with his parts, with the outside world. The whole variety of such relations can be reduced to two types: material and spiritual or material-spiritual and spiritual-material. The first includes all types of practical activities: the production of material goods, economic relations, transformations in the material sphere of society, in everyday life, experiments, experiments, etc. In spiritual and material includes, first of all and mainly, cognitive, evaluative, normative relations. Cognitive relations certainly contain the search for a solution and the process of solving such universal questions: “what is it?”, “what is it like?”, “how much is it?”, “where (where, from where)?”, “when (how long, until or after)?”, “how (how)?”, “why?”, “why?” and etc.

Of course, it is possible to evaluate only what is at least to some extent known. Evaluation and the degree of its adequacy is directly dependent on the level, depth, comprehensiveness of knowledge of the person being evaluated. Further, it has a reverse effect on the further course of the process of cognition. If values are impossible without evaluation, this does not mean that they depend entirely on it. All universal values are connected with the objective reality of nature and society, that is, they really exist. Consciousness can contain only desires, ideas, understanding of values that differ among different people, communities, etc. But there must be something in the values. general even for the most diverse people, that is, there have always been and exist human values.

That valuable, which as such is realized by people in the course of their activity, is very heterogeneous. Therefore, it is impossible not to distinguish:

1) values as such, as initial, fundamental, absolute (in the sense of indisputable), eternal (in the sense of always existing), etc.

2) values that are of a private nature.

Since axiological (evaluative) activity directly depends on cognitive activity, then values cannot be what is incomprehensible by our thinking, what is unreal, impossible, impracticable, unattainable, unrealizable, imaginary, fantastic, utopian, chimerical, etc. “Value - a term used in philosophical and sociological literature to indicate the human, social and cultural significance of certain phenomena of reality. Means, value- something real that is (exists) and at the same time has a greater or lesser significance and importance for people.

When using the term "universal" one should keep in mind at least three interrelated aspects:

1) universal (in the sense: common to all) as that which concerns every practically healthy and sane person(from primitive man to modern);

2) universal as something that represents an absolute, enduring and highly significant need for humanity as a whole(eg environmental values);

3) universal as something that is or should be in the spotlight each state(for example, national and international security).

Taking into account these aspects, we define the concept of "universal values". Universal human values are something that is really important for people, which is certainly necessary, desirable, which has enduring, essential significance for almost every normal person, regardless of their gender, race, citizenship, social status, etc. Universal human values are highly significant for humanity as a unity of all people, as well as for any state, insofar as it meets or must meet the needs, interests, needs of society and the citizen. 1 .

In accordance with the three areas of existence of universal values, three types of systems of these values should be distinguished: common personal values, values common to all mankind, and values of the sphere of activity of states or a union of states. The starting point, we believe, is system of personal or general personal values.

The formation of the value orientations of the younger generation in modern conditions encounters a number of unresolved problems. Among them are the contradictions that arise between the declared Russian values and the values accepted in society under the influence of the media that promote the Western way of life and system of values. The sociocultural environment, infected with the virus of the material, also helps to establish American-Friedman values in the minds of the younger generation.

All this is happening despite the fact that painstaking work is underway aimed at integrating the efforts of the family, the public, and social institutions to form spiritual and moral value orientations.

Raised both in scientific circles and in educational institutions, the question of priority values for Russians was discussed at all levels.

The priority Russian values are knowledge, freedom, life, kindness, work, peace, culture, patriotism, internationalism, loyalty to the motherland, most of which in the modern version (without the class values inherent in socialism) have something in common with universal human values.

Taking into account the world experience, we can state the fact that in the context of the formation of spiritual and moral value orientations, universal human values are of exceptional importance. Orientation to them is an important component of the value-oriented activity of social institutions. What can be considered universal human values? An analysis of the scientific literature showed that there are a lot of definitions. In our opinion, they can be understood as a complex of concepts that are part of the system of philosophical doctrine of man and that constitute the most important subject of study of axiology.

Human values stand out among other values in that they express the common interests of the human race, free from national, political, religious and other predilections, and in this capacity they act as an imperative for the development of human civilization. Any value as a philosophical category denotes the positive significance of the phenomenon and comes from the priority of human interests, that is, it is characterized by anthropocentricity. Anthropocentrism of universal human values has a socio-historical character, independent of specific socio-cultural manifestations and based on the historically emerging unity of ideas about the presence of certain universal essential-significant properties of human existence.

The universal human values recognized by the world community include life, freedom, happiness, as well as the highest manifestations of human nature, revealed in his communication with his own kind and with the transcendent world. Violation of universal values is considered as a crime against humanity.

In the past, the universalism of those values that are now commonly called universal human values was realized only within the framework of an ethnocultural and social community, and their significance was justified by a divine establishment. Such were, for example, the Old Testament ten commandments - the fundamental norms of social behavior given to the "God's chosen people" from above and did not apply to other peoples. Over time, as the unity of human nature was realized and peoples leading a primitive way of life joined the world human civilization, universal human values began to assert themselves on an all-planetary scale. The concept of natural human rights was of exceptional importance for the establishment of universal human values. In Modern and Contemporary times, attempts have been repeatedly made to completely deny universal values or to pass off the values of individual social groups, classes, peoples and civilizations as such.

A number of scientists (A. Pechchei, A.V. Kiryakova, N.A. Nikandrov, N.G. Sevostyanova, G.I. Chizhakova and others). give their vision of the essence of universal human values. They believe that this is a system of axiological maxims, the content of which is not directly related to a specific historical period in the development of society or a specific ethnic tradition, but, being filled in each sociocultural tradition with its own specific meaning, is nevertheless reproduced in any type of culture as a value. . The problem of universal values is dramatically renewed in the era of social catastrophism: the prevalence of destructive processes in politics, the disintegration of social institutions, the devaluation of moral values and the search for options for a civilized socio-cultural choice. At the same time, the fundamental value at all times of human history has been life itself and the problem of its preservation and development in natural and cultural forms. The variety of approaches to the study of universal human values gives rise to a plurality of their classifications according to various criteria. In connection with the structure of being, natural values (inorganic and organic nature, minerals) and cultural values (freedom, creativity, love, communication, activity) are noted. According to the structure of personality, values are biopsychological (health) and spiritual order. According to the forms of spiritual culture, values are classified into moral (the meaning of life and happiness, goodness, duty, responsibility, conscience, honor, dignity), aesthetic (beautiful, sublime), religious (faith), scientific (truth), political (peace, justice, democracy), legal (law and order). In connection with the object-subject nature of the value relation, one can note the subject (results of human activity), subjective (attitudes, assessments, imperatives, norms, goals) values. In general, the polyphony of universal human values also gives rise to the conventionality of their classification. Each historical epoch and a certain ethnos express themselves in a hierarchy of values that determined the socially acceptable. Value systems are in the making and their time scales do not coincide with the socio-cultural reality. In the modern world, the moral and aesthetic values of antiquity, the humanistic ideals of Christianity, the rationalism of the New Age, the non-violence paradigm of the 20th century are significant. and many other social values. They form value orientations as priorities for the socio-cultural development of ethnic groups or individuals, fixed by social practice or human life experience. Among the latter, value orientations to the family, education, work, social activities, and other areas of human self-affirmation are singled out. In the modern era of global change, the absolute values of goodness, beauty, truth and faith are of particular importance as the fundamental foundations of the corresponding forms of spiritual culture, suggesting harmony, measure, balance of the integral world of man and his constructive life-affirmation in culture. And, since the actual socio-cultural dimension today is determined not so much by being as by its change, goodness, beauty, truth and faith mean not so much adherence to absolute values as their search and acquisition. Among universal human values, it is necessary to specially highlight moral values, which traditionally represent the universally significant in its relationship with the ethno-national and individual. In universal human morality, some unified forms of community life are preserved, the continuity of moral requirements associated with the simplest forms of human relationships is noted. Biblical moral commandments are of lasting importance: the Old Testament Ten Commandments of Moses and the New Testament Sermon on the Mount of Jesus Christ. Universal in morality is the form of presenting a moral requirement, associated with the ideals of humanism, justice and dignity of the individual. All of them play a huge role in the formation of the spiritual and moral value orientations of the individual.

Based on the above, we can conclude that the value orientation of the younger generation on universal values as an effective means of shaping the spiritual and moral qualities of a person.

Bibliographic link

Dimitryuk Yu.S. ON SOME PROBLEMS OF FORMATION OF SPIRITUAL AND MORAL VALUE ORIENTATIONS OF HIGH SCHOOL STUDENTS ON GENERAL HUMAN VALUES IN MODERN CONDITIONS // Fundamental Research. - 2007. - No. 11. - P. 102-103;
URL: http://fundamental-research.ru/ru/article/view?id=3767 (date of access: 03/31/2019). We bring to your attention the journals published by the publishing house "Academy of Natural History"

The problem of universal values ​​in the work of a psychologist. The main ethical guideline of a psychologist-practitioner

HUMAN VALUES

Introduction

The concept of "universal values", classification of values

Bibliographic link

The problem of universal values in the work of a psychologist. The main ethical guideline of a psychologist-practitioner