Examples of empirical and theoretical knowledge. Methods of knowledge

The cognitive attitude of a person to the world is carried out in various forms - in the form of everyday knowledge, artistic, religious knowledge, and finally, in the form of scientific knowledge. The first three areas of knowledge are considered, in contrast to science, as non-scientific forms. Scientific knowledge has grown out of ordinary knowledge, but at present these two forms of knowledge are quite far apart from each other.

There are two levels in the structure of scientific knowledge - empirical and theoretical. These levels should not be confused with aspects of cognition in general - sensory reflection and rational cognition. The fact is that in the first case, various types of cognitive activity of scientists are meant, and in the second, we are talking about the types of mental activity of an individual in the process of cognition in general, and both of these types are used both at the empirical and at the theoretical levels of scientific knowledge.

The levels of scientific knowledge themselves differ in a number of parameters: 1) in the subject of research. Empirical research is focused on phenomena, theoretical - on the essence; 2) by means and tools of knowledge; 3) by research methods. At the empirical level, this is observation, experiment, at the theoretical level - a systematic approach, idealization, etc.; 4) by the nature of the acquired knowledge. In one case, these are empirical facts, classifications, empirical laws, in the second - laws, disclosure of essential connections, theories.

In the XVII-XVIII and partly in the XIX centuries. science was still at the empirical stage, limiting its tasks to the generalization and classification of empirical facts, the formulation of empirical laws. In the future, above the empirical level, a theoretical level is built up, connected with a comprehensive study of reality in its essential connections and patterns. At the same time, both types of research are organically interconnected and presuppose each other in the integral structure of scientific knowledge.

Methods applicable at the empirical level of scientific knowledge: observation and experiment.

Observation- this is a deliberate and purposeful perception of phenomena and processes without direct intervention in their course, subject to the tasks of scientific research. The main requirements for scientific observation are as follows: 1) unambiguous purpose, design; 2) consistency in observation methods; 3) objectivity; 4) the possibility of control either by repeated observation or by experiment.

Observation is used, as a rule, where intervention in the process under study is undesirable or impossible. Observation in modern science is associated with the widespread use of instruments, which, firstly, enhance the senses, and secondly, remove the touch of subjectivity from the assessment of observed phenomena. An important place in the process of observation (as well as experiment) is occupied by the measurement operation. Measurement- there is a definition of the ratio of one (measured) quantity to another, taken as a standard. Since the results of observation, as a rule, take the form of various signs, graphs, curves on an oscilloscope, cardiograms, etc., the interpretation of the data obtained is an important component of the study.

Observation in the social sciences is especially difficult, where its results largely depend on the personality of the observer and his attitude to the phenomena being studied. In sociology and psychology, a distinction is made between simple and participatory (included) observation. Psychologists also use the method of introspection (self-observation).

Experiment unlike observation, it is a method of cognition in which phenomena are studied under controlled and controlled conditions. An experiment, as a rule, is carried out on the basis of a theory or hypothesis that determines the formulation of the problem and the interpretation of the results. The advantages of the experiment in comparison with observation are, firstly, that it is possible to study the phenomenon, so to speak, in its “pure form”, secondly, the conditions for the process can vary, and thirdly, the experiment itself can be repeated many times.

There are several types of experiment.

1) The simplest type of experiment is a qualitative one, establishing the presence or absence of the phenomena proposed by the theory.

2) The second, more complex type is a measuring or quantitative experiment that establishes the numerical parameters of some property (or properties) of an object or process.

3) A special kind of experiment in the fundamental sciences is a thought experiment.

4) Finally: a specific type of experiment is a social experiment carried out in order to introduce new forms of social organization and optimize management. The scope of social experiment is limited by moral and legal norms.

Observation and experiment are the source scientific facts, which in science are understood as a special kind of sentences that fix empirical knowledge. Facts are the foundation of the building of science, they form the empirical basis of science, the basis for putting forward hypotheses and creating theories.

Let us denote some methods of processing and systematization empirical knowledge. This is primarily analysis and synthesis. Analysis- the process of mental, and often real, dismemberment of an object, phenomenon into parts (signs, properties, relationships). The reverse procedure of analysis is synthesis. Synthesis- this is a combination of the sides of the subject selected during the analysis into a single whole.

A significant role in generalizing the results of observation and experiments belongs to induction (from Latin inductio - guidance), a special type of generalization of experimental data. During induction, the researcher's thought moves from the particular (private factors) to the general. Distinguish between popular and scientific, complete and incomplete induction. The opposite of induction is deduction, the movement of thought from the general to the particular. Unlike induction, with which deduction is closely related, it is mainly used at the theoretical level of knowledge.

The process of induction is associated with such an operation as comparison- establishment of similarities and differences of objects, phenomena. Induction, comparison, analysis and synthesis pave the way for the development of classifications - combining various concepts and their corresponding phenomena into certain groups, types in order to establish relationships between objects and classes of objects. Examples of classifications are the periodic table, classifications of animals, plants, etc. Classifications are presented in the form of schemes, tables used for orientation in the variety of concepts or corresponding objects.

Empirical knowledge is the establishment of scientific facts and their subjective processing. This is the initial moment of the process of cognition, in which the most important role is played by sensations and feelings. Thanks to the sense organs, a human being can be objectively connected with the world around. They give direct primary knowledge about things, phenomena and objects, their functions and properties.

Gnoseology of sensations

This section of science considers the empirical and theoretical levels of knowledge as a superstructure over the sensual. The latter include perception, sensation and representation. Empirical knowledge is based on sensations. This is a reflection of the properties of individual objects, things during their impact on the senses. This is elementary knowledge that does not have the structure of a cognitive phenomenon. The information capacity of the human senses is based on sight, touch, hearing, smell and taste. The sense organs as means of cognition are formed as a result of the practical direct interaction of nature and man. It is through this practice that empirical knowledge is possible. Representations and images that are created as a result of acquiring this or that sensation cannot be separated from the cognitive social actions and addictions of people.

Gnoseology of perception

The empirical level of cognition is also built on perception, which is a sensory-structured, concrete image. It arises on the basis of a complex of previously received sensations: tactile, visual, and so on. Empirical knowledge is repelled from perception, which is a thinking contemplation. As a result of the perception and sensation of the forms of external nature, an idea of it is created as an image of a cognitive type. Representation is an intermediate link between thinking and perception.

Making sense

Empirical knowledge appears at the intersection of sensory perception and consciousness. Feelings leave a deep imprint in the mind. The processes and events, felt subconsciously, orient a person in the stream of life events, but he does not always fix them on purpose. To comprehend all this and penetrate into the essence of things, to know the causes of phenomena is impossible with the help of the senses alone. This can be achieved with the help of mental (rational) knowledge, in combination with such a process as empirical knowledge.

Experienced Level

Experience is a higher level than the sensual. Empirical and theoretical knowledge (without which it will be impossible to apply the experience gained) make it possible to describe the experience. They involve the creation of a source of knowledge in the form of rigorous scientific documents. It can be schemes, acts, protocols and so on. Empirical knowledge can be both direct and indirect (due to the use of various instruments and devices).

historical process

Modern empirical scientific knowledge has a source of observation of things, objects and natural phenomena. Our ancestors watched animals, plants, the sky, other people, the work of the human body. It was the knowledge acquired in this way that formed the basis of astronomy, biology, medicine, physics and other sciences. In the process of civilization development, the empirical and theoretical levels of knowledge were improved, the possibilities of perception and observation with the help of tools and instruments increased. Purposeful observation differs from contemplation by the selectivity of the process. Preliminary hypotheses and ideas aim the researcher at specific objects of research, which also determines the set of technical means that are necessary to obtain a reliable result.

Methodology

The methods of empirical knowledge are based on living contemplation, sensory perception and the rational moment. The collection and generalization of facts is the main task of these processes. Methods of empirical knowledge include observation, measurement, analysis, induction, experiment, comparison, observation.
1. Observation is a passive purposeful study of an object, which relies on the senses. During this process, the researcher receives general information about the object of knowledge, about its properties.

2. An experiment is a purposeful active intervention in the current process being studied. It includes a change in the object and the conditions for its functioning, which are determined by the scope of the goals of the experiment. The features of the experiment are: an active attitude to the subject of research, the possibility of its transformation, control over its behavior, verification of the result, reproducibility of the experiment in relation to the object and conditions under study, the ability to detect additional properties of phenomena.

3. Comparison is an operation of cognition that reveals the differences or the identity of different objects. This process makes sense in one class of homogeneous things and phenomena.

4. Description - a procedure consisting in fixing the result of an experiment (experiment or observation) using the accepted notation systems.

5. Measurement is a set of active actions that are performed using measuring and computing tools to find the numerical and quantitative values of the studied quantities.

It must be emphasized that empirical and theoretical knowledge are always implemented together, that is, research methods are supported by conceptual theories, hypotheses and ideas.

Technical equipment

Empirical knowledge in science actively uses technical retrofitting in the process of studying phenomena and things. It can be:

Measuring devices and devices: scales, rulers, speedometers, radiometers, ammeters and voltmeters, wattmeters, and so on, helping the researcher to find out the parameters and characteristics of objects;

Devices that can help in observing things and objects that are actually invisible to the naked eye (telescopes, microscopes, etc.);

Devices that allow you to analyze the functions and structure of the processes and phenomena under study: oscilloscopes, electrocardiographs, chromatographs, chronometers, etc.

The Importance of the Experiment

Empirical knowledge and its results today directly depend on experimental data. If they are not obtained or are impossible at this stage, then the theory is considered "bare" - impractical and unconfirmed. To conduct an experiment correctly is a responsible task of constructing a theory. It is only through this process that hypotheses can be tested, the supposed connections can be established. An experiment qualitatively differs from observation in three conditions:

1. During the experiment, the phenomena occur under conditions previously created by the researcher. When observing - only the registration of a phenomenon in its natural environment.

2. The researcher freely intervenes in events and phenomena within the framework of the rules of the experiment. The observer, however, has no right and cannot regulate the object of study and its conditions.

3. During the experiment, the researcher has the right to exclude or include various parameters. The observer only fixes possible new parameters in natural conditions.

Types of experiments

The empirical level of knowledge is based on different types of experiments:

Physical - the study of the diversity of natural phenomena;

Psychological - the study of the life of the subject of research and related circumstances;

Mental - carried out exclusively in the imagination;

Critical - it is necessary to check the data according to different criteria;

Computer mathematical modeling.

There is a movement from ignorance to knowledge. Thus, the first stage of the cognitive process is the definition of what we do not know. It is important to clearly and rigorously define the problem, separating what we already know from what we do not yet know. problem(from the Greek. problema - task) is a complex and controversial issue that needs to be resolved.

The second step in is the development of a hypothesis (from the Greek. Hypothesis - assumption). Hypothesis - this is a scientifically based assumption that needs to be tested.

If a hypothesis is proved by a large number of facts, it becomes a theory (from the Greek theoria - observation, research). Theory is a system of knowledge that describes and explains certain phenomena; such, for example, are evolutionary theory, the theory of relativity, quantum theory, etc.

When choosing the best theory, the degree of its testability plays an important role. A theory is reliable if it is confirmed by objective facts (including newly discovered ones) and if it is distinguished by clarity, distinctness, and logical rigor.

Scientific facts

Distinguish between objective and scientific data. objective fact is a real-life object, process or event. For example, the death of Mikhail Yurievich Lermontov (1814-1841) in a duel is a fact. scientific fact is knowledge that is confirmed and interpreted within the framework of a generally accepted system of knowledge.

Estimates are opposed to facts and reflect the significance of objects or phenomena for a person, his approving or disapproving attitude towards them. Scientific facts usually fix the objective world as it is, and assessments reflect the subjective position of a person, his interests, the level of his moral and aesthetic consciousness.

Most of the difficulties for science arise in the process of moving from hypothesis to theory. There are methods and procedures that allow you to test a hypothesis and prove it or reject it as incorrect.

method(from the Greek methodos - the path to the goal) is the rule, method, method of knowledge. In general, a method is a system of rules and regulations that allows you to explore an object. F. Bacon called the method "a lamp in the hands of a traveler walking in the dark."

Methodology is a broader concept and can be defined as:

a set of methods used in any science;
general doctrine of method.

Since the criteria of truth in its classical scientific understanding are, on the one hand, sensory experience and practice, and on the other hand, clarity and logical distinctness, all known methods can be divided into empirical (experimental, practical methods of cognition) and theoretical (logical procedures).

Empirical methods of knowledge

basis empirical methods are sensory cognition (sensation, perception, representation) and instrumental data. These methods include:

observation- purposeful perception of phenomena without interference in them;
experiment— study of phenomena under controlled and controlled conditions;
measurement - determination of the ratio of the measured value to
standard (for example, a meter);
comparison- identifying the similarities or differences of objects or their features.

There are no pure empirical methods in scientific knowledge, since even for simple observation, preliminary theoretical foundations are necessary - the choice of an object for observation, the formulation of a hypothesis, etc.

Theoretical methods of cognition

Actually theoretical methods based on rational knowledge (concept, judgment, conclusion) and logical inference procedures. These methods include:

analysis- the process of mental or real dismemberment of an object, phenomenon into parts (signs, properties, relationships);
synthesis - connection of the sides of the subject identified during the analysis into a single whole;
- combining various objects into groups based on common features (classification of animals, plants, etc.);
abstraction - distraction in the process of cognition from some properties of an object with the aim of in-depth study of one specific aspect of it (the result of abstraction is abstract concepts such as color, curvature, beauty, etc.);
formalization - displaying knowledge in a sign, symbolic form (in mathematical formulas, chemical symbols, etc.);
analogy - inference about the similarity of objects in a certain respect on the basis of their similarity in a number of other respects;
modeling— creation and study of a substitute (model) of an object (for example, computer modeling of the human genome);
idealization- creation of concepts for objects that do not exist in reality, but have a prototype in it (geometric point, ball, ideal gas);
deduction - moving from the general to the particular;
induction- the movement from the particular (facts) to the general statement.

Theoretical methods require empirical facts. So, although induction itself is a theoretical logical operation, it still requires experimental verification of each particular fact, and therefore is based on empirical knowledge, and not on theoretical. Thus, theoretical and empirical methods exist in unity, complementing each other. All the methods listed above are methods-techniques (specific rules, action algorithms).

Wider methods-approaches indicate only the direction and general way of solving problems. Methods-approaches can include many different techniques. These are the structural-functional method, hermeneutic, etc. The most common methods-approaches are philosophical methods:

metaphysical- consideration of the object in mowing, static, out of connection with other objects;
dialectical- disclosure of the laws of development and change of things in their interconnection, internal inconsistency and unity.

Absoluteization of one method as the only true one is called dogma(for example, dialectical materialism in Soviet philosophy). An uncritical piling up of various unrelated methods is called eclecticism.

FEATURES OF SCIENTIFIC KNOWLEDGE. EMPIRICAL AND THEORETICAL LEVELS OF SCIENTIFIC KNOWLEDGE.

The most prominent cognitive activity of a person is manifested in scientific knowledge, because. It is science, in relation to other forms of social consciousness, that is most of all aimed at the cognitive assimilation of reality. This is expressed in the features of scientific knowledge.

The hallmark of scientific knowledge is its rationality- an appeal to the arguments of reason and reason. Scientific knowledge constructs the world in concepts. Scientific thinking, first of all, is a conceptual activity, while in art, for example, an artistic image acts as a form of mastering the world.

Another feature- orientation towards revealing the objective laws of functioning and development of the objects under study. It follows from this that science strives for the objective and objective knowledge of reality. But since it is known that any knowledge (including scientific) is an alloy of objective and subjective, it should be noted the specificity of the objectivity of scientific knowledge. It consists in the maximum possible elimination (removal, expulsion) of the subjective from knowledge.

Science aims to discover and develop future ways and forms of practical development of the world, not only today. In this it differs, for example, from ordinary spontaneous-empirical knowledge. Decades can pass between scientific discovery and its application in practice, in any case, but, ultimately, theoretical achievements create the foundation for future applied engineering developments to satisfy practical interests.

scientific knowledge relies on specialized research tools, which affect the object under study and make it possible to identify its possible states under conditions controlled by the subject. Specialized scientific equipment allows science to experimentally study new types of objects.

The most important features of scientific knowledge are its evidence, validity and consistency.

The specifics of the systematic nature of science - in its two-level organization: empirical and theoretical levels and the order of their interaction. This is the uniqueness of scientific knowledge and knowledge, since no other form of knowledge has a two-level organization.

Among the characteristic features of science is its special methodology. Along with knowledge about objects, science forms knowledge about the methods of scientific activity. This leads to the formation of methodology as a special branch of scientific research, designed to guide scientific research.

Classical science, which arose in the 16th-17th centuries, combined theory and experiment, highlighting two levels in science: empirical and theoretical. They correspond to two interrelated, and at the same time specific types of scientific and cognitive activity: empirical and theoretical research.

As mentioned above, scientific knowledge is organized on two levels: empirical and theoretical.

TO empirical level include techniques and methods, as well as forms of scientific knowledge that are directly related to scientific practice, with those types of objective activities that ensure the accumulation, fixation, grouping and generalization of the source material for the construction of indirect theoretical knowledge. This includes scientific observation, various forms of scientific experiment, scientific facts and ways of grouping them: systematization, analysis and generalization.

TO theoretical level include all those types and methods of scientific knowledge and methods of organizing knowledge that are characterized by varying degrees of mediation and ensure the creation, construction and development of scientific theory as logically organized knowledge about objective laws and other significant connections and relationships in the objective world. This includes theory and its elements and components such as scientific abstractions, idealizations, models, scientific laws, scientific ideas and hypotheses, methods of operating with scientific abstractions (deduction, synthesis, abstraction, idealization, logical and mathematical means, etc. )

It must be emphasized that although the difference between the empirical and theoretical levels is due to objective qualitative differences in the content and methods of scientific activity, as well as the nature of knowledge itself, however, this difference is also relative. No form of empirical activity is possible without its theoretical understanding and, conversely, any theory, no matter how abstract it may be, ultimately relies on scientific practice, on empirical data.

Observation and experiment are among the main forms of empirical knowledge. Observation there is a purposeful, organized perception of objects and phenomena of the external world. Scientific observation is characterized by purposefulness, regularity and organization.

Experiment differs from observation in its active nature, interference in the natural course of events. An experiment is a type of activity undertaken for the purpose of scientific knowledge, consisting in influencing a scientific object (process) by means of special devices. Thanks to this, it is possible:

- isolate the object under study from the influence of side, insignificant phenomena;

– repeatedly reproduce the course of the process under strictly fixed conditions;

- systematically study, combine various conditions in order to obtain the desired result.

An experiment is always a means for solving a certain cognitive task or problem. There are a wide variety of types of experiment: physical, biological, direct, model, search, verification experiments, etc.

The nature of the empirical level forms determines the research methods. Thus, measurement as one of the types of quantitative research methods has the goal of most fully reflecting in scientific knowledge objective quantitative relations expressed in number and magnitude.

The systematization of scientific facts is of great importance. scientific fact - this is not just any event, but an event that entered the sphere of scientific knowledge and was recorded through observation or experiment. The systematization of facts means the process of grouping them on the basis of essential properties. One of the most important methods of generalization and systematization of facts is induction.

induction defined as a method of achieving probabilistic knowledge. Induction can be intuitive - a simple guess, the discovery of common in the course of observation. Induction can act as a procedure for establishing the general by enumerating individual cases. If the number of such cases is limited, then it is called complete.

Reasoning by analogy also belongs to the number of inductive conclusions, since they are characterized by probability. Usually, analogy is understood as that particular case of similarity between phenomena, which consists in the similarity or identity of relations between elements of different systems. To increase the degree of plausibility of conclusions by analogy, it is necessary to increase the diversity and achieve uniformity of the compared properties, to maximize the number of compared features. Thus, through the establishment of similarity between phenomena, in essence, a transition is made from induction to another method - deduction.

Deduction differs from induction in that it is connected with sentences arising from the laws and rules of logic, but the truth of premises is problematic, while induction relies on true premises,

But the transition to proposals-conclusions remains a problem. Therefore, in scientific knowledge, to substantiate the provisions, these methods complement each other.

The path of transition from empirical to theoretical knowledge is very complicated. It has the character of a dialectical leap, in which various and contradictory moments are intertwined, complementing each other: abstract thinking and sensibility, induction and deduction, analysis and synthesis, etc. The key point in this transition is the hypothesis, its advancement, formulation and development, its substantiation and proof.

The term " hypothesis » is used in two senses: 1) in a narrow sense - the designation of some assumption about a regular order or other significant connections and relationships; 2) in a broad sense - as a system of sentences, some of which are initial assumptions of a probabilistic nature, while others represent a deductive deployment of these premises. As a result of a comprehensive verification and confirmation of all the various consequences, the hypothesis turns into a theory.

theory such a system of knowledge is called, for which the true assessment is quite definite and positive. Theory is a system of objectively true knowledge. A theory differs from a hypothesis in its reliability, while it differs from other types of reliable knowledge (facts, statistics, etc.) in its strict logical organization and its content, which consists in reflecting the essence of phenomena. Theory is the knowledge of essence. An object at the level of theory appears in its internal connection and integrity as a system, the structure and behavior of which is subject to certain laws. Thanks to this, the theory explains the variety of available facts and can predict new events, which speaks of its most important functions: explanatory and predictive (the function of foresight). A theory is made up of concepts and statements. The concepts fix the qualities and relationships of objects from the subject area. The statements reflect the regular order, behavior and structure of the subject area. A feature of the theory is that concepts and statements are interconnected in a logically coherent, consistent system. The totality of logical relations between the terms and sentences of a theory forms its logical structure, which is, by and large, deductive. Theories can be classified according to various features and grounds: according to the degree of connection with reality, according to the area of creation, application, etc.

Scientific thinking operates in many ways. It is possible to distinguish such, for example, as analysis and synthesis, abstraction and idealization, modeling. Analysis - this is a method of thinking associated with the decomposition of the object under study into its constituent parts, development trends for the purpose of their relatively independent study. Synthesis- the opposite operation, which consists in combining the previously distinguished parts into a whole in order to obtain knowledge as a whole about the previously distinguished parts and trends. abstraction there is a process of mental selection, isolating individual features, properties and relationships of interest in the process of research in order to better understand them.

In the process of idealization there is an ultimate abstraction from all the real properties of the object. A so-called ideal object is formed, which can be operated upon while cognizing real objects. For example, such concepts as “point”, “straight line”, “absolutely black body” and others. Thus, the concept of a material point does not actually correspond to any object. But a mechanic, operating with this ideal object, is able to theoretically explain and predict the behavior of real material objects.

Literature.

1. Alekseev P.V., Panin A.V. Philosophy. - M., 2000. Sec. II, ch. XIII.

2. Philosophy / Ed. V.V.Mironova. - M., 2005. Sec. V, ch. 2.

Control questions for self-examination.

1. What is the main task of epistemology?

2. What forms of agnosticism can be identified?

3. What is the difference between sensationalism and rationalism?

4. What is "empiricism"?

5. What is the role of sensibility and thinking in individual cognitive activity?

6. What is intuitive knowledge?

7. Highlight the main ideas of the activity concept of knowledge of K. Marx.

8. How does the connection between the subject and the object proceed in the process of cognition?

9. What determines the content of knowledge?

10. What is "truth"? What main approaches in epistemology to the definition of this concept can you name?

11. What is the criterion of truth?

12. Explain what is the objective nature of truth?

13. Why is truth relative?

14. Is absolute truth possible?

15. What is the peculiarity of scientific knowledge and scientific knowledge?

16. What forms and methods of empirical and theoretical levels of scientific knowledge can be identified?

The empirical level of knowledge in science to a certain extent corresponds to the sensory level of research, while the theoretical level corresponds to the rational or logical one. Of course, there is no absolute correspondence between them. It has been established that the empirical level of cognition includes not only sensory, but also logical research. At the same time, the information received by the sensory method is subjected here to primary processing by conceptual (rational) means.

Empirical knowledge, therefore, is not only a reflection of reality, formed by experience. They represent a specific unity of the mental and sensual expression of reality. At the same time, sensory reflection is in the first place, and thinking plays an auxiliary role subordinate to observation.

Empirical data supply facts to science. Their establishment is an integral part of any research. Thus, the empirical level of knowledge contributes to the establishment and accumulation

A fact is a reliably established event, a non-fictional incident. These fixed empirical knowledge are synonymous with such concepts as "results", "events".

It should be noted that the facts act not only as an information source and "sensual" reasoning. They are also the criterion of truth and reliability.

The empirical level of knowledge makes it possible to establish facts by various methods. These methods, in particular, include observation, experiment, comparison, measurement.

Observation is the purposeful and systematic perception of phenomena and objects. The purpose of this perception is to determine the relationships and properties of the studied phenomena or objects. Observation can be carried out both directly and indirectly (using tools - a microscope, a camera, and others). It should be noted that for modern science, such a study becomes more complicated over time and becomes more indirect.

Comparison is a cognitive procedure. It is the basis in accordance with which the difference or similarity of objects is carried out. Comparison allows you to identify the quantitative and qualitative properties and characteristics of objects.

It should be said that the method of comparison is expedient in determining the signs of homogeneous phenomena or objects that form classes. Just like observation, this can be carried out indirectly or directly. In the first case, the comparison is made by comparing two objects with the third, which is the standard.

Measurement is the establishment of a numerical indicator of a certain value using a specific unit (watts, centimeters, kilograms, etc.). This method has been used since the emergence of the new European science. Due to its wide application, measurement has become an organic element

All of the above methods can be used both independently and in combination. In the complex, observation, measurement and comparison are part of a more complex empirical method of cognition - experiment.

This method of research involves placing the object in clearly defined conditions or reproducing it artificially in order to identify certain characteristics. An experiment is a way of carrying out an active activity. In this case, it implies the ability of the subject to intervene during the process or phenomenon being studied.