Damage to the tonsils. Damage to the amygdala makes people unable to be afraid

Guilt and Shame: Temporal Lobes

It is easy for us to understand how memory or counting can be processes in the brain. Emotions, however, are not so smooth, partly because in speech we use phrases like "heartbreak" to describe sadness or "blush" to describe shame. And yet, feelings are a phenomenon from the field of neurophysiology: a process that takes place in the tissues of the main organ of our nervous system. Today, we can partly appreciate it thanks to neuroimaging technology.

As part of their research, Petra Michl and several of her colleagues at the Ludwig Maximilian University in Munich recently took a series of MRI scans. They sought to find areas of the brain that are responsible for our ability to feel guilty or ashamed. Scientists have found that shame and guilt seem to be neighbors in the “block”, although each of these feelings has its own anatomical region.

The researchers asked the participants to imagine that they felt guilty or ashamed, and in both cases it activated the temporal lobes of the brain. At the same time, shame involved in them the anterior cingulate cortex, which monitors the external environment and informs the person about mistakes, and the parahippocampal gyrus, which is responsible for remembering scenes from the past. Guilt, in turn, "turned on" the lateral occipitotemporal gyrus and the middle temporal gyrus - the center of the vestibular analyzer. In addition, the anterior and middle frontal gyri began to work in shamed people, and in those who felt guilty, the amygdala (tonsils) and insular lobe became more active. The last two areas of the brain are part of the limbic system, which regulates our basic fight-or-flight emotions, organ function, blood pressure, and other parameters.

Comparing MRI images of the brains of people of different sexes, scientists found that in women, guilt affected only the temporal lobes, while in men, the frontal lobes, occipital lobes and tonsils began to work in parallel - one of the most ancient elements of the brain that are responsible for feelings of fear, anger, panic and pleasure.

Fear and Anger: The Amygdala

During fetal development of the embryo, the limbic system is formed immediately after the trunk, which organizes reflexes and connects the brain with the spinal cord. Her work is the feelings and actions that are needed for the survival of the species. The tonsils are an important element of the limbic system. These areas are located near the hypothalamus, inside the temporal lobes, and are activated when we see food, sexual partners, rivals, crying babies, and so on. The body's varied responses to fear are also their job: if you feel like a stranger is following you in the park at night and your heart starts beating wildly, this is due to the activity of the tonsils. In the course of several independent studies conducted in various centers and universities, experts were able to find out that even artificial stimulation of these areas causes a person to feel the approach of imminent danger.

Anger is also a function of the amygdala in many ways. However, it is very different from fear, sadness, and other negative emotions. Human anger is amazing in that it is similar to happiness: like joy and pleasure, it makes us move forward, while fear or grief forces us to step back. Like other emotions, anger, anger, and rage cover a variety of parts of the brain: in order to realize their impulse, this organ needs to assess the situation, access memory and experience, regulate the production of hormones in the body, and much more.

Tenderness and comfort: the somatosensory cortex

In many cultures, it is customary to hide sadness and shock: for example, in British English there is even an idiomatic expression "keep a stiff upper lip", which means "do not give out your feelings." Nevertheless, neuroscientists argue that from the point of view of brain physiology, a person simply needs the participation of other people. “Clinical experiments show that loneliness provokes stress more than any other factor,” says Stefan Klein, a German scientist and author of The Science of Happiness. “Loneliness is a burden on the brain and body. It results in restlessness, confusion in thoughts and feelings (due to stress hormones), and a weakened immune system. In isolation, people become sad and sick.”

One study after another shows that companionship is good for a person physically and spiritually. It prolongs life and improves its quality. “One touch from someone close to you and worthy of your trust eases sadness,” Stefan says. "This is a consequence of the work of neurotransmitters - oxytocin and opioids - which are released during moments of tenderness."

Recently, British researchers were able to confirm the theory of the usefulness of petting using computed tomography. They found that the touch of other people causes strong bursts of activity in the somatosensory cortex, which is already working constantly, monitoring all our tactile sensations. Scientists have come to the conclusion that the impulses that arise if someone gently touches our body in difficult times are associated with the process of isolating critical stimuli from the general stream that can change everything for us. Experts also noticed that participants experienced grief easier when they were held by the hand of a stranger, and much easier when their palm was touched by a loved one.

Joy and laughter: the prefrontal cortex and the hippocampus

When we experience joy, experience happiness, laugh or smile, many different areas “light up” in our brain. The already familiar amygdala, prefrontal cortex, hippocampus, and anterior insular cortex are involved in the process of creating and processing positive emotions, so that feelings of joy, like anger, sadness, or fear, cover the entire brain.

In joyful moments, the right amygdala becomes much more active than the left. Today it is widely believed that the left hemisphere of our brain is responsible for logic, and the right - for creativity. However, we have recently known that this is not the case. Both parts of the brain are required for most functions, although asymmetry of the hemispheres exists: for example, the largest speech centers are located on the left, while processing intonation and accents is more localized on the right.

The prefrontal cortex is several areas of the frontal lobes of the brain that are located in the front of the hemispheres, just behind the frontal bone. They are connected to the limbic system and are responsible for our ability to define our goals, make plans, achieve the desired results, change course and improvise. Research shows that during happy moments in women, the prefrontal cortex of the left hemisphere is more active than the same area on the right.

The hippocampus, which is located deep in the temporal lobes, along with the amygdala, help us separate important emotional events from insignificant ones so that the former can be stored in long-term memory and the latter thrown out. In other words, hippocampi evaluate happy events in terms of their significance for the archive. The anterior insular cortex helps them do this. It is also associated with the limbic system and is most active when a person remembers pleasant or sad events.

Lust and love: not emotions

Today, the human brain is studied by thousands of neuroscientists around the world. However, science has not been able to define exactly what emotion and feeling are. We know that many feelings originate in the limbic system, one of the most ancient parts of the brain. However, perhaps not everything that we have traditionally recognized as emotions really is. For example, lust, in terms of brain physiology, is not like fear or joy. Its impulses are formed not in the tonsils, but in the ventral striatum, which is also called the "reward center". This area is also activated during orgasm or eating delicious food. Some scientists even doubt that lust is a feeling.

However, lust is different from love, which activates the dorsal striatum. It is curious that the brain activates the same area if a person uses drugs and becomes addicted to them. However, we certainly experience happiness, fear, anger, and sadness more often when we are in love than when we are in love, which means that love should perhaps be considered the sum of emotions, desires, and impulses.

Icons: Pham Thi Dieu Linh

corpus amygdaloideum) is a characteristic region of the brain, shaped like an amygdala, located inside the temporal lobe (Lobus temporalis) of the brain. There are two tonsils in the brain, one in each hemisphere. The amygdala plays a key role in the formation of emotions and is part of the limbic system. In humans and other animals, this subcortical brain structure is thought to be involved in both negative (fear) and positive (pleasure) emotions. Its size is positively correlated with aggressive behavior. In humans, this is the most sexually dimorphic brain structure - in men, after castration, it shrinks by more than 30%. Conditions such as anxiety, autism, depression, post-traumatic stress disorder, and phobias have been hypothesized to be associated with abnormal functioning of the amygdala.

Anatomical division

The amygdala is actually several separately functioning nuclei that anatomists combine together due to the proximity of the nuclei to each other. Among these nuclei, the key ones are: the basal-lateral complex, the central-medial nuclei and the cortical-medial nuclei.

Connections

The basal-lateral complex, which is necessary for the development of a conditioned fear reflex in rats, receives signals from sensory systems as an input.

The central-medial nuclei are the main outlet for the basolateral complex, and are involved in emotional arousal in rats and cats.

Pathologies

In patients whose amygdala has been destroyed due to Urbach-Wiethe disease, there is a complete absence of fear.

Notes

Links

Human physiology. Edited by V.M. Pokrovsky, G.F. Korotko. amygdala

brain structures: Limbic system

Wikimedia Foundation. 2010 .

See what "Amygdala" is in other dictionaries:

- (corpus amygdaloideum), amygdaloid nucleus, amygdala, a complex complex of basal nuclei (archistriatum), which is involved in the implementation of a corrective effect on the activity of forebrain formations, including the cerebral cortex. Phylogenetically ... ... Biological encyclopedic dictionary

- (corpus amygdaloideum; syn. amygdala nucleus (n. amygdalae) obsolete, amygdala, amygdala nuclear complex, amygdala): a complex complex of brain nuclei related to the basal nuclei: it is an accumulation of gray ... ... Sexological Encyclopedia

amygdala- an almond-shaped brain structure that is part of the limbic system. Closely associated with the hypothalamus, hippocampus, cingulate gyrus and septum, plays an important role in emotional behavior and motivation, especially aggressive behavior... Encyclopedic Dictionary of Psychology and Pedagogy

- (corpus amygdaloideum, PNA; nucleus amygdalae, BNA, JNA; syn. almond-shaped nucleus obsolete) basal nucleus located near the temporal pole of the cerebral hemisphere; belongs to the subcortical part of the limbic system... Big Medical Dictionary

ALMONDAL BODY- The structure of the brain is almond-shaped, consisting of several nuclei and is an integral part of the temporal lobe of the brain. It is part of the limbic system and is closely related to the hypothalamus, hippocampus, cingulate gyrus, and septum… Explanatory Dictionary of Psychology

ALMONDAL BODY- one of the subcortical (basal) nuclei, located together with the fence outward from the lenticular nucleus; enters the functional system, the so-called limbic reticular complex; participates in the implementation of a corrective influence on ... ... Psychomotor: Dictionary Reference

Introduction

The amygdala is a small, round, almond-shaped collection of gray matter within each hemisphere of the brain. Most of its fibers are connected to the organs of smell, a number of nerve fibers also approach the hypothalamus. The functions of the amygdala appear to be related to a person's mood, feelings, and possibly memory of recent events.

The amygdala has very good connections. When a probe, scalpel, or illness damages him, or when he is stimulated in an experiment, there are major emotional shifts.

The amygdala is connected to the rest of the nervous system and is very well located, so it acts as a center for regulating emotions. It receives all the signals coming from the motor cortex, the primary sensory cortex, from part of the association cortex, and from the parietal and occipital lobes of your brain.

Thus, the amygdala is one of the main sensory centers of the brain, it is connected with all parts of the brain.

The purpose of the work is to study the amygdala, as well as its significance.

1. The concept and structure of the amygdala

The amygdala, the amygdala, is an anatomical structure of the telencephalon, shaped like an amygdala, belonging to the basal nuclei of the cerebral hemispheres, belongs to the subcortical part of the limbic system.

Figure 1 - Brain formations related to the limbic system: 1 - olfactory bulb; 2 - olfactory path; 3 - olfactory triangle; 4 - cingulate gyrus; 5 - gray inclusions; 6 - vault; 7 - isthmus of the cingulate gyrus; 8 - end strip; 9 - hippocampal gyrus; 11 - hippocampus; 12 - mastoid body; 13 - amygdala; 14 - hook

There are two tonsils in the brain, one in each hemisphere. They are located in the white matter inside the temporal lobe of the brain, anterior to the top of the lower horn of the lateral ventricle, about 1.5-2.0 cm posterior to the temporal pole, bordering on the hippocampus.

It consists of three groups of nuclei: basolateral, associated with the cerebral cortex; cortico-medial, associated with the structures of the olfactory system, and central, associated with the hypothalamus and the nuclei of the brain stem that control the autonomic functions of the body.

Figure 2 - The location of the amygdala in humans

The amygdala is an important part limbic system brain. Its destruction leads to aggressive behavior or an apathetic, lethargic state. Through its connections to the hypothalamus, the amygdala influences the endocrine system as well as reproductive behavior.

2. Significance of the amygdala for humans

amygdala defensive body brain

Amygdala neurons are diverse in form, function, and neurochemical processes within them.

The functions of the amygdala are associated with the provision of defensive behavior, vegetative, motor, emotional reactions, motivation of conditioned reflex behavior. The functions of the amygdala, obviously, are directly related to the mood of a person, his feelings, instincts, and possibly the memory of recent events.

The electrical activity of the tonsils is characterized by different amplitude and different frequency oscillations. Background rhythms can correlate with the rhythm of breathing, heart rate.

Neurons have well-defined spontaneous activity, which can be enhanced or inhibited by sensory stimuli. Many neurons are polymodal and polysensory and fire synchronously with the theta rhythm.

Irritation of the nuclei of the amygdala creates a pronounced parasympathetic effect on the activity of the cardiovascular and respiratory systems, leads to a decrease (rarely to an increase) in blood pressure, a decrease in heart rate, impaired conduction of excitation through the conduction system of the heart, the occurrence of arrhythmias and extrasystoles. In this case, vascular tone may not change. The decrease in the rhythm of heart contractions when exposed to the tonsils is characterized by a long latent period and has a long aftereffect.

Irritation of the tonsil nuclei causes respiratory depression, sometimes a cough reaction.

With artificial activation of the amygdala, reactions of sniffing, licking, chewing, swallowing, salivation, changes in the peristalsis of the small intestine appear, and the effects occur with a long latent period (up to 30-45 s after irritation). Stimulation of the tonsils against the background of active contractions of the stomach or intestines inhibits these contractions. The diverse effects of irritation of the tonsils are due to their connection with the hypothalamus, which regulates the functioning of internal organs.

The amygdala plays a key role in the formation emotions. In humans and animals, this subcortical brain structure is involved in the formation of both negative (fear) and positive emotions (pleasure).

The amygdala plays an important role in the formation of memory associated with emotional events. Abnormalities in the work of the amygdala cause various forms of pathological fear and other emotional disorders in people.

The amygdala is rich in glucocorticoid receptors and therefore also particularly sensitive to stress. Overstimulation of the amygdala under conditions of depression and chronic stress is associated with increased anxiety and aggression. Conditions such as anxiety, autism, depression, post-traumatic shock, and phobias are thought to be associated with abnormal functioning of the amygdala.

The amygdala has another feature. They are connected with visual analyzers, mainly through the cortex, in the region of the posterior cranial fossa, and influence the processing of information in visual and arsenal structures. There are several mechanisms for this effect.

One of them is a kind of “coloring” of incoming visual information due to its own high-energy structures. Firstly, a certain emotional background is superimposed on the information that goes through visual radiation to the cortex. If at this moment the amygdala is overloaded with negative information, then the most cheerful story will not amuse the person, since the emotional background is not prepared for its analysis.

Secondly, the prevailing emotional background, also associated with the amygdala, affects the body as a whole. Thus, the information returned by these structures and further processed in programs makes a person switch, for example, from contemplating nature to reading a book, creating a certain mood. After all, if there is no mood, you will not admire even the most beautiful landscape.

Damage to the amygdala in animals reduces the adequate preparation of the autonomic nervous system for the organization and implementation of behavioral reactions, leads to hypersexuality, the disappearance of fear, calmness, inability to rage and aggression. Animals become trusting. For example, monkeys with a damaged amygdala calmly approach a viper that previously caused them horror, flight. Apparently, in the case of damage to the amygdala, some innate unconditioned reflexes that realize the memory of danger disappear.

Fear is one of the strongest emotions not only in humans, but also in other animals, primarily mammals. scientists managed to prove that the protein statmin is responsible for the work of congenital and the development of acquired forms of fear. And the highest concentration of this protein is observed in the so-called amygdala The area of the brain associated with feelings of fear and anxiety. In experimental mice, the gene responsible for the production of statmin was blocked. Such mice ignored the danger - even in those situations when other mice sense it instinctively. For example, they fearlessly walked through the open areas of the labyrinths, although usually their relatives try to stay in safer, in their opinion, cramped nooks, where they are hidden from prying eyes. If ordinary mice, when repeating a sound that was accompanied by an electric shock the day before, froze in horror, then mice without a “fear gene” reacted to it as if they were an ordinary sound. At the physiological level, the lack of statmin led to a weakening of long-term synaptic connections between neurons (it is believed that such connections provide memorization). The greatest weakening was noted in the segments of the nerve networks going to the amygdala. At the same time, the experimental mice did not lose the ability to learn: for example, they, no worse than ordinary mice, remembered once found the way through the maze.

Bibliography

1. Kozlov V.I. Anatomy of the nervous system: Textbook for students / V.I. Kozlov, T.A. Tsekhmistrenko. - M.: Mir: Publishing House ACT LLC, 2004. - 206 p.

2. Tishevskoy I.A. Anatomy of the central nervous system: Textbook / I.A. Tishevskaya. - Chelyabinsk: Publishing House of SUSU, 2000. - 131 p.

3. Fedyukovich N.I. Human anatomy and physiology: Textbook / N.I. Fedyukovich. - Rostov n / a: publishing house: "Phoenix", 2003. - 416 p.

Human physiology. In 2 volumes. T.1 / Ed. V.M. Pokrovsky, G.F. Briefly. - M.: Medicine, 1997 - 448 p.

It is located deep in the temporal lobe of the brain. The functions of the amygdala are associated with the provision of defensive behavior, vegetative, motor, emotional reactions, motivation of conditioned reflex behavior.

The tonsils respond with many of their neurons to visual, auditory, interoceptive, olfactory, skin stimuli, and all these stimuli cause a change in the activity of any of the amygdala nuclei, i.e. the amygdala nuclei are polysensory and are activated synchronously with the theta rhythm.

Irritation of the nuclei of the amygdala causes a pronounced sympathetic or parasympathetic effect on the activity of the cardiovascular, respiratory systems, leads to a decrease or increase in blood pressure, impaired conduction of excitation through the conduction system of the heart, the occurrence of arrhythmias and extrasystoles. In this case, vascular tone may not change. The decrease in the rhythm of heart contractions when exposed to the tonsils is characterized by a long latent period and has a long aftereffect. Irritation of the tonsil nuclei causes respiratory depression, sometimes a cough reaction.

The diverse effects of irritation of the tonsils are due to their connection with the hypothalamus, which regulates the functioning of internal organs.

Damage to the amygdala in animals causes disintegration in the implementation of behavioral reactions, leads to hypersexuality, the disappearance of fear, calm, inability to rage and aggression. Animals become trusting. For example, monkeys with a damaged amygdala calmly approach a viper that previously caused them horror, flight. Apparently, in the case of damage to the amygdala, some innate unconditioned reflexes that realize the memory of danger disappear.

Hypothalamus.

hypothalamus ( hypothalamus, hypothalamus) - the structure of the diencephalon, which is part of the limbic system, organizing the emotional, behavioral, homeostatic reactions of the body.

The hypothalamus has a large number of nerve connections with the cerebral cortex, basal ganglia, thalamus, midbrain, pons, medulla oblongata and spinal cord.

The hypothalamus consists of a gray tubercle, a funnel with a neurohypophysis, and mastoid bodies. In the neuronal structures of the hypothalamus, about 50 pairs of nuclei can be distinguished. Topographically, these cores can be combined into 5 groups:

1) the preoptic group has pronounced connections with the telencephalon and is divided into medial and lateral preoptic nuclei;

2) the anterior group, which includes the supraoptic, paraventricular nuclei;

3) the middle group consists of the lower medial and upper medial nuclei;

4) the outer group includes the lateral hypothalamic field and the serotuberous nuclei;

5) the posterior group is formed from the medial and lateral nuclei of the mastoid bodies and the posterior hypothalamic nucleus.

The hypothalamus has a rich blood supply, which is confirmed by the fact that a number of nuclei of the hypothalamus have an isolated duplicating blood supply from the vessels of the arterial circle of the large brain (circle of Willis). There are up to 2600 capillaries per 1 mm 2 of the area of the hypothalamus, while on the same area of the V layer of the precentral gyrus (motor cortex) there are 440 of them, in the hippocampus - 350, in the pale ball - 550, in the occipital lobe of the cerebral cortex (visual cortex ) - 90 The capillaries of the hypothalamus are highly permeable for large molecular protein compounds, i. the blood-brain barrier is weakly expressed here, therefore, hormones and other physiologically active substances penetrate relatively easily through the capillary walls. The hypothalamus is highly sensitive to neuroviral infections, intoxications, and humoral changes.

In humans, the hypothalamus finally matures by the age of 13-14 years, when the formation of the hypothalamic-pituitary neurosecretory connections ends. Due to powerful afferent connections with the olfactory brain, basal ganglia, thalamus, hippocampus, cerebral cortex, the hypothalamus receives information about the state of almost all brain structures. At the same time, the hypothalamus sends information to the thalamus, the reticular formation, the autonomic centers of the brain stem and spinal cord.

The neurons of the hypothalamus have specific functions and are highly sensitive to the composition of the blood washing them, they are capable of neurosecretion of peptides, neurotransmitters, etc.

Influence on sympathetic and parasympathetic regulation allows the hypothalamus to influence the autonomic functions of the body through humoral and nervous pathways. In many manuals, it is noted that irritation of the nuclei of the anterior group is accompanied by parasympathetic effects, and irritation of the nuclei of the posterior group causes sympathetic effects in the functioning of the organs. These representations are obsolete, because in the hypothalamus, neuronal ensembles located in its different departments can be involved in the implementation of regulatory processes, depending on the sensory or biological modalities of influences. All structures of the hypothalamus are capable of inducing sympathetic and parasympathetic effects to varying degrees. Consequently, there are functional complementary, mutually compensating relationships between the structures of the hypothalamus.

In general, due to the large number of connections, polyfunctionality of structures, the hypothalamus performs an integrating function of autonomic, somatic and endocrine regulation, which is also manifested in the organization of a number of specific functions by its nuclei. So, in the hypothalamus there are centers of homeostasis, thermoregulation, hunger (lateral department) and saturation (ventromedial), thirst and its satisfaction, sexual behavior, fear, rage, regulation of the wakefulness-sleep cycle. All these centers realize their functions by activating or inhibiting the autonomic part of the nervous system, the endocrine system, the structures of the brainstem and the forebrain. The neurons of the nuclei of the anterior group of the hypothalamus produce vasopressin, or antidiuretic hormone (ADH), oxytocin and other peptides, which, along the axons, enter the posterior lobe of the pituitary gland - the neurohypophysis.

The neurons of the nuclei of the middle group of the hypothalamus produce the so-called releasing factors (liberins) and inhibitory factors (statins), which regulate the activity of the anterior pituitary gland - the adenohypophysis. It produces tropic hormones (somatotropic, thyroid-stimulating, adrenocorticotropic and other hormones). The presence of such a set of peptides in the structures of the hypothalamus indicates their inherent neurosecretory function.

The neurons of the hypothalamus are highly sensitive to changes in blood temperature, electrolyte composition and plasma osmotic pressure, the amount and composition of blood hormones, and take a direct or indirect effect in maintaining homeostatic constants.

Olds ( Olds) described the behavior of rats that were implanted with electrodes in the nuclei of the hypothalamus and were given the opportunity to independently stimulate these nuclei. It turned out that stimulation of some nuclei led to an avoidance reaction, i.e. the animal, after a single stimulation, no longer approached the pedal that closed the stimulating current. When other nuclei were stimulated, the animals pressed the pedal for hours, not paying attention to food, water, etc. This is the so-called somostimulation reaction, it is caused by stimulation of positive (positive) emotiogenic brain structures.

Delgado ( Delgado) during surgical operations, found in a person that irritation of similar areas caused euphoria, erotic experiences. The clinic has also shown that pathological processes in the hypothalamus may be accompanied by an acceleration of puberty, menstrual irregularities, and sexual function.

Irritation of the anterior hypothalamus can cause a passive-defensive reaction in animals, and irritation of the ventromedial nucleus can cause rage, aggression or fear; irritation of the posterior hypothalamus also causes active aggression. This increases blood pressure, intraocular pressure, increases the content of adrenal hormones (adrenaline, cortisol), i.e. showing signs of emotional distress.

Injections in the hypothalamus cause glucosuria, polyuria. In a number of cases, irritation caused a violation of thermoregulation: the animals became poikilothermic, they did not develop a feverish state.

The hypothalamus is also the center of regulation of the wake-sleep cycle. At the same time, the posterior hypothalamus activates wakefulness, stimulation of the anterior one causes sleep. Damage to the posterior hypothalamus can cause so-called lethargic sleep.

A special place in the functions of the hypothalamus is occupied by the regulation of the activity of the pituitary gland. In the hypothalamus and pituitary gland, neuroregulatory peptides are also formed - enkephalins, endorphins, which have a morphine-like effect and help reduce stress, etc.

amygdala defensive body brain

Amygdala neurons are diverse in form, function, and neurochemical processes within them.

The electrical activity of the tonsils is characterized by different amplitude and different frequency oscillations. Background rhythms can correlate with the rhythm of breathing, heart rate.

The tonsils react with many of their nuclei to visual, auditory, interoceptive, olfactory, skin stimuli, and all these stimuli cause a change in the activity of any of the nuclei of the amygdala, i.e. nuclei of the amygdala are polysensory. The reaction of the nucleus to external stimuli lasts, as a rule, up to 85 ms, i.e. much less than the reaction to similar irritations of the new cortex.

Neurons have well-defined spontaneous activity, which can be enhanced or inhibited by sensory stimuli. Many neurons are polymodal and polysensory and fire synchronously with the theta rhythm.

Irritation of the tonsil nuclei causes respiratory depression, sometimes a cough reaction.

The amygdala plays a key role in the formation emotions

In humans and animals, this subcortical brain structure is involved in the formation of both negative (fear) and positive emotions (pleasure).