Latin for physicians: preparation. History of the development of medical terminology

Latin belongs to the group Italian dead languages. The formation of the literary Latin language took place in the II-I centuries. BC e., and it reached its greatest perfection in the 1st century. BC e., during the period of the so-called classical, or "golden", Latin. He was distinguished by the richest vocabulary, the ability to convey complex abstract concepts, scientific-philosophical, political, legal, economic and technical terminology. The high development of various literary genres is characteristic of this period (Cicero, Caesar, Virgil, Horace, Ovid, etc.).

This period is followed by post-classical, or "silver", Latin (I-II centuries AD), when the norms of phonetics and morphology were finally consolidated, the rules of spelling were determined. The last period of the existence of ancient Latin was the so-called late Latin (3rd-6th centuries AD), when the gap between written, bookish, Latin and folk colloquial began to intensify.

As the Romans captured vast territories in the west and east, the Latin language spread among the tribes and peoples subject to Rome. However, the status and role of the Latin language was not the same in different Roman provinces.

In the countries of the Western Mediterranean by the end of the II century. BC e. Latin won the position of the official state language, thereby contributing to the Romanization of the Celtic tribes living in Gaul (present-day France, Belgium, partly the Netherlands and Switzerland), and by the end of the 1st century. BC e. - tribes of Iberians, Celts and Lusitanians who inhabited the regions of the Iberian Peninsula (present-day Spain and Portugal).

Starting from 43 AD. e. and until 407, the Celts (British) who inhabited Britain were also under the rule of Rome.

If in the west of Europe the Latin language in its colloquial form spread, almost without encountering the resistance of tribal languages, then in the depths of the Mediterranean basin (Greece, Asia Minor, Egypt) it encountered languages that had a longer written history and had a level of culture much higher than Latin language of the Roman conquerors. Even before the arrival of the Romans, the Greek language became widespread in these regions, and with it the Greek, or Hellenic, culture.

And the Latin script itself, which was used by the ancient Romans and which then formed the basis of the languages of many peoples of the world, goes back to the Greek alphabet. Perhaps it arose at the turn of the IX-VIII centuries. BC e. thanks to the contacts of the Italians with the colony cities of the Greeks in the south of the Apennine Peninsula.

From the very first cultural contacts between the Romans and the Greeks and throughout the history of ancient Rome, the latter experienced in the economic, state, social and spiritual areas of life the ever-increasing influence of the highly developed Greek culture.

Educated Romans tended to read and converse in Greek. Borrowed Greek words were included in colloquial and literary Latin, especially actively after being under the rule of Rome in the II-I centuries. BC e. Greece and Hellenistic countries were included. From the 2nd century BC e. Rome began to assimilate the vocabulary of Greek science, philosophy and medicine, partially borrowing along with new concepts and terms denoting them, slightly Latinizing them.

At the same time, another process also developed more actively - the formation of Latin words of scientific content, i.e., terms. “The main method of using Greek scientific and philosophical terminology among the Romans is tracing, both word-production - the formation of a new Latin word according to the Greek model, and semantic - communication to the Latin word of those special meanings that the Greek has acquired” (I. M. Troysky).

When comparing the two classical languages, their significant differences are visible. The Latin language was noticeably inferior in its word-building potential to the Greek language, which had a remarkable ability to clothe in linguistic forms newly discovered, described phenomena, facts, ideas of biological and medical content, to easily create more and more new names, almost transparent in meaning, through various methods of word formation, especially by bases and suffixes.

1. Term and terminology

Word "term"(terminus) is Latin and once meant "limit, border". A term is a word or phrase that serves to unambiguously and accurately designate (name) a special, scientific concept in a certain system of special concepts (in science, technology, production). Like any common word, the term has a content or meaning (semantics, from the Greek semantikos - “denoting”), and a form, or a sound complex (pronunciation). Unlike the rest of the common lexicon, which denotes ordinary, everyday, so-called naive ideas, the terms denote special scientific concepts.

2. Special scientific concept. Definition

The Philosophical Encyclopedic Dictionary defines concept thus: "A thought that reflects in a generalized form the objects and phenomena of reality and the connections between them by fixing general and specific features, which are the properties of objects and phenomena and the relationship between them." The concept has content and scope. The content of a concept is a set of features of an object reflected in it. The scope of a concept is a set (class) of objects, each of which has attributes that make up the content of the concept.

Unlike everyday everyday concepts, a special scientific concept is always a fact of a scientific concept, the result of a theoretical generalization. The term, being a sign of a scientific concept, plays the role of an intellectual tool. With its help, scientific theories, concepts, provisions, principles, laws are formulated. The term is often a herald of a new scientific discovery, a phenomenon. Therefore, unlike non-terms, the meaning of a term is revealed in a definition, a definition that is necessarily attributed to it. A definition (lat. definitio) is a formulation in a concise form of the essence of the concept being terminated, that is, denoted by the term, the concept: only the main content of the concept is indicated. For example: ontogenesis (Greek on, ontos - "existing", "being" + genesis - "generation", "development") - a set of successive morphological, physiological and biochemical transformations of the body from its inception to the end of life; Aerophiles (lat. aёr - "air" + philos - "loving") - microorganisms that receive energy only from the oxidation reaction of oxygen in the environment.

As you can see, the definition does not just explain the meaning of the term, but establishes this meaning. The requirement to determine what this or that term means is tantamount to the requirement to give a definition of a scientific concept. In encyclopedias, special explanatory dictionaries, in textbooks, the concept (term) introduced for the first time is revealed in definitions. Knowledge of the definitions of those concepts (terms) that are included in the curriculum in the disciplines is a mandatory requirement for the student.

3. System of concepts and terminological system

A special concept (term) does not exist by itself, isolated from other concepts (terms). It is always an element of a certain system of concepts (system of terms).

Terminology- this is a set of terms within a certain professional language, but not a simple set, but a system - a term system. Each term in it occupies its strictly defined place, and all terms together in one way or another, directly or indirectly interconnected or interdependent. Here are some examples of definitions that support this assertion. “Serotonin is a biologically active substance from the group of biogenic amines; contained in all tissues, mainly the digestive tract and central nervous system, as well as in platelets; plays the role of a mediator in some synapses and in the development of some allergic reactions. "Nondisjunction of chromosomes - a violation of the process of meiosis, or mitosis, which consists in the departure of homologous chromosomes or chromatids during anaphase to the same pole, can cause chromosomal aberration."

To understand the meaning of a term means to know the place of the concept correlated with it in the system of concepts of a given science.

4. Medical terminology - system of systems

Modern medical terminology is a system of systems, or a macroterminological system. The entire set of medical and paramedical terms, as noted, reaches several hundred thousand. The plan of the content of medical terminology is very diverse: morphological formations and processes characteristic of the human body in normal and pathological conditions at various stages of their development; diseases and pathological conditions of a person; forms of their course and signs (symptoms, syndromes), pathogens and carriers of diseases; environmental factors that positively or negatively affect the human body; indicators of hygienic regulation and evaluation; methods of diagnostics, prevention and therapeutic treatment of diseases; operational accesses and surgical operations; organizational forms of providing medical and preventive care to the population and the sanitary and epidemiological service; devices, devices, tools and other technical means, equipment, medical furniture; medicinal products grouped according to the principle of their pharmacological action or therapeutic effect; individual medicinal products, medicinal plants, medicinal raw materials, etc.

The macroterminological system consists of many layers. Each layer is an independent sub-term system serving a separate medical, biological, pharmaceutical science or field of knowledge. Each term is an element of a certain subsystem, for example, anatomical, histological, embryological, therapeutic, surgical, gynecological, endocrinological, forensic, traumatological, psychiatric, genetic, botanical, biochemical, etc. Each subterminological system reflects a certain scientific classification of concepts adopted in this science. At the same time, terms from different subsystems, interacting with each other, are in certain semantic relationships and connections at the level of the macroterminal system. This reflects the dual trend of progress: the further differentiation of the medical sciences, on the one hand, and their increasing interdependence and integration, on the other. In the XX century. the number of highly specialized subterminal systems has significantly increased, expressing concepts related to the diagnosis, treatment and prevention of diseases that affect mainly individual organs and systems (pulmonology, urology, nephrology, sexual pathology, arthrology, gastroenterology, abdominal surgery, neurosurgery, etc.). Over the past decades, highly specialized dictionaries of cardiology, oncology, radiology, immunology, medical virology, and hygienic sciences have reached an impressive size.

Within the framework of the macroterminal system, the following subsystems play an almost leading role:

1) anatomical and histological nomenclature;

2) a complex of pathological-anatomical, pathological-physiological and clinical term systems;

3) pharmaceutical terminology.

It is these subsystems that are the objects of study in the course of the Latin language and the basics of medical terminology.

5. Pharmaceutical terminology

Pharmaceutical terminology- these are the names of dosage forms, means of plant and chemical origin. Each new drug receives both Russian and Latin names. The latter is used by the doctor when writing a prescription in Latin.

The arsenal of medicines used today in the world, produced in Russia and imported from abroad, has tens of thousands of names. These are the names of chemicals of inorganic and organic origin, including synthetic and semi-synthetic, the names of medicinal plants, etc.

6. General cultural humanitarian significance of the Latin language

Studying a Latin language course at a medical institute pursues a purely professional goal - to prepare a terminologically competent doctor. However, in order to master any language, it is necessary to improve one's cultural and educational level, to broaden one's horizons. In this regard, Latin aphorisms are useful, sayings that express a generalized, complete thought in a concise form, for example: Fortes fortuna juvat - “Fortune helps the brave”; Non progredi est regredi - "To not go forward is to go back." Proverbs like: Omnia mea mecum porto - “I carry everything with me” are also interesting; Festina lente - "Hurry slowly", etc. Many aphorisms are separate lines, statements of famous ancient writers, philosophers, politicians. Of considerable interest are aphorisms in Latin belonging to the scientists of the New Age: R. Descartes, I. Newton, M. Lomonosov, K. Linnaeus and others.

Most of the Latin aphorisms, sayings and proverbs included in the material of individual lessons and presented in a list at the end of the textbook have long become popular expressions. They are used in scientific and fiction literature, in public speaking. Separate Latin aphorisms and sayings deal with issues of life and death, human health, and the behavior of a doctor. Some of them are medical deontological (Greek deon, deonios - "due" + logos - "teaching") commandments, for example: Solus aegroti suprema lex medkorum - "The good of the patient is the highest law of doctors"; Primum noli nocere! “First of all, do no harm!” (the doctor's first commandment).

In the international vocabulary of many languages of the world, especially European ones, Latinisms occupy a significant place: institute, faculty, rector, dean, professor, doctor, associate professor, assistant, graduate student, laboratory assistant, preparator, student, dissertator, audience, communication, credit, discredit, decree, creed, course, curator, supervise, prosecutor, cadet, ply, competitor, competition, excursion, excursionist, degree, gradation, degradation, ingredient, aggression, congress, progress, regression, lawyer, legal adviser, consultation, intellect, intellectual, colleague, collegium, collection, petition, appetite, competence, rehearsal, tutor, conservator, conservatory, conserve, observatory, reserve, reservation, reservoir, valence, valerian, currency, devaluation, invalid, prevail, equivalent, statue, monument, ornament, style, illustration, etc.

Only in the last few years, on the pages of newspapers and magazines, in the speeches of deputies, words of Latin origin, new to our political life, flashed: pluralism (pluralis - "multiple"), conversion (conversio - "transformation", "change"), consensus (consensus - "consent", "agreement"), sponsor (sponsor - "trustee"), rotation (rotatio - "circular motion"), etc.

1. History of the Latin language

Latin belongs to the group of Italian dead languages. The formation of the literary Latin language took place in the II-I centuries. BC e., and it reached its greatest perfection in the 1st century. BC e., during the period of the so-called classical, or "golden", Latin. He was distinguished by the richest vocabulary, the ability to convey complex abstract concepts, scientific-philosophical, political, legal, economic and technical terminology.

In the countries of the Western Mediterranean by the end of the II century. BC e. Latin won the position of the official state language.

Starting from 43 AD. e. and until 407, the Celts (British) who inhabited Britain were also under the rule of Rome.

At the same time, another process also developed more actively - the formation of Latin words of scientific content, that is, terms.

When comparing the two classical languages, their significant differences are visible.

The Latin language was noticeably inferior in its word-building potential to the Greek language, which had a remarkable ability to clothe in linguistic forms newly discovered, described phenomena, facts, ideas of biological and medical content, to easily create more and more new names, almost transparent in meaning, through various methods of word formation, especially by bases and suffixes.

2. Term and definition

The word "term" (terminus) is Latin in origin and once meant "limit, border". A term is a word or phrase that serves to unambiguously and accurately designate (name) a special, scientific concept in a certain system of special concepts (in science, technology, production). Like any common word, the term has a content or meaning (semantics, from the Greek semantikos - "denoting"), and a form, or a sound complex (pronunciation).

Unlike the rest of the common lexicon, which denotes ordinary, everyday, so-called naive ideas, the terms denote special scientific concepts.

The Philosophical Encyclopedic Dictionary defines the concept as follows: "A thought that reflects in a generalized form the objects and phenomena of reality and the connections between them by fixing general and specific features, which are the properties of objects and phenomena and the relationship between them." The concept has content and scope. The content of a concept is a set of the features of an object reflected in it. The scope of a concept is a set (class) of objects, each of which has features that make up the content of the concept.

Definition(Latin definitio) is a formulation in a concise form of the essence of the concept being terminated, that is, denoted by the term, the concept: only the main content of the concept is indicated. For example: ontogenesis (Greek on, ontos - "existing", "being" + genesis - "generation", "development") - a set of successive morphological, physiological and biochemical transformations of the body from its inception to the end of life; Aerophiles (lat. aёr - "air" + philos - "loving") - microorganisms that receive energy only from the oxidation reaction of oxygen in the environment.

3. Medical terminology

Modern medical terminology is a system of systems, or macroterminology. The entire set of medical and paramedical terms, as noted, reaches several hundred thousand. The plan of the content of medical terminology is very diverse: morphological formations and processes characteristic of the human body in normal and pathological conditions at various stages of their development; diseases and pathological conditions of a person; forms of their course and signs (symptoms, syndromes), pathogens and carriers of diseases; environmental factors that positively or negatively affect the human body; indicators of hygienic regulation and evaluation; methods of diagnostics, prevention and therapeutic treatment of diseases; operational accesses and surgical operations; organizational forms of providing medical and preventive care to the population and the sanitary and epidemiological service; devices, devices, tools and other technical means, equipment, medical furniture; medicinal products grouped according to the principle of their pharmacological action or therapeutic effect; individual medicinal products, medicinal plants, medicinal raw materials, etc.

Each term is an element of a certain subsystem, for example, anatomical, histological, embryological, therapeutic, surgical, gynecological, endocrinological, forensic, traumatological, psychiatric, genetic, botanical, biochemical, etc. Each subterminal system reflects a certain scientific classification of concepts adopted in this science. At the same time, terms from different subsystems, interacting with each other, are in certain semantic relationships and connections at the level of the macroterminal system.

This reflects the dual trend of progress: the further differentiation of the medical sciences, on the one hand, and their increasing interdependence and integration, on the other. In the XX century. the number of highly specialized sub-terminal systems has significantly increased, expressing concepts related to the diagnosis, treatment and prevention of diseases that affect mainly individual organs and systems (pulmonology, urology, nephrology, neurosurgery, etc.). Over the past decades, highly specialized dictionaries of cardiology, oncology, radiology, immunology, medical virology, and hygienic sciences have reached an impressive size.

Within the framework of the macroterminal system, the following subsystems play an almost leading role:

1) anatomical and histological nomenclature;

2) a complex of pathological-anatomical, pathological-physiological and clinical term systems;

3) pharmaceutical terminology.

It is these subsystems that are the objects of study in the course of the Latin language and the basics of medical terminology.

4. General cultural humanitarian significance of the Latin language

Studying a Latin language course at a medical institute pursues a purely professional goal - to prepare a terminologically competent doctor.

However, in order to master any language, it is necessary to improve one's cultural and educational level, to broaden one's horizons.

In this regard, Latin aphorisms are useful, sayings that express a generalized, complete thought in a concise form, for example: Fortes fortuna juvat - "Fortune helps the brave"; Non progredi est regredi - "Not to go forward means to go back."

Proverbs like: Omnia mea mecum porto - "I carry everything with me" are also interesting; Festina lente - "Hurry slowly", etc. Many aphorisms are separate lines, statements of famous ancient writers, philosophers, politicians. Of considerable interest are aphorisms in Latin belonging to the scientists of the New Age: R. Descartes, I. Newton, M. Lomonosov, K. Linnaeus and others.

Most of the Latin aphorisms, sayings and proverbs included in the material of individual lessons and presented in a list at the end of the textbook have long become popular expressions. They are used in scientific and fiction literature, in public speaking. Separate Latin aphorisms and sayings deal with issues of life and death, human health, and the behavior of a doctor. Some of them are medical deontological (Greek deon, deonios - "due" + logos - "teaching") commandments, for example: Solus aegroti suprema lex medkorum - "The good of the patient is the highest law of doctors"; Primum noli nocere! - "First of all, do no harm!" (the doctor's first commandment).

5. Alphabet

The Latin alphabet used in modern textbooks, reference books and dictionaries consists of 25 letters.

Table 1. Latin alphabet

With a capital letter in Latin, proper names, names of months, peoples, geographical names and adjectives derived from them are written. In pharmaceutical terminology, it is customary to write the names of plants and medicinal substances with a capital letter.

Notes.

1. Most of the letters of the Latin alphabet are pronounced the same as in various Western European languages, however, some letters in these languages are called differently than in Latin; for example, the letter h is called "ha" in German, "ash" in French, "h" in English, and "ga" in Latin. The letter j in French is called "zhi", in English - "jay", and in Latin - "iot". The Latin letter "c" in English is called "si", etc.

2. It must be borne in mind that the same letter can denote an unequal sound in these languages. For example, the sound indicated by the letter g is pronounced in Latin as [g], and in French and English before e, i - as [g] or [j]; in English j is read as [j].

3. Latin spelling is phonetic, it reproduces the actual pronunciation of sounds. Compare: lat. latina [latina], eng. latin - latin.

The difference is especially noticeable when comparing vowels in Latin and English. In Latin, almost all vowels are always pronounced the same as the corresponding vowels in Russian.

4. As a rule, names not from the Latin language, but from other languages (Greek, Arabic, French, etc.) are latinized, that is, they are drawn up in accordance with the rules of phonetics and grammar of the Latin language.

6. Reading vowels (and consonant j)

In Latin, "E e" is read as [e]: vertebra [ve" rtebra] - vertebra, medianus [media" nus] - median.

Unlike Russians, no Latin consonants soften before the sound [e]: anterior [ante "rior] - front, arteria [arte" ria] - artery.

"I i" reads like [and]: inferior [infe" rior] - lower, internus [inte" rnus] - internal.

At the beginning of a word or syllable, before vowels, i is read as a voiced consonant [th]: iugularis [yugula "rice] - jugular, iunctura [yunktu" ra] - connection, maior [ma" yor] - large, iuga [yu" ha] - elevation.

In these positions, in modern medical terminology, instead of i, the letter J j is used - yot: jugularis [yugula "rice], juncture [yunktu" ra], major [ma" yor], juga [yu" ha].

The letter j is not written only in words borrowed from the Greek language, since there was no sound [th] in it: iatria [ia "tria] - healing, iodum [io "dum] - iodine.

To convey the sounds [ya], [yo], [ye], [yu], combinations of letters ja, jo, je, ju are used.

Y y (upsilon), in French "y", reads like [and]: tympanum [ti "mpanum] - drum; gyrus [gi" Rus] - gyrus of the brain. The letter "upsilon" is used only in words of Greek origin. It was introduced by the Romans to convey the letter of the Greek alphabet upsilon, which was read as German [and]. If the Greek word was written through i (Greek iota), read as [and], then it was transcribed into Latin through i.

In order to correctly write medical terms, you need to know some of the most common Greek prefixes and roots in which "upsilon" is written:

dys- [dis-] - a prefix that gives the term the meaning of a violation, a disorder of function: dysostosis (dys + osteon - "bone") - dysostosis - a disorder of bone formation;

hypo- [hypo-] - "under", "below": hypoderma (hypo + + derma - "skin") - hypodermis - subcutaneous tissue, hypogastrium (hypo- + gaster - "stomach", "stomach") - hypogastrium - hypogastrium;

hyper- [hyper-] - "above", "over": hyperostosis (hyper + + osteon - "bone") - hyperostosis - pathological growth of unchanged bone tissue;

syn-, sym- [syn-, sim-] - "with", "together", "together": synostosis (syn + osteon - "bone") - synostosis - connection of bones through bone tissue;

mu (o) - [myo-] - the root of the word, indicating the relationship to the muscles: myologia (myo + logos - "word", "teaching") - myology - the doctrine of muscles;

phys- [phys-] - the root of the word, indicating in anatomical terms the relation to something growing in a certain place: diaphysis - diaphysis (in osteology) - the middle part of the tubular bone.

7. Diphthongs and features of reading consonants

In addition to simple vowels [a], [e], [i], [o], [i], in Latin there were also two-vowel sounds (diphthongs) ae, oe, ai, her.

Digraph ae reads like [e]: vertebrae [ve" rtebre] - vertebrae, peritonaeum [peritone" mind] - peritoneum.

Digraph oe reads like [e], more precisely, like German o or French oe: foetor [fetor] - a bad smell.

In most cases, the diphthongs ae and oe, found in medical terms, served to render in Latin the Greek diphthongs ai and oi. For example: oedema [ede "ma] - edema, oesophagus [eso" fagus] - esophagus.

If in combinations ae and oe the vowels belong to different syllables, that is, they do not constitute a diphthong, then a separation sign (``) is placed above the "e" and each vowel is pronounced separately: diploё [diploe] - diploe - spongy substance of the flat bones of the skull ; aёr [air] - air.

The diphthong au reads like: auris [ay "rice] - ear. The diphthong eu reads like [eu]: ple "ura [ple" ura] - pleura, neurocranium [neurocra" nium] - brain skull.

Features of reading consonants

A double reading of the letter "C with" is accepted: as [k] or [c].

How [k] is read before the vowels a, o, and, before all consonants and at the end of the word: caput [ka "put] - head, head of bones and internal organs, cubitus [ku" bitus] - elbow, clavicula [curse" kula ] - clavicle, crista [cri "hundred] - crest.

How [c] is read before the vowels e, i, y and the digraphs ae, oe: cervicalis [cervical "fox] - cervical, incisure [incizu" ra] - tenderloin, coccyngeus [koktsinge "us] - coccygeal, coelia [tse" lia ] - abdomen.

"H h" reads like a Ukrainian sound [g] or German [h] (haben): homo [homo] - a person, hnia "tus [gna" tus] - a gap, a crevice, humerus [hume" Rus] - a humerus.

"K k" is very rare, almost exclusively in words of non-Latin origin, in cases where you need to keep the sound [k] before the sounds [e] or [and]: kyphosis [kypho "zis] - kyphosis, kinetocytus [kine" that -citus] - kinetocyte - mobile cell (words of Greek origin).

"S s" has a double reading - [s] or [s]. How [s] is read in most cases: sulcus [su "lkus] - a furrow, os sacrum [os sa" krum] - the sacrum, sacral bone; dorsum [to "rsum] - back, back, rear. How [h] is read in a position between vowels: incisura [incizu "ra] - tenderloin, vesica [wezi" ka] - bubble. Doubled s reads like [s]: fossa [fo "csa] - pit, ossa [o" ss] - bones, processus [proce" ssus] - process. In the position between vowels and consonants m, n in words of Greek origin, s is read as [h]: chiasma [chia "zma] - cross, platysma [fly" zma] - subcutaneous muscle of the neck.

"X x" is called a double consonant, since it represents the sound combination [ks]: radix [ra" dix] - the root, extremitas [extre" mitas] - the end.

"Z z" is found in words of Greek origin and reads like [h]: zygomaticus [zygoma "ticus] - zygomatic, trapezius [trape" zius] - trapezoidal.

8. Letter combinations. Accents. brevity rule

In Latin, the letter "Q q" occurs only in combination with u before vowels, and this combination is read as [kv]: squama [squa" me] - scales, quadratus [quadra" tus] - square.

The letter combination ngu is read in two ways: before vowels as [ngv], before consonants - [ngu]: lingua [li" ngva] - language, lingula [li" ngulya] - tongue, sanguis [sa" ngvis] - blood, angulus [angu" lux] - angle.

The combination of ti before vowels reads like [qi]: rotatio [rota "tsio] - rotation, articulatio [article" tsio] - joint, eminentia [emine" ncia] - elevation.

However, ti before vowels in combinations sti, xti, tti reads like [ti]: ostium [o "stium] - hole, entrance, mouth, mixtio [mi" xtio] - mixture.

In words of Greek origin, there are digraphs ch, ph, rh, th, which are graphic signs for conveying the corresponding sounds of the Greek language. Each digraph is read as one sound:

ch = [x]; ph = [f]; rh = [p]; th = [t]: nucha [well "ha] - neck, chorda [chord] - chord, string, phalanx [fa" lanks] - phalanx; apophysis [apophysis] - apophysis, process; thorax [that" raks] - chest notch, rhaphe [ra" fe] - seam.

The letter combination sch reads like [cx]: os ischii [os and "schii] - ischium, ischiadicus [ischia" dicus] - ischium.

Stress rules.

1. The stress is never placed on the last syllable. In two-syllable words, it is placed on the first syllable.

2. In trisyllabic and polysyllabic words, the stress is placed on the penultimate or third syllable from the end.

The placement of stress depends on the duration of the penultimate syllable. If the penultimate syllable is long, then the stress falls on it, and if it is short, then the stress falls on the third syllable from the end.

Therefore, in order to place stress in words containing more than two syllables, it is necessary to know the rules for longitude or shortness of the penultimate syllable.

Two rules of longitude

Longitude of the penultimate syllable.

1. The syllable is long if it contains a diphthong: peritona "eum - peritoneum, perona" eus - peroneal (nerve), dia "eta - diet.

2. The syllable is long if the vowel comes before two or more consonants, and also before the double consonants x and z. This longitude is called position longitude.

For example: colu "mna - column, pillar, exte" rnus - external, labyri "nthus - labyrinth, medu" lla - brain, medulla, maxi "lla - upper jaw, metaca" rpus - metacarpus, circumfle "xus - envelope.

brevity rule

A vowel before a vowel or h is always short. For example: tro "chlea - block, pa" ries - wall, o "sseus - bone, acro" mion - acromion (shoulder process), xiphoi "deus - xiphoid, peritendi" neum - peritendinium, pericho "ndrium - perichondrium.

9. Cases and types of declensions

The inflection of nouns according to cases and numbers is called declension.

Cases

There are 6 cases in Latin.

Nominativus (Nom.) - nominative (who, what?).

Genetivus (Gen.) - genitive (of whom, what?).

Dativus (Dat.) - dative (to whom, what?).

Accusativus (Acc.) - accusative (of whom, what?).

Ablativus (Abl.) - ablative, creative (by whom, with what?).

Vocativus (Voc.) - vocative.

For nomination, i.e. for naming (naming) objects, phenomena, and the like in medical terminology, only two cases are used - nominative (im. p.) and genitive (gen. p.).

The nominative case is called the direct case, which means the absence of relations between words. The meaning of this case is the actual naming.

The genitive case has a characterizing meaning.

There are 5 types of declensions in Latin, each of which has its own paradigm (a set of word forms).

A practical means of distinguishing declension (determining the type of declension) in Latin is the genitive case of the singular.

Genus forms. p. units hours in all declensions are different.

The distribution of nouns by declension types depending on the gender ending. p. units h.

Genitive endings of all declensions

10. Determination of the practical basis

Nouns are listed in the dictionary and learned in dictionary form, which contains 3 components:

1) the form of the word in them. p. units hours;

2) the end of the genus. p. units hours;

3) gender designation - male, female or neuter (abbreviated as one letter: m, f, n).

For example: lamina, ae (f), sutura, ae (f), sulcus, i (m); ligamentum, i(n); pars, is(f), margo, is(m); os, is(n); articulatio, is (f), canalis, is (m); ductus, us(m); arcus, us (m), cornu, us, (n); facies, ei (f).

Some nouns have the III declension before the ending genus. p. units h. -is is also attributed to the final part of the stem.

This is necessary if the stem of the word is in gender. p. units h. does not coincide with the basis of them. p. units hours:

The full form of the genus. p. units hours for such nouns are found as follows:

corpus, =oris (=corpor - is); foramen, -inis (= fora-min - is).

For such nouns, the practical basis is determined only from the form of the word to the gender. p. units hours by discarding its ending.

If the basics in them. p. units hours and in the genus. p. units h. coincide, then only the ending genus is indicated in the dictionary form. etc., and the practical basis in such cases can be determined from them. p. units hours without ending.

Examples

The practical basis is the basis, to which, during inflection (declension), the endings of oblique cases are added; it may not coincide with the so-called historical basis.

For monosyllabic nouns with a changing stem, the entire word form genus is indicated in the dictionary form. n., for example, pars, partis; crus, cruris; os, oris; cor, cordis.

11. Definition of the gender of nouns

In Latin, as in Russian, nouns belong to three genders: masculine (masculinum - m), feminine (femininum - f) and neuter (neutrum - n).

The grammatical gender of Latin nouns cannot be determined from the gender of Russian words equivalent in meaning, since often the gender of nouns with the same meaning in Russian and Latin does not coincide.

It is possible to determine the belonging of a Latin noun to a particular gender only by the endings characteristic of this gender in it. p. units h.

For example, words in -a are feminine (costa, vertebra, lamina, incisura, etc.), words in -um are neuter (ligamentum, manubrium, sternum, etc.).

A sign of the declension of a noun is the ending of the gender. p. units hours; a sign of the genus - a characteristic ending in them. p. units h.

Determining the gender of nouns ending in the nominative singular in -a, -um, -on, -en, -i, -us

There can be no doubt that nouns in -a belong to the feminine gender, and nouns in -um, -on, -en, -u - to the middle one.

All nouns in -us, if they belong to the II or IV declension, are necessarily masculine, for example:

lobus, i; nodus, i; sulcus, i;

ductus, us; arcus, us; meatus, us, m - masculine.

If a noun with -us belongs to the III declension, then its belonging to a certain gender should be specified with the help of such an additional indicator as the final consonant of the stem in gender. P.; if the final consonant of the stem is r, then the noun is neuter, and if the final consonant is different (-t or -d), then it is feminine.

tempus, or-is; crus, crur is;

corpus, or-is - neuter, juventus, ut-is - feminine.

12. III declension of nouns

Third declension nouns were extremely rare, for example: os, corpus, caput, foramen, dens. This methodological approach was absolutely justified. III declension is the most difficult to master and has a number of features that distinguish it from other declensions.

1. The third declension includes nouns of all three genders ending in gender. p. units h on -is (a sign of the III declension).

2. In them. p. units h. words not only of different genders, but even of the same gender have different endings characteristic of a particular gender; for example, in the masculine gender -os, -or, -o, -eg, -ex, -es.

3. For most nouns, the third declension stems in them. n. and in the genus. items do not match.

With such nouns, the practical basis is not determined by them. n., but by genus. n. by dropping the ending -is.

1. If in the dictionary form of any noun before the ending genus. p. units h. -is the end of the stem is attributed, which means that the stem of such a word is determined by the genus. P.:

2. If in the dictionary form before the end of the genus. p. units h. -is has no postscript, which means that such a word can also have a basis determined by them. p. units h., discarding the ending to them. p.: pubes, is the basis of pub-.

3. Nouns III declension depending on the coincidence or mismatch of the number of syllables in them. n. and genus. p. units hours are equally complex and non-equisyllabic, which is important for the exact definition of the genus in a number of cases. Equosyllabic Nom. pubes canalis rete Gen. pubis canalis retis. Uneven Nom. pes paries pars Gen. pedis parietis partis.

4. For monosyllabic nouns in the dictionary form in gender. n. the word is written in full: vas, vasis; os, ossis.

The genus is determined by the endings of them. p. units h., characteristic of a certain genus within a given declension. Therefore, in order to determine the gender of any noun of the III declension, 3 points must be taken into account:

1) to know that the given word refers specifically to the III declension, and not to any other;

2) know what endings are in them. p. units hours are characteristic of one or another kind of III declension;

3) in some cases, also take into account the nature of the stem of the given word.

13. Adjective

1. Adjectives in Latin, as in Russian, are divided into qualitative and relative. Qualitative adjectives denote a sign of an object directly, i.e., without relation to other objects: true rib - costa vera, long bone - os longum, yellow ligament - ligamentum flavum, transverse process - processus transversus, large hole - foramen magnum, trapezoid bone - os trapezoideum, sphenoid bone - os sphenoidale, etc.

Relative adjectives indicate the sign of an object not directly, but through relation to another object: the spinal column (column of the vertebrae) - columna vertebralis, the frontal bone - os frontale, the sphenoid sinus (the cavity in the body of the sphenoid bone) - sinus sphenoidalis, the sphenoid crest (section anterior surface of the body of the sphenoid bone) - crista sphenoidalis.

The predominant mass of adjectives in the anatomical nomenclature are relative adjectives indicating that a given anatomical formation belongs to a whole organ or to another anatomical formation, such as the frontal process (extending from the zygomatic bone upwards, where it connects to the zygomatic process of the frontal bone) - processus frontalis .

2. The categorical meaning of the adjective is expressed in the categories of gender, number and case. The gender category is an inflectional category. As in Russian, adjectives change by gender: they can be in the form of masculine, feminine or neuter. The gender of an adjective depends on the gender of the noun with which it agrees. For example, the Latin adjective meaning "yellow" (-th, -th) has three gender forms - flavus (m. p.), flava (f. p.), flavum (cf. p.).

3. Inflection of adjectives also occurs according to cases and numbers, i.e. adjectives, like nouns, decline.

Adjectives, unlike nouns, are declined only in I, II or III declension.

The specific type of declension, according to which this or that adjective changes, is determined by the standard dictionary form in which it is recorded in the dictionary and in which it should be remembered.

In the dictionary form of the overwhelming majority of adjectives, the endings characteristic of one kind or another in them are indicated. p. units h.

At the same time, some adjectives have endings in them. n. for each genus are completely different, for example: rectus, recta, rectum - straight, straight, straight; other adjectives for masculine and feminine have one common ending, and for the neuter gender - another, for example: brevis - short and short, breve - short.

Adjectives are given differently in the dictionary form. For example: rectus, -a, -um; brevis, -e.

Ending -us m. is replaced in R. to -a (recta), and cf. R. - on -um (rectum).

14. Two groups of adjectives

Depending on the type of declension according to which adjectives are inclined, they are divided into 2 groups. Membership in a group is recognized by standard dictionary forms.

The 1st group includes adjectives that are declined according to the I and II declension. They are easily recognized by their endings. n. -us (or -er), -a, -um in dictionary form.

The 2nd group includes all adjectives that have a different dictionary form. Their inflection occurs according to the third declension.

Memorizing the dictionary form is necessary in order to correctly determine the type of declension and use the appropriate endings in oblique cases.

Adjectives of the 1st group

In the presence of a dictionary form with endings in them. p. units h. -us, -a, -um or -er, -a, -um adjectives in the form of g. R. inclined according to the I declension, in the form of m. and cf. R. - according to the II declension.

For example: longus, -a, -um - long; liber, -era, -erum - free. In the genus n. they have, respectively, endings:

Some adjectives that have in m. ending -er, the letter "e" drops out in m. p., starting with the genus. p. units h., and in R. and on Wed. R. - in all cases without exception. This is not the case for other adjectives. For example, dictionary forms ruber, -bra, -brum, liber, -era, -erum.

Adjectives of the 2nd group

Adjectives of the 2nd group are declined according to the III declension. Their dictionary form differs from the adjectives of the 1st group.

According to the number of generic endings in the dictionary form, adjectives of the 2nd group are divided into:

1) adjectives of two endings;

2) adjectives of one ending;

3) adjectives of three endings.

1. Adjectives of two endings in anatomical and histological and in general in medical terminology are most common. They have in them. p., unit only two generic endings - -is, -e; -is - common for m. and well. r., e - only for cf. R. For example: brevis - short, short; breve - short.

The prevailing number of adjectives with two endings found in the nomenclature is characterized by the following word-formation model.

2. Adjectives of the same ending have one common ending in them for all genders. p. units h. Such an ending can be, in particular, -x, or -s, etc. For example: simplex - simple, -th, -th; teres - round, -th, -th; biceps - two-headed, -th, -th.

3. Adjectives of three endings have endings: m. - -er, f. p. - -is, cf. R. - e. For example: ce-ler, -eris, -ere - fast, -th, -th; celeber, -bris, -bre - healing, -th, -th.

All adjectives of the 2nd group, regardless of the dictionary form, are declined according to the 3rd declension and have a single stem in oblique cases.

15. Adjective - agreed definition

Another type of subordinating relationship, when the function of definition in a nominal phrase is performed by a non-noun in gender. etc., and the adjective is called agreement, and the definition is agreed.

When agreed, a grammatically dependent definition is likened to gender, number and case with the main word.

As the grammatical forms of the main word change, the forms of the dependent word also change. In other words, as in Russian, adjectives agree with the noun in gender, number, and case.

For example, when agreeing adjectives transversus, -a, -um and vertebralis, -e with nouns processus, -us (m); linea, -ae (f); ligamentum, -i (n); ca-nalls, -is (m); incisura, -ae, (f); foramen, -inis (n) results in the following phrases:

As in Russian, Latin qualitative adjectives have three degrees of comparison: positive (gradus positivus), comparative (gradus comparativus) and excellent (gradus superlativus).

The comparative degree is formed from the basis of a positive degree by adding the suffix -ior to it for m. and well. r., suffix -ius - for cf. R. For example:

1. The main grammatical feature of adjectives in a comparative degree are: for m. and well. R. - suffix -ior, for cf. R. - suffix -ius.

For example: brevior, -ius; latior, -ius.

2. For all adjectives, in a comparative degree, the stem coincides with the form of m. and well. R. in them. p. units hours:

3. Adjectives are declined in a comparative degree according to the III declension. Genus form. p. units hours for all three genera is the same: it is formed by adding the ending -is to the stem.

4. Adjectives are relatively consistent with nouns in gender, number and case, i.e. they are consistent definitions: sutura latior; sulcus latior; foramen latius.

16. Nominative plural

1. Any case endings, including their endings. n. pl. hours, always attached to the base.

2. For the formation of word forms. n. pl. h. different declensions must adhere to the following provisions.

If the noun refers to cf. r., then it declines in accordance with the rule cf. r., which reads: all words cf. R. (both nouns and adjectives of all degrees of comparison), regardless of which declension they belong to, end in it. n. pl. hours on -a. This applies only to the words cf. p., for example: ligamenta lata - wide ligaments, crura ossea - bone legs, ossa temporalia - temporal bones, cornua majora - large horns.

Word endings in m. and well. R. in them. n. pl. hours are easier to remember, taking into account each individual declension. In this case, it is necessary to remember the following correspondences: nouns I, II, IV declensions have in them. n. pl. h. exactly the same ending as in the genus. n. pl. h. The same correspondence is observed for adjectives of the 1st group, because they are declined like nouns of I and II declensions, for example:

Nouns of the III and V declensions, as well as adjectives of the III declension and adjectives in the comparative degree (they also decline according to the III declension) have in them. n. pl. h .. the same ending -es.

Generalization of data on the endings of nouns and adjectives in them. n. pl. h.

17. Genitive plural

Continuing the study of the inflection of nouns and adjectives in the plural, it is necessary to note the genitive case of the plural.

To learn how to quickly and accurately form terms in the form of gender. n. pl. h., you need to be able to:

determine by the dictionary form of a noun its belonging to a certain declension; highlight the base

recognize the gender by their characteristic endings. p. units hours; set according to the dictionary form, an adjective belongs to the 1st or 2nd group; establish which of the three declensions (I-II or III) the given adjective is inclined to, consistent with the noun in gender, number and case.

Genitive plural endings (Genetivus pluralis)

The ending -um has:

1) unequal nouns of all three genders, the stem of which ends in one consonant: tendinum (m), regionum (f), foraminum (n); 2) adjectives in a comparative degree of all three genders (they also have a basis for one consonant): majorum (m, f, n).

The ending -ium has:

1) all other nouns with a stem of more than one consonant; equivalent in -es, -is; nouns cf. R. in -e, -ai, -ar: dentium (m), partium (f), ossium (n), animalium, avium, retium;

2) adjectives of the 2nd group of all three genders: brevi-um (m, f, n).

Notes.

1. Noun vas, vasis (n) - vessel in units. h. declines according to the III declension, and in many others. hours - according to II; Gen. pl. - vasorum.

2. In the term os ilium (ilium), the form genus is used. n. pl. hours from the noun ile, -is (n) (lower abdomen); them. n. pl. hours - ilia (iliac region). Therefore, it is wrong to change the form of ilium to ilii (ossis ilii).

3. The noun fauces, -ium - pharynx is used only in plural. h.

4. Nouns of Greek origin larynx, pharynx, meninx, phalanx end in im. pl. hours on -um.

18. Morpheme analysis

In a linear sequence, the word contains minimal parts that are indivisible neither in form nor in meaning: prefix (prefix), root, suffix and ending (inflection). All these minimal meaningful parts of a word are called morphemes (Greek morphe - form). The core of the meaning lies in the root, for example: sweat, sweat, sweat, sweat, etc. The prefix and suffix, distinguished by their position to the root, are called together word-building affixes (Latin affixus - "attached").

By attaching them to the root, derivatives - new - words are formed. The ending - an affix with a grammatical meaning does not serve for word formation, but for inflection (by cases, numbers, genders). The division of a word into morphemes is called analysis by composition, or morphemic analysis.

The entire unchanging part of the word preceding the ending, which carries the main lexical meaning, is called the basis of the word. In the words vertebr-a, vertebral-is, intervertebral-is, the stems are, respectively, vertebr-, vertebral-, intervertebral-.

The stem can in some cases be represented only by the root, in some others - by the root and word-building affixes, that is, the root, suffix and prefix.

Morpheme analysis shows what minimal meaningful parts (morphemes) the studied word consists of, but does not answer the question of what is the actual mechanism of word formation. This mechanism is revealed with the help of word-formation analysis. The meaning of the analysis is to isolate two direct components in the word: that single segment (generating stem) and that (those) affix(es), due to the combination of which the derivative word is formed.

The difference between derivational and morphemic analyzes can be shown by the following example.

The adjective interlobularis (interlobular) from the standpoint of morphemic analysis consists of five morphemes: inter- (prefix), -lob- (root), -ul-, -ar- (suffixes), -is (end); from the standpoint of word-formation analysis, two direct components are singled out: inter- - between (prefix) + -lobular (is) - lobular (producing stem, or word).

The real formation mechanism: inter- (prefix) + -lobular(is) (generating stem, not divisible in this case into morphemes).

Therefore, the derivative is the one from which another derivative stem, more complex in composition, is formed by attaching affix(s) to it.

The derivative stem is larger than the derivative stem by at least one morpheme.

19. Generating stem of a word

To isolate the generating stem in the word under consideration, it is necessary to compare it with two rows of words:

a) cholecyst-itis, cholecyst-o-graphia, cholecyst-o-pexia;

b) nephr-itis, vagin-itis, gastr-itis, etc. The generating stem is not only the material backbone of the derived word, but also motivates, i.e., determines its meaning. In this sense, one can judge about motivating and motivated words or about motivating and motivated bases. So, for example, derivatives - the names of diseases of the heart muscle - myocarditis, myocardiofibrosis, myocardosis, myocardtodystrophia - are motivated by the motivating basis myo-card (ium).

A motivated word differs from a motivating one in greater semantic (in meaning) complexity, for example: the histological term myoblastus (myoblast), consisting of two root morphemes myo- - "muscle" + blastus (Greek blastos - "sprout", "embryo"), means an undifferentiated cell from which a striated muscle fiber develops. The same word served as a motivating basis for the formation of the motivated word myoblastoma (myoblastoma) - the name of a tumor consisting of large cells - myoblasts.

There are cases when the concepts of generating and motivating words do not completely coincide. This happens if it is not a single word that motivates, but the whole phrase (adjective + noun), and only the adjective is used as a generating basis. Such, for example, are the words-terms choledocho-piastica, chcledocho-tomia, choledocho-scopia, mastoid-itis, mastoido-tomia, for which the phrases ductus choledochus (common bile duct) and processus mastoideus (mastoid process) are motivating, and producing bases - choledoch- (Greek chole - "bile" + doche - "vessel", "receptacle") and mastoid- (Greek mastos - "nipple" + -eides - "similar", "similar"; "mastoid") .

Proper names or surnames of persons who first discovered or described this or that phenomenon are also used as producing bases in clinical and pathological terms. Such "family" terms are called eponymous, or eponyms. Motivating for each such term is usually a phrase - an anatomical name, which includes its own name.

For example: in the term highmoritis (sinusitis), the generating base haimor is from the name of the English physician and anatomist N. Highmore, who described the maxillary sinus, named after him as the maxillary sinus. In the International Parisian Anatomical Nomenclature approved in 1955, all eponyms (names of authors) were removed and replaced by informative terms indicating the main morphological features of the corresponding formation. For example, instead of the eponym "Bartholin's gland", the term glandula vestibularis major was introduced, instead of "Cooper's gland" - glandula bulbourethralis, instead of "wirzung duct" - ductus pancreaticus major, instead of "maxillary sinus" - sinus maxiliaris, etc.

20. Articulation of terms

Partitioned are words, at least one part of which is repeated in any other words that are correlated with the data by meaning. Articulation of different words may be complete or incomplete. Those derivatives are fully segmented, all the constituent parts of which (individual morphemes or a block of morphemes) are repeated in other derivatives. If not every significant part is found in other modern medical terms, then the derivative has incomplete articulation. For example, the following words:

1) with full articulation: pod-algia (Greek pus, podos - "leg" + algos - "pain"), neur-algia (Greek neuron - "nerve"), as well as my-algia (Greek mys, myos - "muscle"), kephal-o-metria (Greek kephalos - "head"), thorac-o-metria (Greek thorax, thorakos - "chest", "chest"), etc.;

2) with incomplete articulation: pod-agra (Greek podagra - "trap"; aching legs; from pus, podos - "leg" + agra - "capture", "attack"). If the first part is singled out, as it is found in a number of modern terms, then the second part - agra - is practically a single one.

Almost all terms - derived words that arose naturally in the ancient Greek and Latin languages or artificially created from morphemes and generating bases of these languages, are completely segmentable. This means that they are also fully motivated in the modern terminology. The remarkable property of complete articulation becomes even more important for those who master the basics of medical terminology due to the fact that a significant number of morphemes and blocks of morphemes are frequent.

Frequency should be considered those morphemes and blocks that are repeated in different words at least 2-3 times. It is clear that the greater the degree of frequency, i.e., the greater the number of uses, parts of derivatives have, the more significant their role in terminology. Some high-frequency morphemes and blocks are involved in the formation of dozens of terms.

Many morphemes of the ancient Greek and Latin languages acquired specific, sometimes new, meanings unusual for them in the ancient source language. Such meanings are called terminological. So, for example, the Greek word kytos (vessel, cavity) in the Latinized form cytus began to be used as a regular root morpheme in the structure of dozens of terms - derived words - in the meaning of "cell". The suffix of ancient Greek adjectives -itis, which gave them the general meaning of "related, belonging", became a regular part of terms - nouns with the meaning "inflammation".

21. Term element

Any part of a derived word (morpheme, block of morphemes) that is regularly reproduced in finished form when using existing or creating new terms and retaining a certain meaning assigned to it in the terminology is called a term element.

term element is a component regularly repeated in a series of terms, which is assigned a specialized meaning. At the same time, it does not matter in principle in the form of which transcription, Latin or Russian, the same international term element of Greek-Latin origin appears: infra- - infra-; -tomia - -tomia; nephro- - nephro-, etc. For example: the term cardiologia - the science of diseases of the cardiovascular system consists of the initial term cardio - heart and the final -logia - science, branch of knowledge.

The division of a term-word into term elements does not always coincide with its division into morphemes, since some term elements represent a whole block - a combination of 2-3 morphemes in one whole: prefix + root, root + suffix, prefix + root + suffix. In such a regular formal and semantic fusion, these blocks of morphemes are distinguished in a number of derivatives of the same type, for example, in terms of asthen-o-spermia - asthen-o-sperm, asthen-opia - asthen-opium, asthen-o-depressivus - asthen-o- depressive, asthen-isatio - asthenization, a block term element asthen (o) - (asthen (o) -), from the Greek. asthenes - "weak": negative prefix a- - "not, without" + sthenos - "strength".

High-frequency term elements tom-ia (-to-miya) (Greek tome - "cut"), rhaph-ia (-raffia) (Greek rhaphe - "seam"), log-ia (-logia) (Greek logos - "science") - the final parts of the derivatives - are two-morphemic in composition: the root + the suffix -ia, which gives the words the general meaning of "action, phenomenon". The high-frequency term element -ectomia (-ectomy) - the final part of the derivatives - consists of three ancient Greek morphemes: the prefix eu- + the root -tome- - "cut" + the suffix -ia - "cutting", "removal".

Term elements of Greek-Latin origin constitute the international "golden fund" of biological and medical terminology.

With the help of frequency term elements, numerous series of terms of the same type in structure and semantics (meaning) are formed. Interacting with each other, the term elements all together form a complex formal semantic term system, which remains open for the inclusion of new term elements and new series of terms, and in which each term element is assigned a specific place and meaning.

A huge number of medical terms are formed by adding bases, combined with suffixation. In this case, the suffix of Greek origin -ia is used more often than others. For example, haemorrhagia in ancient Greek is made by combining two stems: haem - "blood" + rhagos - "broken, torn" + suffix -ia.

22. Greco-Latin doublets

The division of term elements into bound and free should be constantly taken into account. For example, when comparing anatomical values in normal anatomy, on the one hand, with similar values in pathological anatomy and in a complex of clinical disciplines, on the other hand, the following pattern is revealed: the same organ is designated in two ways - different not only in their linguistic origin, but also in grammatical decoration with signs. In the nomenclature of normal anatomy, this is an independent and usually Latin word, and in pathological anatomy, a related term element of Greek origin. Much less often in both disciplines is the same name borrowed from the same source language, for example, the Greek hepar, oesophagus, pharynx, larynx, urethra, thorax, ureter, encephalon and Latin appendix, tonsilla and others that were used even in ancient medicine, as well as complex suffixal derivatives on -turn, created in modern times; for example, myocardium, endothelium, perimetrium, etc. These words are included as free term elements in the structure of compound words in clinical terminology: hepatomegaly, endothelioma, encephalopathy, myocardiopathy, appendectomy. In the anatomical nomenclature, there are designations of the same formation both as an independent Latin root word and as a Greek component as part of a derivative; for example, chin - lat. mentum, but "chin-lingual" - genioglossus (Greek geneion - "chin"); language - lat. lingua, but "sublingual" - hypoglossus; "lingo-pharyngeal" - glossopharyngeus (Greek glossa - "language"), etc. Latin and Greek designations of anatomical structures that have exactly the same meaning are called Greek-Latin doublet designations (or doublets). We can formulate the following fundamental position: as a rule, Greek-Latin doublets are used to designate most anatomical formations (organs, body parts), and in the anatomical nomenclature - mainly Latin words, in clinical terminology - related term elements of Greek origin.

Scope of doublets

23. The meaning and place of term elements in the structure of a derived word

Term elements are mostly unambiguous, but some of them have two or more meanings.

So, for example, the term element onco- (Greek onkos - "heap, mass, volume, swelling") in some compound words has the meaning "volume, mass" (oncogramma - oncogram - a curve reflecting changes in volume; oncometria - oncometry - measurement of volume tissue or organ), in others - "tumor" (oncogenesis - oncogenesis - the process of occurrence and development of a tumor; oncologist - a doctor, a specialist in the treatment and prevention of tumors, etc.).

The final component -lysis (Greek "unleashing, decomposition, dissolution"; luo - "I untie, free") in some compound words means "decomposition, decay, dissolution" (autolysis, karyolysis, hemolysis, etc.), in others - "a surgical operation to release adhesions, adhesions" (cardiolysis, pneumo(no) lysis, etc.).

Usually, the place of a motivating stem in the structure of words does not affect its meaning: whether it is megalo- or -megalia (increase), gnatho- or -gnathia (jaw), blepharo- or -blepharia (eyelid), the meaning of the term elements will remain unambiguous. Some terminological elements, like the above, can act both as the first and final ones. Others may occupy only one permanent place, for example as final ones (-cele, -clasia, -le-psia, -peaia), some may only be the first components (auto-, brady-, bary-, laparo-).

1. It should be borne in mind that, depending both on the specific meaning of another component participating in the addition, and on the place it occupies in the compound word, some shades may arise that affect the general meaning of the motivated word. Thus, the cognate terminological elements haemo-, haemato- and -aemia have the general meaning of "pertaining to blood". At the same time, the final term element -aemia, which is preceded by the designation of a substance, indicates the blood as a medium in which substances are found, the presence and concentration of which in this medium are pathological (azotaemia, uraemia, bacteriaemia, etc.). If the term elements haemo- or haemato- are combined with the designation of an organ, then the general meaning of the compound word is the accumulation of blood in the cavity of the organ, hemorrhage (haematomyelia - hemorrhage into the substance of the spinal cord, haemarthrosis - accumulation of blood in the joint cavity).

2. For a logical understanding of the general meaning of a derivative word, it is advisable to start the semantic analysis of its constituent term elements from the final term element. For example, gastro/entero-logia: logia - "the science of...": gastro- - "stomach", entera- - "intestines".

3. The general meaning of a motivated word is always somewhat more voluminous, fuller, deeper than a simple addition of the meanings of the motivating components: for example, gastrojejunoplastica (Greek gaster - "stomach" + Latin jejunum - "jejunum" + plastike - "formation, plasticity") - surgical replacement of the stomach with a segment of the jejunum.

24. Formal language types of clinical terms

Formal language types of clinical terms are different.

1. Unmotivated simple words:

1) simple root words of Latin or ancient Greek origin: for example, stupor - stupor (numbness), tremor - tremor (trembling), thrombus - blood clot (blood clot), aphthae - aphthae (rashes);

2) simple derivatives (in the source language) - prefix and affix: for example, insultus (lat. insulto - "to attack") - stroke, infarctus (lat. infarcio - "stuff, stuff") - heart attack, aneurysma (Greek aneuryno - "expand") - aneurysm.

The above simple root and simple derivative words and many other clinical terms similar to them turn out to be indivisible within the framework of modern terminology and, therefore, unmotivated. Most often they are not translated, but borrowed, transcribed by means of national languages (Russian, English, etc.) and are internationalisms.

2. Terms-phrases. Nominal phrases occupy a significant place in clinical terminology. For their education, no special knowledge is required, except for grammatical. In each phrase, the core word is the word being defined - the noun in it. p. units or many h. Usually this is a generic term, that is, the name of a higher, more general concept in the classification.

Defining words are most often represented by adjectives. Their role is to clarify in a certain respect the generic (general) concept: for example, pneumonia adenoviralis - adenovirus pneumonia, p. apicalis - apical pneumonia, p. haefflorrhagica - hemorrhagic pneumonia, etc.

The most common meaning of defining words is the localization of the lesion: abscessus appendicis, ab. femoris, ab. parietis arteriae, ab. mesenterii, ab. poliicis, ab. bronchi, ab. peritonealis; ulcus pharyngis, etc.

Some phrases-internationalisms are included in the text in national languages traditionally in Latin grammatical form and transcription, for example, genu valgum (curved knee inside).

3. Fully segmentable motivated terms-words. Among the formal linguistic types of clinical terms, they are of the greatest interest in teaching the basics of medical terminology. Greek or, more rarely, Latin term elements with anatomical meaning act as the first motivating stems in compound words. The final components carry the main semantic load, perform (like suffixes) a classifying function.

Some of them correlate this concept with a certain group, a class of pathological phenomena (signs, conditions, diseases, processes), others with surgical operations or diagnostic techniques, etc. For example, terms with the initial term cardio- (Greek kardia - "heart"): cardiosclerosis, cardioneurosis, cardiomegalia, cardiolysis, cardiotomia, cardiographia, cardiotachometria, cardiovolumometria.

25. Ways of word formation. Deminutives

The main ways of word formation are affixal and non-affixal.

The affixal methods include the methods of forming derivatives by attaching word-forming affixes (prefixes, suffixes) to generating stems.

Non-affix methods are used mainly for the formation of compound words.

A word is complex if it consists of more than one generating stem. A compound word is formed by the method of basic construction.

A word in the structure of which there is only one generating stem is called simple: for example, costoarticularis is a compound word, a costalis and articularis are simple words.

There are also mixed ways of word formation: prefixation + suffixation, addition + suffixation, a way to create compound words, etc.

Deminutives- nouns with a common derivational meaning "diminutive".

A motivated diminutive noun (deminitive) retains the gender of the motivating word from which it is derived. These motivated words are inclined only according to the I or II declension, regardless of which declension the motivating word belongs to: for example, nodus, -i (m); nodulus; vas, vasis (n) vasculum.

1. Some artificially formed terms do not have a diminutive meaning; these are the designations of the stages of embryonic development: gastrula, blastula, morula, organella.

2. The nouns macula (spot), acetabulum (acetabulum) and some others also have a diminutive meaning.

26. Nouns with a common derivational meaning "action, process"

There are nouns in Latin that have certain suffixes with the general meaning "action, process".

1. Nouns of this very productive derivational type denote operations, examination methods, physiological functions, treatments, theoretical concepts in various disciplines: for example, auscultatio - auscultation, listening; percussio - percussion, tapping; palpatio - palpation, feeling.

All three terms refer to methods for examining internal organs.

There are derivatives in -io, denoting not only an action, a process, but also the result of this action, for example, decussatio - a cross (formation in the form of X); impresso - impression; terminatio - ending, end.

2. Among artificially formed words in -io, some do not come from a verb, but from a nominal stem, for example decapsulatio - decapsulation, surgical removal of an organ shell; hepatisatio - hepatization, compaction of lung tissue.

3. Nouns with a general derivational meaning "an object (organ, instrument, device) by which an action is performed; a person carrying out an activity."

4. Nouns with a common derivational meaning "result of action".

27. Suffixes of adjectives

I. Adjectives with a general derivational meaning "characterized or rich in a feature indicated by the generating basis."

II. Adjectives with the general derivational meaning "belonging to or relating to what is called the generative base".

III. Adjectives with a general derivational meaning "similar to what is called the stem of the word."

IV. Adjectives with a general derivational meaning "carrying what is called the generating basis."

V. Adjectives with a general derivational meaning:

1) "generating, producing, causing what is called the basis" (active meaning);

2) "generated, caused, conditioned by what is called the basis" (passive meaning).

28. Features of the foundation

1. As the most common word-formation means, with the help of which two or more generating stems are combined into a single word, an interfix, or a connecting vowel, is used. In medical terminology, the most common interfix is -o-, less often -i- is used. In the original words of the ancient Greek language, only the interfix -o- is used, Latin - -i-: for example, lat. aur-i-scalpium (auris - "ear" + scalpo - "scrape, cut") - ear cleaning; viv-i-ficatio (vivus - "live" + facio - "to do") - revival.

However, in artificial neologisms, this linguistic regularity has ceased to be observed. Regardless of origin, the interfix -o- is used (neur-o-cranium, cary-o-lysis, lept-o-meniux, lat. auropalpebraiis, lat. nasolacrimal, etc.). The first addition components are usually indicated in dictionaries and reference books along with the interfix: thoraco-, spondylo-. Non-interfix connection of components usually takes place, although not always, if the first component ends with a vowel or the second component begins with a vowel: for example, the term elements brady- (Greek bradys - "slow"): brady-cardia; brachy- (Greek brachys - "short"): brachy-dactylia; rhin- (Greek rhis, rhinos "nose"): rhin-encephalon.

2. Variation of the generating basis. In Latin and Greek, there are nouns and adjectives (III declension), in which the stems of word forms of the nominative and genitive cases differ: for example, cortex, cortic-is; Greek som-a, somat-os - "body"; Greek meg-as, megal-u - "big"; Greek pan, pant-os - "everything", etc. The basis of the genitive case acts as the generating basis of Latin words: pariet-o-graphia, cortic-o-visceralis; in Greek words, the stem of the genitive case also more often turns out to be the stem. At the same time, sometimes the generating stem appears in a variant form - either nominative or genitive, for example: pan-, pant - "everything" (pan-demia, pant-o-phobia), mega- - "big" (megacolon, megal -o-biastus).

There are also three-variant forms of the same term element: initial - haemo-, haemato-, final -aemia with the general meaning "related to blood" (haemo-globinum, haemato-logia, an-aemia).

3. Phonetic-graphic variation of the bases. Some Greek stems have experienced varying degrees of romanization. In some cases, the pronunciation was preserved, close to the Greek language, in others there was a convergence with the norm of the Latin language. As a result, the same morpheme can be spelled differently: Gr. cheir - "hand" - cheir and chir; Greek koinos - "general", "joint" - coenosis, koino-. Various transcriptions of the Greek word neuron are used - "nerve" in Russian terms: neurology, but neurosurgery; neuritis (axon) and neuritis (inflammation of the nerve).

29. Prefix

Prefixation, i.e., attaching a prefix morpheme (prefix) to the root, does not change its meaning, but only adds to this value a certain component indicating localization (above, below, front, back), direction (approach, distance), flow in time (before something, after something), the absence or denial of something.

Prefixes developed mainly from prepositions, so their direct meanings coincide with the meanings of the corresponding prepositions.

Some prefixes based on direct meanings have developed secondary, figurative ones. So, the Greek preposition-prefix para- (“near, near”) developed a figurative meaning “retreat, deviation from something, inconsistency of external manifestations of the essence of this phenomenon”: for example, para-nasalis - paranasal, but para-mnesia (Greek mnesis - "memory") - paramnesia - the general name for distortions of memories and deceptions of memory.

In descriptive names used in morphological disciplines, prefix term elements have a direct meaning. In terms expressing the concepts of pathological conditions, diseases, impaired organ functions, and the like, prefix term elements are often used with secondary meanings. In various subsystems of medical terminology and in biology, Greek and Latin prefixes are extremely widely used.

As a rule, Latin prefixes are attached to Latin roots, Greek - to Greek roots. However, there are exceptions, the so-called hybrids, for example, in the words epi-fascialis - suprafascial, endo-cervicalis - intra-cervical prefixes are Greek, and the producing bases are Latin. When prefixing, the whole word acts as a generating basis: intra-articularis - intra-articular.

Antonymic prefixes. An important role in the functioning of medical terms is played by antonymous prefixes, i.e. those whose meanings are opposite: for example, lat. intra- - "inside" and extra- - "outside", "outside", etc.

Latin-Greek doublet prefixes. The meanings of a number of Latin prefixes coincide with the meanings of certain Greek prefixes or are very close to them:

lat. media- - Greek. meso- "in the middle", "between".

When prefixes are attached to the stems, changes in the prefix may occur under the influence of the initial sound of the stem.

This is mainly manifested in assimilation (lat. assimilalio - "similarity", "similarity"): the final consonant in the prefix is fully or partially likened to the initial sound of the producing stem. Some Latin prefixes may have elision, that is, the loss of a final consonant. In the Greek prefixes ana-, dia-, cafa-, meta-, para-, and-, epi-, apo-, hypo-, meso-, elision is manifested in the disappearance of the final vowel before the initial vowel of the stem. This eliminates the possible gaping (vowel with vowel).

30. Infinitive

Depending on the nature of the stem - the final sound of the stem - verbs are divided into IV conjugations.

In conjugations I, II, IV, the stems end in a vowel, and in III - most often in a consonant.

The infinitive is an indefinite form. In order to correctly identify the stem and determine by its final sound which of the four conjugations this or that verb belongs to, it is necessary to remember the infinitive of this verb. The infinitive is the original form of the verb; it does not change in persons, numbers, and moods. The sign of the infinitive in all conjugations is the ending -re. In I, II and IV conjugations, it is attached directly to the stem, and in III - through the connecting vowel -e-.

Samples of the infinitive of verbs I-IV conjugations

In II and III conjugations, the vowel [e] differs not only in brevity or longitude: in II conjugation it is the final sound of the stem, and in III it is a connecting vowel between the stem and the ending.

The stem of the verb is practically determined from the infinitive form by separating the ending -re from the verbs of I, II, IV conjugations and -ere from the verbs of the III conjugation.

Unlike the usual complete dictionaries of the Latin language, in educational dictionaries for medical students the verb is given in an abbreviated dictionary form: the full form of the 1st person singular. the present tense of the indicative mood of the active voice (ending -o), then the ending of the infinitive -re is indicated together with the preceding vowel, i.e. the last three letters of the infinitive. At the end of the dictionary form, the conjugation is marked with a number, for example:

31. Imperative and subjunctive

In prescriptions, the doctor's appeal to the pharmacist about the preparation of a medicine has the character of an order, an inducement to a certain action. This meaning of the verb is expressed in the imperative or subjunctive mood.

As in Russian, the order is addressed to the 2nd person. Only the 2nd person singular form of the imperative is used in the recipe. This form completely coincides with the stem for verbs of I, II and IV conjugations, for verbs of III conjugation, -e is added to the stem.

In practice, to form an imperative, one must discard the infinitive ending -re for verbs of all conjugations, for example:

Imperative mood in the form of the 2nd person plural. h. is formed by adding the ending -te: for verbs of I, II, IV conjugations - directly to the stem, for verbs of III conjugation - with the help of the connecting vowel -i-(-ite).

Subjunctive mood

Meaning. The recipe uses only one of the many meanings of the Latin subjunctive mood - an order, a call to action.

The conjunctiva forms with this meaning are translated into Russian by a verb in combination with the word "let" or an indefinite form of the verb, for example: let it be mixed or mixed.

Education. The conjunctive is formed by changing the stem: in conjugation I, -a is replaced by -e, in II, III and IV, -a is added to the stem. Personal endings of verbs are added to the modified stem.

Formation of the basis of the conjunctiva

Latin verbs, like Russian ones, have 3 persons; in medical terminology, only the 3rd person is used. Personal endings of verbs in the 3rd person are shown in the table.

32. Conjunctiva. Accusative

Examples of conjugation of verbs in the conjunctive of the active and passive voices.

Accusative

For competent writing of recipes, it is necessary to learn the endings of two cases - the accusative and the so-called ablative - in five declensions of nouns and adjectives of I, II and III declensions. Accusativus (vin. p.) is the case of the direct object; as in Russian, answers the questions "whom?" So what?" For convenience, the endings of this case are first remembered separately, which have neuter nouns and adjectives, and then the endings of masculine and feminine nouns and adjectives. Middle rules. All neuter nouns and adjectives, regardless of their declension, obey the following rules.

1. End Ass. sing. coincides with the end of Nom. sing. given word: for example, linimentum compositum, semen dulce.

2. End Ass. pl. coincides with the end of Nom. pl. and regardless of the declension, always -a (-ia): for example, linimenta composita, semina dulcia.

Only nouns have the ending -ia cf. R. on -e, -al, -ar (III declension) and all adjectives of the 2nd group (III declension).

Male and female. Masculine and feminine nouns and adjectives in Ass. sing. have a common final element -m, and in Asc. pl. -s; they are preceded by certain vowels depending on the declension.

Ending -im in Asc. sing. accept Greek nouns with -sis like dosis, is (f) and some Latin nouns: pertussis, is (f).

33. Ablative. Prepositions

Ablativus- this is the case corresponding to the Russian instrumental case; answers the questions "by whom?", "what?". In addition, it performs the functions of some other cases.

Ablative endings are shown in the table

Ending -i in Abl. sing. accept:

1) nouns in -e, -al, -ar;

2) adjectives of the 2nd group;

3) equisyllabic nouns of Greek origin with -sis of the dosis type.

All prepositions in Latin are used with only two cases: accusative and ablative. The management of prepositions in Russian does not coincide with Latin.

1. Prepositions used with the accusative case.

2. Prepositions used with the ablative.

3. Prepositions used either with the accusative or with the ablative.

The prepositions in - "in", "on" and sub - "under" govern two cases, depending on the question posed. Questions "where?", "What?" require the accusative case, the questions "where?", "in what?" - ablative.

Examples of the use of prepositions with double control.

34. Form - cyclic, terminological

Pharmaceutical terminology is a complex consisting of a set of terms from a number of special disciplines, united under the general name "pharmacy" (Greek pharmakeia - the creation and use of drugs), which study the discovery, production, use of medicines of plant, mineral, animal and synthetic origin. The central place in this terminological complex is occupied by the nomenclature of medicines - an extensive set of names of medicinal substances and preparations officially approved for use. The pharmaceutical market uses tens and hundreds of thousands of names of medicines. The total number of medicines and their combinations available in different countries exceeds 250,000. Every year, the pharmacy chain receives new and new medicines.

In order to have an idea of how the names of medicines are created, which affects the choice of certain word-formation methods and structural types of names, it is necessary to familiarize yourself at least in the most general terms with some general pharmaceutical terms.

1. Medicinal product (medicamentum) - a substance or mixture of substances permitted by the authorized body of the relevant country in the prescribed manner for use for the purpose of treating, preventing or diagnosing a disease.

2. Medicinal substance (materia medica) - a medicinal product, which is an individual chemical compound or biological substance.

3. Medicinal plant materials - plant materials approved for medical use.

4. Dosage form (forma medicamentorum) - a condition convenient for use to a medicinal product or medicinal plant material, in which the desired therapeutic effect is achieved.

5. Medicinal product (praeparatum pharmaceuticum) - a drug in the form of a specific dosage form.

6. Active substance - a component (s) of a medicinal product that has (s) a therapeutic, prophylactic or diagnostic effect.

7. Combined medicines - medicines containing in one dosage form more than one active ingredient in fixed doses.

35. Trivial names of medicinal substances

Some chemical compounds used as medicinal substances retain the same traditional semi-systematic names that they received in chemical nomenclature (salicylic acid, sodium chloride).

However, in a much larger volume in the nomenclature of medicines, chemical compounds are presented not under their scientific (systematic) names, but under trivial (lat. trivialis - "ordinary") names. Trivial names do not reflect any unified principles of scientific classification adopted by chemists, do not indicate the composition or structure. In this respect, they are completely inferior to systematic names. However, the latter are unsuitable as the names of medicinal substances due to their bulkiness and complexity for use in prescriptions, on labels, and in the pharmacy trade.

Trivial names are short, convenient, accessible not only for professional, but also for ordinary communication.

Examples of trivial names

Ways of word formation of trivial names

Trivial drug names are derivatives of various word-formation structures. A word or a group of words, which are often systematic names of chemical compounds or names of sources for their production, is used as a producer. The main "building" material for the formation of trivial names is words, word-forming elements, roots and simply the so-called verbal segments of ancient Greek and Latin origin. So, for example, a drug from the herb Adonis spring (Adonis vernalis) is called Adonisidum - adonizide; a substance (glycoside) obtained from some species of the digitalis plant (Digitalis) is called Digoxinum - digoxin. The name Mentholum - menthol is assigned to a substance derived from mint oil (oleum Menthae).

Among the various methods of word formation used to create trivial names, the most productive is abbreviation (lat. brevis - "short") - reduction. This is a way of creating complex abbreviated words, the so-called abbreviations, by combining word segments arbitrarily selected from the corresponding producing words or phrases. As such, the systematic names of chemical compounds are often used.

With the help of abbreviation, the names of combined drugs are also formed. Instead of listing the names of all active substances contained in one dosage form, the drug is assigned a complex abbreviated name. It is placed in quotation marks and is an appendix to the name of the dosage form.

36. General requirements for the names of medicines

1. In Russia, the name of each new drug is officially approved in the form of two mutually translatable equivalents in Russian and Latin, for example: solutio Glucosi - glucose solution. As a rule, the Latin names of medicinal substances are nouns of the II declension, cf. R. The Russian name differs from the Latin only in transcription and the absence of the ending -um, for example: Amidopyrinum - amidopyrine, Validolum - validol. Trivial names of combined drugs, which are inconsistent applications to the name of the dosage form, are also nouns of the II declension cf. R.: for example, tabulettae "Haemostimulinum" - tablets "Hemostimulin".

2. The name of medicines should be as short as possible; easy to pronounce; have a clear phonetic-graphic distinction. The last requirement is especially important in practice.

Each name should be noticeably different in its sound composition and graphics (writing) from other names.

After all, it is enough to memorize the sound complex at least a little inaccurately and write it incorrectly in Latin letters in the recipe for a serious mistake to occur. A large number of drugs under the original brand names enter the domestic market. They are spelled out and grammatically most often in any national language, that is, they do not have a Latin grammatical design. Often the names do not have the ending -um completely (German) or partially (English) or the ending -um is replaced by -e (English and French), and in some languages (Italian, Spanish. , Rum.) - on -a.

At the same time, firms also assign names to their drugs with the traditional Latin ending -um. In domestic prescription practice, in order to avoid discrepancies, commercial names of imported drugs should be conditionally latinized: substitute the last vowel instead of the last vowel or add the ending -um to the final consonant, for example: instead of Mexase (mexase) - Mexasum, instead of Lasix (lasix) - Lasixum, etc. .

Exceptions are allowed only for names ending in -a: Dopa, Nospa, Ambravena. They can be read and considered by analogy with the nouns of the first declension.

In modern commercial names, the traditional scientifically approved transcription of word-forming elements (word segments) of Greek origin is often neglected; their graphic simplification is cultivated; to facilitate pronunciation, ph is replaced by f, th by t, ae by e, y by i.

37. Frequency segments in trivial names

A huge number of abbreviations, as noted, are formed by a combination of segments arbitrarily selected from the composition of generating words - systematic names.

At the same time, there are many such names in the nomenclature, the sound complexes of which include repeating frequency segments - a kind of pharmaceutical terminological elements.

1. Frequency segments, very conditionally and approximately reflecting information of anatomical, physiological and therapeutic nature.

For example: Corvalolum, Cardiovaienum, Valosedan, Apressinum, Angiotensinamidum, Promedolum, Sedalgin, Antipyrinum, Anaesthesinum, Testosteronum, Agovirin, Androfort, Thyrotropinum, Cholosasum, Streptocidum, Mycoseptinum, Enteroseptolum.

2. Frequency segments that carry pharmacological information. Over the past decades, the recommendation of the World Health Organization (WHO) has become widespread to include in the trivial names of medicinal substances (namely substances!) Frequency segments that carry not a random and vague characteristic, like the above segments, but stable information of a pharmacological nature.

For this purpose, it is recommended to include frequency segments in the names indicating that the medicinal substance belongs to a certain pharmacological group. To date, several dozen such frequency segments have been recommended. For example: Sulfadimezinum, Penicillinum, Streptomycinum, Tetracyclinum, Barbamylum, Novocainum, Corticotropinum, Oestradiolum, Methandrostenolonum.

Trivial names of vitamins and multivitamin combination medicines

Vitamins are known both under their trivial names and under letter designations, for example: Retinolum seu Vitaminum A (also known under another name - Axerophtholum); Cyanocobalaminum seu Vitaminum B12; Acidum ascorbinicum seu Vitaminum C. The names of many multivitamin preparations include the frequency segment -vit- - -vit-, for example, Tabulettae "Pentovitum" (contains 5 vitamins), Dragee "Hexavitum" (contains 6 vitamins), etc.

Trivial names of enzyme preparations

Often the names contain an indication that the drug affects the enzymatic processes of the body. This is evidenced by the presence of the suffix -as- - -az-. Such names are usually latinized according to the general rule, that is, they receive the ending -um. However, there are deviations from this rule: for example, Desoxyribonucleasum (or Desoxyribcnucleasa) is a deoxyribonuclease, Collagenasum is a collagenase.

38. Dosage forms

Aerosolum, -i (n)- aerosol - dosage form, which is a dispersed system obtained using special packaging.

Granulum, -i (n)- granule - a solid dosage form in the form of grains, grains.

Gutta, -ae (f)- drop - a dosage form intended for internal or external use in the form of drops.

Unguentum, -i (n)- ointment - a soft dosage form having a viscous consistency; designed for outdoor use.

Linimentum, -i (n)- liniment - liquid ointment.

Pasta, -ae (f)- paste - ointment with a content of powdery substances over 20-25%.

Emplastrum, -i (n)- patch - a dosage form in the form of a plastic mass, softening at body temperature and sticking to the skin; designed for outdoor use.

Suppository, -i (n)- suppository, suppository - a dosage form that is solid at room temperature and expands or dissolves at body temperature; injected into body cavities. If administered per rectum (through the rectum), it is called a suppository. If the suppository has the shape of a ball for insertion into the vagina, then it is called globulus vaginalis - a vaginal ball.

Pulvis, -eris (m)- powder - a dosage form intended for internal, external or injection (after dissolution in an appropriate solvent) use.

Tabuletta, -ae (f)- dosage form obtained by pressing medicinal

substances or mixtures of medicinal and excipients; intended for internal, external or injection (after dissolution in an appropriate solvent) use.

tabuletta obducta- coated tablet - a coated tablet designed to localize the site of action, taste; persistence, improved appearance.

Dragee (French)- dragee (not folded) - a solid dosage form obtained by layering medicines and excipients on granules.

Pilula, -ae (f)- pill - a solid dosage form in the form of a ball (weight 0.1-0.5 g) containing drugs and excipients.

Species, -ei (f)(usually in the plural Species, -erum) - a collection - a mixture of several types of crushed or whole medicinal raw materials for the preparation of infusions and decoctions.

C. amylacea seu oblate- a dosage form, which is a drug enclosed in a shell (made of gelatin, starch or another biopolymer); intended for internal use.

Seu Lamella ophthalmica- eye film - a dosage form in the form of a polymer film that replaces eye drops.

39. Liquid dosage forms. Name of drugs

Solutio, -onis (f)- solution - a dosage form obtained by dissolving one or more medicinal substances; intended for injection, internal or external use.

Suspensio, -onis (f)- suspension - a liquid dosage form, which is a dispersed system in which a solid substance is suspended in a liquid; intended for internal, external or injection use.

Emulsum, -i (n)- emulsion - a liquid dosage form, which is a dispersed system consisting of mutually insoluble liquids; intended for internal, external or injection use.

Tinctura, -ae (f)- tincture - dosage form, which is an alcohol, alcohol-ether, alcohol-water transparent extract from medicinal plant materials; Designed for indoor or outdoor use.

Infusum, -i(n)- infusion - dosage form, which is an aqueous extract from medicinal plant materials; Designed for indoor or outdoor use.

Decoctum, -i (n)- decoction - infusion, characterized by the mode of extraction.

Sirupus, -i (m) (medicinalis)- syrup - a liquid dosage form intended for internal use.

Extractum, -i (n)- extract - dosage form, which is a concentrated extract from medicinal plant materials; designed for indoor or outdoor use.

Names of drugs.

1. If the dosage form given to a medicinal substance or herbal raw material is indicated in the name of the preparation, then the name begins with its designation, followed by the name of the medicinal substance or raw material.

Tabulettae Analgini - analgin tablets, Pulvis Ampicillini - ampicillin powder, etc.

2. The name of the combined medicinal product accompanying the designation "dosage form" is a noun in it. etc., placed in quotation marks as an inconsistent application to the designation "dosage form", for example: Tabulettae "Urosalum" - tablets "Urosal", Unguentum "Calendula" - ointment "Calendula", etc.

3. In the names of infusions and decoctions, between the designations "Dosage form" and "Plants" is in the genus. n. name of the type of raw material (leaf, herb, bark, root, flowers, etc.), for example: Infusum florum Chamomillae - infusion of chamomile flowers, Infusum radicis Valerianae - infusion of valerian root, etc.

4. An agreed definition characterizing the dosage form takes the last place in the name of the drug: for example, Unguentum Hydrargyri cinereum - gray mercury (mercury) ointment, Solutio Synoestroli oleosa - solution of sinestrol in oil (oily), Solutio Tannini spirituosa alcohol tannin solution, Extractum Belladonnae siccum - extract of belladonna (belladonna) dry.

40. Recipe

Recipe(receptum - "taken" from recipio, -ere - "take", "take") - this is a written prescription from a doctor to a pharmacist, drawn up in a certain form, about the manufacture, issuance and method of using a medicine. A prescription is an important legal document that must be drawn up in accordance with official rules. Prescriptions are written on a standard form with a size of 105 x 108 mm clearly and legibly, without blots and corrections, in ink or a ballpoint pen. Doctors who have the right to issue prescriptions are required to indicate their position and rank in them, sign and certify it with a personal seal.

The following parts are usually distinguished in the recipe.

1. Inscriptio - a stamp of a medical institution and its code.

2. Datum - the date the prescription was issued.

3. Nomen aegroti - surname and initials of the patient.

4. Aetas aegroti - the age of the patient.

5. Nomen medici - the surname and initials of the doctor.

6. Praescriptio - "prescription" in Latin, which consists of invocatio - a standard address to a doctor, Rp .: - Recipe - "take" and designatio materiarum - designations of substances indicating their quantity.

7. Subscriptio - "signature" (lit. "written below" the designation of substances) - a part in which some instructions are given to the pharmacist: about the dosage form, the number of doses, the type of packaging, about issuing the medicine to the patient, etc.

8. Signature - a designation, a part that begins with the verb signa or signetur - "to designate", "to designate". Then follows in Russian and (or) the national language an indication to the patient about the method of taking the medicine.

9. Nomen et sigillum personaie medici - the signature of a doctor, sealed with a personal seal.

Each drug is prescribed on a separate prescription line and with a capital letter. The names of medicinal substances and plants inside the line are also written with a capital letter.

The names of medicinal substances or preparations grammatically depend on their dose (amount) and are put in the gender. P.

Prescription rules

41. Use of the accusative case when prescribing tablets and suppositories

There are various approaches to naming tablets and suppositories.

1. Medicinal preparations of a combined composition are assigned a trivial and most often abbreviated name, placed in quotation marks: for example, tabulettae "Codterpinum" - tablets "Codterpin"; suppositoria "Neo-anusolum" - candles "Neo-anusol".

The trivial names of tablets or suppositories are in them. p. units hours and are inconsistent applications. The dose, as a rule, is not indicated, since it is standard.

2. If the suppositories consist of one active medicinal substance, then its name is attached to the name of the dosage form using the preposition cum and put in the ablative indicating the dose; for example: Suppositoria cum Cordigito 0.0012 - candles with cordigite 0.0012.

3. If the tablets consist of one active medicinal substance, then after indicating the dosage form, its name is put in the genus. n. with the designation of the dose; for example: Tabulettae Cordigiti 0.0008 - Cordigita tablets 0.0008.

4. When prescribing tablets and suppositories in prescriptions in an abbreviated way, the name of the dosage form is put in wines. n. pl. hours (tabulettas, tabulettas obductas, suppositoria, suppositoria rectalia), since it is grammatically dependent on the Recipe, and not on the dose.

In a similar way (in win. p. pl.) eye films (lamellae ophthalmicae) are prescribed: the name of the medicinal substance is introduced using the preposition cum and put in the ablative, for example: Recipe: Lamellas ophthalmicas cum Florenalo numero 30.

5. With an abbreviated way of prescribing tablets and suppositories with one ingredient, you can put the name of the dosage form in Asc. sing. (tabulettam, suppository). In this case, the prescription ends with the standard wording Da (Dentur) tales doses numero... For example:

Recipe: Tabulettam Digoxini 0.0001

Da tales doses numero 12

Recipe: Suppositorium cum Ichthyolo 0.2

Da tales doses numero 10.

6. A prescription for tablets is also common, in which the name of the medicinal substance and its single dose are indicated, ending with the designation of the number of tablets in the standard formulation Da (Dentur) tales doses numero ... in tabulettis. - Give out such doses in number ... in tablets, for example:

Recipe: Digoxini 0.0001

Da tales doses numero 12 in tabulettis.

42. Name of chemical elements

Names of acids

Latin semi-systematic and trivial names of acids consist of the noun acidum, -i (n) - "acid" and the adjective of the 1st group agreed with it. The suffix -ic-um or -os-um is added to the basis of the name of the acid-forming element.

The suffix -ic- indicates the maximum degree of oxidation and corresponds in Russian adjectives to the suffixes -n-(aya), -ev-(aya) or -ov-(aya), for example: acidum sulfur-ic-um - ser-n-aya acid; acidum barbitur-ic-um - barbituric acid; acidum fol-ic-um - folic acid.

The suffix -os- indicates a low degree of oxidation and corresponds to the Russian adjective with the suffix -ist-(aya); for example: acidum sulfur-os-um - sulfuric acid; acidum nitr-os-um - nitrogen-ist acid.

Adjectives in the names of anoxic acids include the prefix hydro-, the basis of the name of the acid-forming element, and the suffix -ic-um.

In the Russian nomenclature of drugs, this corresponds to the adjective with endings -hydrogen (acid), for example: ac. hydro-brom-ic-um - hydrobromo-ic-hydrogen acid.

Names of oxides

The names of oxides consist of two words: the first is the name of the element (cation) in the genus. n. (inconsistent definition), the second - the group name of the oxide (anion) in them. pad. (inclined).

The segment -oxy- indicates the presence of oxygen, and the prefixes specify the structure of the compound: oxydum, -i (n) - oxide; peroxydum, -i (n) - peroxide; hydroxydum, -i (n) - hydroxide. The Russian name also uses the same word order as in the international (Latin).

Names of salts

The names of salts are formed from two nouns: the name of the cation, which comes first in the genus. etc., and the name of the anion, which is in second place in them. n. Some names of ethers are formed in the same way.

The names of anions are formed by adding the standard suffixes -as, -is, -idum to the roots of the Latin names of acids.

With the suffixes -as and -is they form the names of anions in salts of oxygen acids, and with the suffix -id-um - in salts of oxygen-free acids. The names of anions with suffixes -as, -is - nouns of the III declension m. (an exception to the gender rule), and the names of anions with the suffix -id-um are nouns of the second declension cf. R.

Names of anions

The names of anions of basic salts are formed with the prefix sub-, and the names of anions of acid salts are formed with the prefix hydro-, for example: subgallas, -atis (m) - basic gallate; hydrocarbonas, -atis (f) - hydrocarbonate.

43. Numerals and numeral prefixes

Numerals

In Latin, cardinal numbers do not affect the case of their nouns. Of the cardinal numbers, only unus, a, um are declined; duo, duae, duo; tres, tria. A number of medical terms are formed with the help of prefixes. Numerals prefixes of Latin origin prevail in the anatomical nomenclature, and Greek - in clinical terminology and in the nomenclature of medicines.

Numerals-prefixes

44. Adverbs and pronouns

Adverbs are of 2 types according to the way they are formed:

1) independent adverbs, for example: statim - immediately, saepe - often;

2) derivatives from adjectives.

Adverbs from adjectives I-II are formed by adding the suffix -e to the stem, for example: asepticus, a, um - aseptice - aseptically (under aseptic conditions). From adjectives III declension adverbs are formed by adding the suffix -iter to the stem, and from adjectives on -ns - the suffix -er, for example: siertlis, -e - steriliter - sterile; recens, -ntis - recenter - fresh (fresh-).

Some adjectives in the form of wines are also used as adverbs. p. units h. wed R. or in the form of an ablative with the ending -o, for example: multus, a, um - multum - a lot; facilis, with - facile - easy; citus, a, um - ciro - quickly, soon.

As adverbs of the comparative degree, the form cf. R. adjectives of this degree. Superlative adverbs are formed from the superlative degree of an adjective with the suffix -e: citius - faster, citissime - fastest.

Adverbs used in the recipe.

1. If you need to urgently issue a medicine at the top of the prescription form, the doctor writes: Cito! - Fast! or Statim! - Immediately! Immediately!

2. If two (or more) ingredients are prescribed in a row in the same dose, then this dose is indicated only once with the last of them, and Greek is placed before the figure. ana (aa) - equally.

3. When prescribing suppositories in a detailed way, the amount of cocoa butter can be indicated exactly in grams or by means of the expression quantum satis - "how much" - the pharmacist himself must calculate the right amount.

Pronouns

Personal pronouns:

1st person: ego - I, nos - we;

2nd person: tu - you, vos - you.

There are no personal pronouns of the 3rd person in Latin; instead of them, demonstrative pronouns is, ea, id are used - that, that, that or he, she, it.

Usually, there is no personal pronoun as a subject for a Latin verb, and when translated into Russian, it is added, for example: homo sum - I am a person.

The reflexive pronoun sui - itself, as in Russian, does not have the form im. n. and is used only in relation to the 3rd person.

Professional expressions with pronouns:

1) with a personal pronoun in Abl.: pro me - for me;

2) with a reflexive pronoun in Ass.: per se - in its purest form.

Possessive pronouns: mens, a, um - mine; tuns, a, um - yours; noster, tra, trum - ours; vester, tra, trum - yours.

Relative pronouns: qui, quae, quod - which, -th, -oe; what, -th, -th; something that is often found in aphorisms, for example: Qui scribit, bis legit. - Who writes - reads twice. Quod licet Jovi, non licet bovi. - What is allowed to Jupiter is not allowed to the bull.

45. Active participle

Active Present Participle

Unlike Russian, Latin has only one participle for each tense: the present participle of the active voice and the past participle of the passive voice. Most of the participles used in medical terminology act only as definitions for nouns. These are adjective participles, for example: dentes permanentes - permanent teeth, cysta congenita - congenital cyst, aqua destiilata - distilled water, etc.

Present participles of the active voice are formed from the stem of the present tense verb by adding the suffix -ns in I, II conjugations, and the suffix -ens in III, IV conjugations. In the genus p. units h. all participles end in -ntis (-nt-end of stem).

For example, the formation of participles:

Present participles of the active voice are declined according to the III declension, like adjectives of the 2nd group with one ending like recens, -ntis.

They have endings in Nom. pl. -es for m, f; -ia for n; in Gen. pl. - -ium for all three genders, for example: communicare - to connect.

Passive past participles

In Latin, as well as in Russian, such participles are verbal adjectives.

They are formed from the stem of the so-called supine (one of the main forms of the verb ending in -urn) by adding the generic endings -us, -a, um to it.

Forming the Past Participles of the Passive Voice

The basis of the supine is determined by discarding the ending -um from the form of the supine. The base of the supine usually ends in -t, -x, -s. In philological dictionaries, Latin verbs are given in four main forms: 1st person singular. h. vr.; 1st person singular h. perfect (perfect past tense); supine; infinitive, for example: misceo, mixi, mixtum, ere (II); solvo, solvi, solutum, ere (III).

46. Latin-Russian dictionary А-В

abductor, -oris, m (m. abductor) - abductor muscle

accessorius, -a, um - additional

acetabulum, -i, n - acetabulum

acusticus, -a, -um - auditory

oris m (m. adductor) - adductor muscle

adhaesio, -onis, f - fusion

adiposus, -a, um - fatty

aditus, -us, m - input

adnexa, -orum, n - appendages

afferens, -ntis, - bringing

affixus, -a, -um, - attached

ala, -ae, f - wing

apex, -icis, m - apex

arachnoideus, -a, -um - gossamer

arcus, -us, m - arc

balneum, -i, n - bath

balsamum, -i, n - balm

basis, -is, f - base, base

benignus, -a, -um - benign

biceps, cipitis - two-headed

bilateralis, -e, - bilateral

biliaris, -e, - bile

bilifer, -era, -erum - bile (bile)

bilis, -is, f - bile

bolus, -i, f - clay

brachium, -i, n - shoulder

brevis, -e - short

bronchus, -i, m - bronchus

bubo, -onis, m - bubo (a lymph node enlarged as a result of inflammation)

bucca, -ae, f - cheek

bursa, -ae, f - bag

47. Latin-Russian Dictionary C-D

caecum, -i, n - caecum

callosus, -a, -um - calloused

caput, -itis, n - head; head

cartilago, -inis, f - cartilage

cavernosus, -a, -um - cavernous

cavitas, -atis, f - cavity

cellula, -ae, f - cell

cerebrum, -i, n - big brain

cervix, -icis, f - neck; neck

circumferentia, -ae, f - circumference

clavicula, -ae, f - clavicle

coccyx, -ygis, m - coccyx

commissura, -ae, f - spike

concha, -ae, f - shell

cor, cordis, n - heart

costa, -ae, f - rib

cranium, -i, n - skull

dens, dentis, m - tooth

depuratus, -a, -um - cleaned (by mechanical means)

descendens, -ntis - descending

dexter, -tra, -trum - right

digestio, -onis, f - digestion

digitus, -i, m - finger

dilatatus, -a, -um - extended

diploe, -es, f - diploe (spongy substance of the bones of the cranial vault)

discus, -i, m - disc

dolor, -oris, m - pain

dorsum, -i, n - rear, back, back

dubius, -a, -um - doubtful

ductulus, -i, m - groove, tubule

ductus, -us, m - duct

duplex, -icis, - double

durus, -a, -um - hard

dysuria, -ae, f - dysuria (urination disorder)

48. Latin-Russian Dictionary E-F

ejaculatorius, -a, -um - ejaculatory

embolicus, -a, -um - embolic

embryo, -onis, m - embryo

eminentia, -ae, f - eminence

emissarius, -a, -um - emissary (issuing, withdrawing)

enamelum, -i, n - enamel

encephalon, -i, n - brain

epididymis, -idis, f - epididymis

epiglottis, -idis, f - epiglottis

eponychium, -i, n - supranail plate

epophoron, -i, n - ovarian epididymis

equinus, -a, -um - horse

ethmoidals, -e, - ethmoid

excavatio, -onis, f - deepening

extensor, -oris, m (m. extensor) - extensor muscle

externus, -a, -um - external

extremitas, -atis, f - end

facialis, -e - facial

fades, -ei, f - face; surface

falx, falcis, f - serp

fasciculus, -i, m - bundle

fauces, -ium, f - pharynx

femina, -ae, f - woman

femur, -oris, n - thigh, femur

fenestra, -ae, f - window

fibra, -ae, f - fiber

flexor, -oris, m (m. flexor) - flexor muscle

flexura, -ae, f - bend

fonticulus, -i, m - fontanel

foramen, -inis, n - hole

fornix, -icis, m - vault

fossa, -ae, f - fossa

fovea, -ae, f - fossa

funiculus, -i, m - cord

49. Latin-Russian Dictionary G-H

galactocele, -es, f - galactocele, milk cyst

ganglion, -i, n - ganglion, (nerve) node

gaster, -tris, f - stomach

gastralgia, -ae, f - gastralgia (stomach pain)

gemma, -ae, f - bud (plants)

geniculatus, -a, -um - cranked

genu, -us, n - knee

gingiva, -ae, f - gum

glandula, -ae, f - gland

glomus, -eris, n - glomus (tangle)

gluteus, -a, um - gluteal

granulosus, -a, -um - granular

granulum, -i, n - granule

gravida, -ae, f - pregnant

gutta, -ae, f - drop

gyrus, -i, m - gyrus

habenula, -ae, f - leash (paired formation of the epithalamus connecting the epiphysis with the diencephalon)

haema, -atis, n - blood

hallux, -ucis, m - big toe

helix, -icis, f - curl

hemispherium, -i, n - hemisphere

hernia, -ae, f - hernia (pathological protrusion of an organ)

hiatus, -us, m - cleft, gap, hole

hilum, -i, n - gate

humeroulnaris, -e - humerulnar

humerus, -i, m - humerus

humor, -oris, m - moisture

hymen, -enis, m - hymen

hyoideus, -a, -um, - sublingual

hypochondrium, -i, n - hypochondrium

hypogastrium, -i, n - hypogastrium

50. Latin-Russian Dictionary I-J-K

impressio, -onis, f - impression

imperfectus, -a, um - imperfect

incisivus, -a, -um - incisive

incisura, -ae, f - tenderloin

inclinatio, -onis, f - inclination

incus, -udis, f - anvil

index, -icis, m - index finger

infans, -ntis, m, f - child, child

inferior, -ius, - lower

infraspinatus, -a, -um - subacute

initialis, -e, - initial

intentio, -onis, f - tension

interstitialis, -e - intermediate

intestinum, -i, n - gut

iris, idis, f - iris

ischium, -i, n - seat

isthmus, -i, m - isthmus

jejunalis, -e - jejunal

jejunum, -i, n - jejunum

jugularis, -e - jugular

jugum, -i, n - elevation

junctio, -onis, f - connection

juvans, -ntis, - helping, auxiliary

juvenilis, -e, - youthful

juventus, -utis, f - youth

keloidum, -i, n - keloid (tumor-like growth of the connective tissue of the skin, mainly scars)

keratitis, -idis, f - keratitis (inflammation of the cornea)

keratoma, -atis, n - keratoma (tumor-like thickening of the stratum corneum of the epidermis)

keratomalacia, -ae, f - keratomalacia (melting of the cornea)

keratoplastica, -ae, f - keratoplasty (corneal plastic surgery)

keratotomia, -ae, f - keratotomy (cornea dissection)

Khellinum, -i, n - khellinum

kinesia, -ae, f - kinesia (motor activity)

kyematogenesis, -is, f - kyematogenesis (the process of intrauterine development of the organism)

51. Latin-Russian Dictionary L-M

labium, -i, n - lip

lacrima, -ae, f - tear

lamella, -ae, f - film

larynx, -ngis, m - larynx

latens, -ntis - latent, hidden

lateralis, -e - lateral, lateral

lemniscus, -i, m - loop

lens, lentis, f - lens

liber, -era, -erum - free

lien, -enis, m - spleen

ligamentum, -i, n - ligament

limen, -inis, n - threshold

lingua, -ae, f - language

lobus, -i, m - share

longitudinalis, -e - longitudinal

lumbi, -orum, m - waist

lunula, -ae, f - lunula

magnus, -a, -um - large (posit. degree)

major, -jus - large (comparative degree)

mandibula, -ae, f - lower jaw

manus, -us, f - brush

margo, -inis, m - edge

mastoideus, -a,um - mastoid

maxilla, -ae, f - upper jaw

meatus, -us, m - passage

medius, -a, -um - medium

medulla, -ae, f - brain, medulla

membrana, -ae, f - membrane

membrum, -i, n - limb

minor, -us - small (comparative degree)

morbus, -i, m - disease

mors, mortis, f - death

mucilago, - inis, f - mucus

musculus, -i, m - muscle

52. Latin-Russian Dictionary N-O

naevus, -i, m - nevus, birthmark

narcosis, -is, f - anesthesia

nasalis, -e - nasal

nasofrontalis, -e - nasofrontal

nasolabialis, -e - nasolabial

nasolacrimalis, -e - nasolacrimal

nasus, -i, m - nose

natura, -ae, f - nature

naturalis, -e - natural

neonatus, -i, m - newborn

nervosus, -a, -um - nervous

nervus, -i, m - nerve

neuralgia, -ae, f - neuralgia (pain along the nerve)

neuronum, -i, n - neuron

nodus, -i, m - node

nomen, -inis, n - name, denomination

nuchalis, -e - out

numerus, -i, m - number

nutricius, -a, -um - nutritious

obductus, -a, -um - coated

obliquus, -a, -um - oblique

oblongatus, -a, -um - oblong

occiput, -itis, n - back of the head

oculus, -i, m - eye

oedema, -atis, n - edema

oesophagus, -i, m (esophagus, -i, m) - esophagus

omentum, -i, n - omentum

ophthalmicus, -a, -um - eye

orbita, -ae, f - eye socket

organum, -i, n - organ

or, oris, n - mouth

os, ossis, n - bone

os coccygis, n - coccyx

os sacrum, n - sacrum

ossiculum, -i, n - bone

ovarium, -i, n - ovary

53. Latin-Russian Dictionary P-Q

palatum, -i, n - palate

palpebra, -ae, f - eyelid

pancreas, -atis, n - pancreas

papilla, -ae, f - nipple, papilla

papula, -ae, f - papule, nodule

paries, -etis, m - wall

partus, -us, m - childbirth

parvus, -a, -um - small (positive degree)

pecten, -inis, m - comb

pedunculus, -i, m - leg

pelvis, -is, f - pelvis; pelvis

persistens, -ntis, - persistent

pes, pedis, m - foot

phalanx, -ngis, f - phalanx

pharynx, -ngis, m - pharynx

pilus, -i, m - hair

planus, -a, -um - flat

plexus, -us, m - plexus

pons, pontis, m - bridge

porta, -ae, f - gate

posterior, -ius - rear

primus, -a, -um - first, primary

protuberantia, -ae, f - ledge

pubes, -is, f - pubis

pupilla, -ae, f - pupil

quadrangularis, -e - quadrangular

quadratus, -a, -um - square

quadriceps, cipitis - four-headed

quantum - how much

quartus, -a, -um - fourth

Quercus, -us, f - oak

quintus, -a, -um - fifth

53. Latin-Russian Dictionary R-S

radius, -i, m - radius

radix, -icis, f - root, spine

ramus, -I, m - branch

reconvalescentia, -ae, f - recovery

rectum, -i, n - rectum

regio, -onis, f - region

ren, renis, m - kidney

renalis, -e - renal

resectio, -onis, f - resection (removal of part of an organ with the connection of its saved parts)

retina, -ae, f - retina

retinaculum, -i, n - retainer

retroflexus, -a, -um - backward curved

rhinalis, -e - nasal

rostrum, -i, n - beak

rotationatio, -onis, f - rotation

rotundus, -a, -um - round

ruber, -bra, -brum - red

ruga, -ae, f - fold

ruptura, -ae, f - gap

saccus, -I, m - bag

saliva, -ae, f - saliva

salpinx, -ngis, f - fallopian tube

sanguis, -inis, m - blood

scapula, -ae, f - scapula

sectio caesarea - caesarean section

segmentum, -i, n - segment

sella, -ae, f - saddle

semen, -inis, n - seed

sensus, -us, m - feeling, feeling

septum, -i, n - partition

siccus, -a, -um - dry

simplex, -icis - simple

sinister, -tra, -trum - left

55. T-U Latin-Russian Dictionary

tabuletta, -ae, f - tablet

tardus, -a, -um, - slow

tarsus, -i, m - tarsus; eyelid cartilage

tegmen, -inis, n - roof

temporalis, -e - temporal

tempus, -oris, n - time

tendo, -inis, m - tendon

tensor, -oris, m (m. tensor) - tensing muscle

tenuis, -e - thin

teres, -etis - round

terminatio, -onis, f - ending

testis, -is, m - testicle

tetraboras, -atis, m - tetraborate

Tetracyclinum, -i, n - tetracycline

textus, -us, m - cloth

thoracicus, -a, -um - chest

thorax, -acis, m - chest, chest

thymus, -i, m - thymus, thymus gland

thyroideus, -a, -um - thyroid

tibia, -ae, f - tibia

tinctura, -ae, f - tincture

tonsilla, -ae, f - tonsil

traumaticus, -a, -um - traumatic

tremor, -oris, m - tremor

trochlearis, -e - block

truncus, -us, m - trunk, torso

tuba, -ae, f - pipe

tubarius, -a, -um - trumpet

tuber, -eris, n - hillock

ulcus, -eris, n - ulcer (festering or inflamed wound on the surface of the skin or mucous membrane)

ulna, -ae, f - ulna

ulnaris, -e - elbow

umbilicalis, -e - umbilical

umbo, -onis, m - navel

uncus, -i, m - hook

unguis, -is, m - nail

ureter, -eris, m - ureter

urethra, -ae, f - urethra, urethra

urina, -ae, f - urine

56. Latin-Russian Dictionary V-X-Z

vagina, -ae, f - vagina

valva, -ae, f - valve

valvula, -ae, f - damper, valve

vas, vasis, n - vessel

vena, -ae, f - vein

venenum, -i, n - poison

venter, -tris, m - abdomen (muscles)

ventriculus, -i, m - ventricle; stomach

venula, -ae, f - venule (small vein)

vermiformis, -e - worm-like

vermis, -is, m - worm

vertebra, -ae, f - vertebra

vertex, -icis, m - top; crown

verus, -a, -um - true

vesica, -ae, f - bubble

vestibulum, -i, n - vestibule

via, -ae, f - path

vinculum, -i, n - bunch

viscera, -um, n - internal organs

visus, -us, m - vision

vita, -ae, f - life

vitium, -i, n - vice

vitrum, -i, n - bottle, test tube

vivus, -a, -um - alive

vomer, -eris, m - coulter

vortex, -icis, m - curl

xanthoerythrodermia, -ae, f - xanthoerythrodermia (yellowish-orange coloration of the skin due to the deposition of cholesterol or lipids in it)

xiphosternalis, -e - xiphosternal

zonula, -ae, f - girdle

zoster, -eris, m (herpes zoster) - herpes zoster

zygomaticomaxillaris, -e - zygomaticomaxillary

zonularis, -e - girdle

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KAZAKHSTAN-RUSSIAN MEDICAL UNIVERSITY

ABSTRACT

PROFESSIONAL LANGUAGE OF MEDICINE

Completed by: KOZHAKHANOVA D

Student of group 206 A DENTISTRY

Professional language of doctors

The unchanging language of science

Literary sources

Professional language of doctors

Non est via in medicina sine lingua Latina

(There is no way in medicine without the Latin language)

To fully master any profession, a person must necessarily know the terminology of his specialty. The history of Europe has developed in such a way that the basic terminology of most sciences, including medicine, is based on the words of Latin and Greek. But, perhaps, there is no other such professional activity in which the centuries-old world experience would be reflected as directly as in the composition of the professional language of a doctor, because one of the disciplines that are of great importance in the training of specialists in the field of medicine and pharmacy is undoubtedly Latin. the language that one encounters in everyday work - when reading the names of diseases, anatomical and clinical terms, the names of medicinal raw materials, botanical terms, accepted in the International Nomenclature for the Names of Chemical Compounds, and especially in the formulation.

A modern doctor, even when he speaks Russian on a professional topic, uses more than 60% of the words of Latin and Greek origin. And this is not surprising, because it is well known that the terminologies of various sciences, including those that have arisen relatively recently, have been replenished and continue to be replenished due to the active involvement, direct or indirect, of the vocabulary and word-formation means of these two classical languages of the ancient world.

History of medical terminology

The Latin language is one of the dead languages, since now there is no living people - the native speaker of this language. But for its creators, at one time it was alive. The history of the Latin language dates back to the beginning of the first millennium BC. and belongs to the Italic branch of the Indo-European family of languages. It is called that way: Lingua Latina because it was spoken by the Latins who inhabited the small region of Latium. The center of this area in the VIII century BC. became the city of Rome, so the inhabitants of Latium also began to call themselves "Romans" (Romani). To the northwest of the Romans lived the Etruscans - the people of an ancient highly developed culture. They had a huge impact on the cultural development of all of Italy, especially Rome, many Etruscan words entered the Latin language, although Etruscan itself is much different from it. Other languages of Italy, the most important of which are Os and Umbrian, are related to Latin and were gradually replaced by it.

Over time, the Roman language became the official language of the Roman Empire, which included until the 5th century AD. all countries of the Mediterranean basin, including the territories of modern Italy, Spain, France, Greece, as well as parts of Britain, Germany, Romania, Hungary and other countries. Having conquered in the II century BC. Ancient Greece, a country with a highly developed culture, the Romans adopted the achievements of Greek science, including medicine. Many Greek words entered the Latin language, which have survived to this day, mainly in medical names - anatomical, therapeutic, pharmacological, etc. Greek terms, while retaining their basis, were latinized and gradually gained international recognition and distribution, for example: arteria - artery, aorta - aorta, etc.

This medicine was a model of the entire Roman state, it contains many names of outstanding doctors. The names of the ancient god of healing Asclepius (Aesculapius) and his daughters Hygieia and Panakia became symbols of ancient, and then European medicine.

Greek mythology brought to us the story of his birth, life, heroic deeds, death and resurrection. Asclepius was the son of Apollo and Coronis, daughter of the fiery titan Phlegius. And since Apollo was a god, and Koronis was mortal, she could not reveal the secrets of her pregnancy and was forcibly married to her cousin, the titan Ischius. Upon learning of this, Apollo, in a wild rage, struck Ischius with his arrows, and Koronis became the victim of the wrath of Artemis, the guardian of female chastity, who killed her. But Apollo managed to perform a "caesarean section" and snatch the newborn baby from the mother's funeral pyre. He took his son to Mount Pelion and entrusted his education to the centaur Chiron, with whom the further mythological fate of Asclepius is inextricably linked.

The centaur Chiron was an excellent musician and gymnast, a well-aimed shooter and a connoisseur of Nature, a soothsayer and a skilled doctor. According to legend, he lived on Mount Pelion and taught young heroes, titans and demigod heroes in various branches of knowledge and arts: law, astronomy, hunting, music and medicine. Many heroes of Homer's works were considered Chiron's disciples: Nestor, Achilles, Patroclus, as well as the sons of Apollo, Aristaeus and Asclepius.

He learned that snake venom can bring not only death, but also healing. So the snake became the companion of Asclepius, and many centuries later people portrayed the father of medicine with the dog that fed him and with the snake. With the help of Chiron, Asclepius became a great healer of human suffering. His wife - Epiona - gave birth to his sons Machaon and Podaliria and daughters Hygieia and Panacea (Panakia). Asclepius learned to cast out burning pain and scare away ailments released from the casket by unreasonable Pandora. But Chiron could not put into the soul of the student the disinterestedness inherent in him. Asclepius was somehow seduced by gold and brought the deceased back to life. Zeus was outraged not by the extortion of the healer - he endured this evil, but he was seized by the fear that Asclepius would give people immortality and make them equal to the gods. And Zeus struck him with his lightning bolts. Thanks to the cares of the loving father Apollo, the body of Asclepius was delivered to Olympus - so after death he was deified and became a god. Subsequently, the Romans, who borrowed the pantheon of Greek gods, named Asclepius Aesculapius.

The Romans borrowed their scientific knowledge along with scientific terminology from the Greeks. When creating medical terminology in Latin, Greek words were latinized and actively replenished the vocabulary of the doctors of Ris.

Ancient Greek medicine is primarily associated with the name of its founder, the famous Hippocrates, who lived around 460-377. BC. He became the "father of scientific European medicine." The name of this Greek doctor and teacher is associated in the minds of most people with the famous oath written by him, which symbolizes the high ethical standards of European medicine. The work entitled "Corpus Hippocraticum" (Corpus Hippocraticum) contains about 70 separate works, although it is clear that some of them are parts of the once unified works. The collection contains both Hippocrates' own writings and works by other authors written at different times. It has been suggested that the corpus is the remains of a medical library rather than the work of authors belonging to the same school. Some of the writings testify to the development of scientific thought and the skill of clinical observations and are therefore considered more "authentic" than others. But even on this issue there is no generally accepted opinion: there are researchers who generally doubt the existence of works belonging to Hippocrates himself. Apparently, the corps was formed and attributed to Hippocrates already in the 1st century BC. AD, when Erotian, the physician of the era of the reign of Nero, compiled a dictionary of hippocratic terms. Commentaries on the most important Hippocratic writings written by Galen in the 2nd century BC have been preserved. AD Some treatises of the corpus date back to the time of the life of Hippocrates, others, apparently, date back to the 3rd-4th centuries. BC. Probably by the 5th c. BC. refers to the treatise On ancient medicine, which discusses the problem of teaching the art of healing. Its author (perhaps not Hippocrates) rejects the explanation of the disease by the interaction of natural-philosophical "basic qualities" (warm, cold, wet, dry), points to the importance of diet and the role of certain "juices" of the body. He emphasizes that medicine deals with relative rather than absolute factors: what is good for one may be harmful for another, or what is good at one time may be harmful at another.

In the "Hippocratic Corpus", the foundations of scientific medical terminology were laid, which relates to the field of physiology, pathology, symptoms and nosology. Most of these terms have passed into the specialized literature and have survived to this day without changing the initial meaning: Brahion, gaster, derma, hiama, hepar, thorax, bronchus, urethra, herpes, urticaria, coma, symphysis and many others.

At the end of the 4th century BC. the center of ancient Greek science moved to Alexandria (Egypt). The well-known Alexandrian school was formed here. It was especially glorified by the scientists-doctors Herophilus and Erazistrat. Herophilus was the first to study anatomy on human corpses, explored the meninges, blood vessels, eye membranes, lactiferous vessels, the prostate gland, and for the first time used Kolon dodekodakylon (duodenum).

Erazistrat (III century BC) enriched anatomy with many studies and described in his works the convolutions of the cerebral cortex, heart valves, chylous vessels, introduced the following terms: anastomosis, bulimia and others. From the writings of Erazistratus, several fragments collected by Galen have survived.

Cornelius Celsus, a Roman philosopher and physician of the 1st century BC, created a kind of medical encyclopedia, from which eight books have survived to our time, which collected information about the state of medicine for a period of about three centuries BC. The vocabulary used by Celsus was almost completely included in the dictionary of world scientific medicine. The name of Celsus is associated with such terms as: septum transversum (diaphragm), linea alba. In the writings of Celsus and other Roman scientists and doctors who wrote after him, terms borrowed from the Greeks were very often used, and in parallel, Latin and Greek terms were used as synonyms. Therefore, medical terminology was formed on a bilingual basis: Greek-Latin. Such bilingualism of medical terminology has become traditional for many centuries.

From the 2nd century AD An exceptional influence on the subsequent development of ancient and post-antique medicine was exerted by the legacy of Claudius Galen (131-c.201), who wrote more than a hundred works in Greek, mainly devoted to the nervous system. Anatomy owes him an acquaintance with the state of the level of knowledge among doctors of antiquity and his contemporaries. (vena cerebri magna, glandula innominata, ventriculus larynges, ramus anastomoticus). Galen paid much attention to terminology problems, achieving accuracy and unambiguity in the use of certain names. In his main work “De usu partium”, Galen writes that the task of the work of anatomists is to explain the benefits for a person of each of the parts of his body, the essence and appearance of which depends on their role in the whole organism. For the next thirteen centuries, no one enjoyed such unshakable authority as Galen.

The life of educated Europe in the next millennium continued to go on mainly in Latin. Medicine in the Middle Ages developed in complex contradictions with the superstitions and dogmas of the church, studies of the human body and autopsies were prohibited.

One of the most famous and recognized Arab doctors was Ibn Sina (Avicenna) (Avicenna) (980 - 1037), a Persian scientist, philosopher, physician, poet, musician, mathematician, representative of Eastern Aristotelianism.

During the life of Ibn Sina, the extensive work of the founder and head of the hospital in Baghdad, Ali ibn Abbas, called "The King's Book" was very famous. One of the immediate predecessors of the "Canon" was the 30-volume work of Abu Bakar ar-Razi "The Comprehensive Book of Medicine". However, these works suffered from common shortcomings. The information presented in them was not sufficiently systematized, the results of observations were intertwined with obvious fiction, the recommendations were supplemented by mystical interpretations. The construction of the books was very indistinct, and the presentation was so complex that only a fairly experienced doctor could use them.

Ibn Sina, while working on the book, set himself the task of avoiding the mistakes of his predecessors and coped with it by creating one of the largest encyclopedic works in the history of medicine - the Canon of Medical Science. professional language terminology latin

The Canon of Medicine is one of the most famous books in the history of medicine. In essence, this is a whole medical encyclopedia, considering with great completeness (within the knowledge of that time) everything that relates to human health and disease.

This capital work, which includes about 200 printed sheets, was already translated from Arabic into Latin in the twelfth century and sold in many manuscripts. When the printing press was invented, the Canon was among the first printed books, rivaling the Bible in number of editions. The Latin text of the "Canon of Medicine" was published for the first time in 1473, and the Arabic - in 1543.

The exact date of completion of work on the "Canon" is not set. Presumably this is 1020. "The Canon of Medicine" is an extensive work consisting of 5 books.

Book 1 deals with theoretical medicine. The book is divided into four parts. The first part defines medicine, the second deals with diseases, the third deals with maintaining health, and the fourth deals with methods of treatment.

Book 2 describes "simple" medicines, describes the teachings of Ibn Sina about medicines, their nature, their testing. 811 products of plant, animal and mineral origin are arranged alphabetically, indicating their action, methods of application, collection and storage rules.

Book 3, the most extensive, is devoted to pathology and therapy - a description of individual diseases and their treatment. Each section is provided with an anatomical and topographic introduction.

Book 4 is devoted to surgery, the treatment of dislocations and fractures, the general doctrine of fever (crises in diseases). It talks about tumors, purulent inflammation of the subcutaneous tissue, as well as infectious diseases. The main questions of the doctrine of poisons are highlighted.

Book 5 contains a description of "complex" drugs, as well as poisons and antidotes.

Pharmacy and pharmacology are an attempt to combine the collected numerous materials into a system, to connect them with clinical observations. Recommended in the "Canons of Medicine" medicines are diverse, many of them later entered the scientific pharmacology.

Systematicity and consistency as great virtues of the "Canon" were noted even by those who were inclined to downplay the importance of Ibn Sina in the history of medicine. The success of the "Canon of Medicine" was due to clarity, persuasiveness, simplicity of description of the clinical picture of diseases, accuracy of therapeutic and dietary prescriptions. These features quickly made the "Canon" immensely popular, and its author secured "autocratic power for five centuries throughout the medical world of the Middle Ages."

Many medical writings were translated from Arabic into Latin by the famous scientist Gerard of Cremona (1114-1187).

After the opening of the first medical school in Western Europe in the city of Salerno (Italy), the revival of medicine begins. Here, Arabic translations from Greek into Latin were used as textbooks, as a result, the medical terminology of that time was a mixture of Latinized Arabic, Hebrew words, Arabized Greeks and Latinisms of different eras. A huge number of different synonyms have been formed.

A favorable period for the development of medicine was the Renaissance, when the Latin language became the international language of science. During this period, an active struggle began for the purification of classical Latin from the vulgar, the elimination of Arabic words, the unification and systematization of medical terminology by sections was carried out.

Paracelsus (1493-1541), a Swiss chemist and physician, a major reformer in medicine, introduced a number of terms, including synovia.

The legacy of Leonardo da Vinci, the great Italian artist (1452-1519), contains more than 200 sheets of anatomical drawings that he needed in the process of depicting human nature in painting or sculpture, Leonardo da Vinci wanted to be as believable as possible - this would allow him to be not only just a very realistic artist, but also a famous anatomist. Paolo Giovio, a contemporary of Leonardo, wrote about him and the research work done by Leonardo da Vinci: “He indulged in inhumanly hard and disgusting work in anatomical schools, dissecting the corpses of criminals in order to trace the paths of nature ... He depicted in the tables every fine particle, not excluding the smallest veins and internal tissue of bones, with the greatest precision, and thus, from his many years of work, an infinite number of samples should have remained for the benefit of art.

At the same time, the great anatomy reformer Andreas Vesalius (1514-1564), the author of the Anatomical Tables and the catalog work De humani corporis fabrica libri septem (Seven Books on the Structure of the Human Body) lived and worked. His works are distinguished by the presence of a large number of illustrations and the systematization of Latin anatomical terminology.

Fallopius (1523-1652) - a student of Vesalius, surpassed in accuracy the descriptions of his great teacher, was a professor of anatomy at Ferrara and Pisa, a professor of botany at Padus and one of the multilaterally educated doctors of his century. He was especially interested in the skeleton and the organ of hearing, he created the terms: ligamentum inguinale, canalis facialis, tuba uterina.

Eusachius (? -1574) - practicing physician, professor of medicine and anatomy in Rome. He corrected the inaccuracies of Vesalius and Galen, made many independent discoveries, studied the history of development and the study of pathological changes in the kidneys and teeth. Eustachius was one of the first comparative anatomists (vaivula venae cavae inferioris Eustachii, tuba auditiva Eustachii).

William Harvey (1578-1657) - English physician, discovered the circulation of the blood. He wrote the famous treatise "Exercitatio anatomica de motu cordis et sanguinis in animalibus" ("Anatomical study of the movement of blood in animals"). The embryological work of Harvey, who was the first to express the proposition “omne vivum ex ovo” (“Everything living from an egg”), is also of great importance.

The largest philosophers and naturalists Copernicus, Galileo, Newton, Leibitz, Linnaeus also wrote their scientific works in Latin.

Lower, a famous English physician (1631-1691), who practiced in London in 1668, published "A Treatise on the Heart, and on the Movement and Temperature of the Blood, and the Transition of the Chylus into It." He was one of the first to perform a blood transfusion in humans. Tuberculum intervenosum Loweri is named after him.

Silvus (1614-1672) - described the tubercles in tuberculosis, discovered the epiphysis of the long process of the incus Ossiculum Sylvii, in addition: fissure et fossa latereles cerebri Sylvii, caro quadrata Sylvii.

Highmore (1613-1685) - sinus maxillaries s. antrum, mediastinum testis s. corpus (Highmori).

Ferrein (1692-1769) - pars radiaata lobulorum corticalium renis s. processus Ferreinii, pyramides Ferreinii.

Albinus (1697-1770), professor of anatomy and surgery at Leiden, republished the works of Vesalius, Fabricius, the anatomical tables of Eustachius, and additions and illustrations. The most outstanding works: "Libellus de ossibus corporis humani", "Histotia musculorum corporis Humani" and others.

Zinn (1727-1759) - German scientist, professor of medicine, director of the botanical garden in Berlin, known for his work on the anatomy of the eye ("Anatomical description of the human eye, illustrated by drawings"), where for the first time a stronger curvature of the lens in children was noted, the form of bulbus oculi was described et corpus ciliare.

Arnold (1803-1890) - professor of anatomy and physiology in Zurich, wrote the dissertation "Degree thesis presenting some neurological observations on the head part of the human sympathetic nerve".

In Russia, the beginning of medical science is associated with the study of the heritage of Greek, Latin and late European scientists, which required an exorbitant knowledge of Latin and Greek. A well-known example is the scientific activity of M. V. Lomonosov. Using, as a rule, the Latin language in his works not only on medicine, but also on physics, chemistry, astronomy, mineralogy, Lomonosov translates many of these works into Russian with his own hands and these translations, as well as the translation of "Experimental Physics" by Christian Wolf , lays a solid foundation for the development of Russian natural science terminology. For obvious reasons, he prefers the Russian language in works on national history, but he conducts scientific controversy in this area, addressed to the academic community, in Latin. He resorts to the Latin language in scientific correspondence in the most responsible appeals to foreign scientists - Euler, Formey, in a letter of thanks to the Swedish Academy of Sciences. For Lomonosov, the Latin language was in the full sense of the word a living language, the bearer and engine of creative scientific thought, thus containing an inexhaustible source of development of new and new expressive possibilities. The study of the Latin language, not only by many of Lomonosov's contemporaries, but also by many scientists of a later time, who already at the first acquaintance with their works amaze the reader with the vivid expressiveness and individual coloring of their Latin style, should lead to the same conclusion - it is enough to name the names of the largest representatives of classical philology late XVIII - early XX centuries. Friedrich August Wolf, Lachmann, Phalen, Zelinsky.

And in the 19th century, many works on medicine in Russia were written in Latin. The great Russian surgeon N.I. Prirogov (1810-1881) defended his thesis “Num vinctura aortae abdominalis in aneurismate inguinali adhibita facile actutum sit remedium”. The dissertation of the outstanding Russian pharmacologist I.E. Dyadkovsky “On the way drugs act on the human body” was also written in Latin.

The unchanging language of science

Each language has its own terminology - the language of science, where the meaning of words should not change, because in a term, a word denoting an exact scientific concept, the main thing is immutability. Even if, with the development of science, it turns out that the term is not correct, its meaning does not reflect the essence of the object, the tradition is not interrupted, and the term is preserved during subsequent generations. An example is the word "atom", the prefix of which "a-" means "not-", and the root "-tom-" - "division", that is, it is the smallest indivisible particle of matter. But the atom has long been divided, but still continues to be called that way. The term, the word of science, does not change, it is strict and conservative. This unity of terminology, which underlies the modern scientific terminology of a number of sciences, facilitates the understanding and communication of people in the field of science, the translation of scientific literature from one language to another, and the Latin language has not lost this meaning to this day.

Even though both ancient Greek and Latin are considered dead, because those peoples who speak them no longer exist, and these languages do not develop, the meaning of their words will never change: if the Latin word "aqua" meant "water" 2000 years ago, now and after another 2000 years it will also be “water”.

It is very convenient for modern sciences, whose basic terminology consists of terms of ancient Greek and Latin origin, to continue the tradition and use already known Greek and Latin words to form new terms.

There is also an unconscious use of these languages in everyday life. There is no such person of any nationality who would not know the prefix "anti-", "anti-". Although few people remember the authorship of the Greeks: "against, on the contrary, the opposite action." According to the model of the Greek term "book depository, library", a "card file", "record library", "disco" were formed, in which not only discs are stored, but the action takes place with music and dancing.

This is how living languages use the legacy of dead ancestors.

The preservation of scientific Latin terminology attaches particular importance to the study of the Latin language, as necessary in practical work, and not only as the language of one of the most ancient cultures. Therefore, although the Latin and Greek languages \u200b\u200bare commonly called “dead”, however, for medical workers they are living languages necessary for everyday work.

Structure of medical terminology

The terminology of modern medicine is one of the most complex terminological systems. The total number of medical terms is unknown - according to experts, the terminological fund of modern medicine exceeds 500,000 medical terms. If a hundred years ago an educated doctor was well versed in modern terminology, then at present it is almost impossible to master several hundred thousand medical terms (historical background: in the 10th century there were 1 thousand medical terms, in 1850 - about 6 thousand, in 1950 - about 45 thousand) and no one has yet been able to memorize them, therefore, in Latin, as in any other language, one cannot do without the systematics and rules of word formation of terms from certain elements. If you master these rules, you can learn to understand even new terms.

Medical terminology differs in three areas:

Anatomical terminology. It is an integral part of medical education, since all anatomical terms are studied in Latin, in parallel at the Department of Anatomy and Latin. Here the two departments are considered from two points of view:

A) from the point of view of anatomy, the term is important for a real connection with the object, anatomical formation, named by this term (where the facet is located, its functions).

B) from the point of view of the Latin language, the term is important in connection with the language (what stress, ending, phrase).

Therefore, we can say that the anatomist is concerned with the content, and the Latinist with the form of the term.

Clinical terminology. This is the terminology used in clinical practice. Most clinical terms are compound words formed from derivational elements. The main role in the assimilation of clinical terminology is played by Greek-Latin term-forming elements - term elements. Mastering the system of Greek-Latin term elements is a kind of terminological key to understanding basic medical clinical terminology. So, for example, knowledge of the term elements -rrhagia (bleeding), -pexia (surgical operation: organ fixation), entero- (intestines), nephro- (kidney) allows understanding such clinical terms as enterorrhagia, nephrorrhagia, enteropexia, nephropexia, etc. . The total number of clinical term elements (TE) is over 1500, however, they have a different degree of frequency. The number of the most active term elements is about 600. The core of clinical terminology is 150 term elements, from which the main part of the medical dictionary is formed.

pharmaceutical terminology. She also uses mostly Greek and Latin words or parts of them, from which artificially new terms and names are formed. The names of drugs are formed from standard Latin and Greek word elements (TE), which allows one to obtain information about the principle of its action, chemical composition, main components, and so on by the name of the drug alone.

Latin terms in modern times

Over time, doctors and other medical workers switched to national languages in professional communication, but the dominance still belongs to Greek-Latin elements, words and phrases, primarily due to their universal national character, so the names of diseases, diagnostics and treatments are recognized in any language .

Latin is now used as an international scientific language in a number of biomedical disciplines and nomenclatures that are studied and used by physicians and medical professionals from all over the world. Therefore, it is absolutely obvious that any specialist working in the field of medicine knows the principles of education and understanding of Latin medical terminology.

In all medical sciences: in anatomy, histology, embryology, microbiology, microbiology, pathological anatomy and clinical disciplines, as well as in pharmacology, this tradition of nomination has never been interrupted and continues to this day.

But not only in medicine, Latin words have retained their function as an international means for terminology and nomination. Latin and Latinized Greek words and elements of words are used by all languages in all areas of life - from everyday names "BonAqua" and "automatic" to narrow scientific scientific terms "Tomograph", "Synchrophasotron" and socio-political terminology.

The Latin language is also of great general educational importance, as it helps to better and deeper analyze the Russian language, into which many Latin roots have passed, creating a number of new words, for example: communism, presidium, council, quorum, university, etc.

Bibliography

Latin terminology in medicine: Sparv.-Proc. Allowance / Petrova V.G., V.I. Ermicheva. - 2nd edition, rev. and additional - M: Astrel, AST, 2009, pp. 1-9

Latin language and the basics of medical terminology: a textbook.

Latin: N.L. Katsman, Z.A. Pokrovskaya, building 1

Latin language and the basics of medical terminology: educational literature for students of medical universities, M.N. Chernyavsky, 2000, pp. 3-9.

Collier's Internet Encyclopedia, http://dic.academic.ru/contents.nsf/enc_colier/

Aphorisms from around the world. Encyclopedia of Wisdom, www.foxdesign.ru

Latin terminology in medicine: Sparv.-Proc. Allowance / Petrova V.G., V.I. Ermicheva. - 2nd edition, rev. and additional - M: Astrel, AST, 2009, pp. 9-11

Latin terminology in medicine: Sparv.-Proc. Allowance / Petrova V.G., V.I. Ermicheva. - 2nd edition, rev. and additional - M: Astrel, AST, 2009, pp. 11-16.

Latin language. Anatomical nomenclature, pharmaceutical terminology and formulation, clinical terminology: a teaching aid for students of medical, pediatric, medical-psychological and medical-diagnostic faculties / D.K. Kondratiev [i dr.]; under total ed. D.K. Kondratiev - 2nd ed. - Grodno: GrGMU, 2009. - 416 p.

Greek mythology about healing and healers, http://www.samsebedoctor.ru/10113/

Medical Information Network, Abu Ali Ibn-Sina (Avicenna), http://www.medicinform.net/history/ludi/avicenna.htm

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Even in my first year, I began to study Latin, it was very interesting, many words that we use in everyday life are of Latin origin.

Very often, patients have a question - why do doctors still use the "dead" Latin language? Is it really impossible to switch to the native one - and it is easier for doctors, and the rest is clearer? It turns out not, and there are several reasons for this.

Tribute to tradition

The rapid flowering of medicine fell on antiquity, so it is logical that the works of the Aesculapius were created in the two most common languages \u200b\u200bof then - first ancient Greek, later - in ancient Roman, that is, in Latin.

If the peak of ancient healing had fallen, for example, on the Sumerians, who are considered the first written civilization of the Earth (IV-III millennium BC), it is possible that the recipes today could be cuneiform.

However, feedback is also possible - the rapid development of writing and the education system made it possible to transfer knowledge from generation to generation. Most likely, both factors worked.

Versatility

In the Middle Ages, Europe was fragmented into dozens of states, the number of languages and dialects was also rather big. Meanwhile, students from all over the Old World came to the first universities created. How to train them? And then Latin came to the rescue. It gave rise to many European languages, so it was not so difficult to master it. But there was a universal tool for communication between philosophers, lawyers, doctors. Books, treatises, dissertations - all this was written in Latin. We must not forget about the significant influence of the Catholic Church, whose official language is just Latin.

Interestingly, the linking role of Latin has not been lost to this day. A doctor who has received a classical education in any country in the world will easily understand the prescriptions made by his foreign colleague. After all, the names of medicines, all anatomical names are Latin. A Russian doctor can open an English-language medical journal and understand in general terms what the article is about, because in English almost all medical terminology is Latinized.

Aptitude test

Invia est in medicina via sine lingua Latina - the path in medicine is impassable without Latin, says the winged saying, which is known to all medical students. And it is true. The need to learn another language in a fairly short time is a kind of filter designed to weed out not the most capable and diligent students. Exactly what patients need.

By the way, it is much more difficult for English speakers to learn Latin than for our compatriots, because it is closer to the modern Russian language than to English. In it, grammatical categories are also expressed by inflection (declension, conjugation), and not by service parts of speech. As in Russian, Latin has 6 cases, 3 genders, 2 numbers, 3 persons, etc.

But there is another, less pleasant side for patients: doctors can communicate in Latin during rounds and not worry that a sick person or his relatives will hear something that is completely not intended for them.

And finally, Latin is just beautiful.

This is interesting

One of the most famous Latin sayings, widely used in the promotion of a healthy lifestyle, is: "Mens sana in corpore sano" - "A healthy mind in a healthy body." In fact, the original looked different: “Orandum est, uit sit mens sana in corpore sano” - “We must pray that the mind be healthy in a healthy body”, which, you see, is not at all the same thing.

Modern medical and biological Latin can be considered Newspeak, which arose during the Renaissance by "crossing" classical Latin with ancient Greek.

All new biological and medical terms are created according to the rules of Latin grammar and are written in Latin letters, regardless of the language from which they came.

The adage of the ancient doctors: “The one who diagnoses well heals well,” is confirmed by the entire course of the development of medical science and health care. A good diagnosis is the result of both objective conditions (organization of health care, the use of the latest equipment and technology) and a subjective factor, primarily the ability to correctly and deeply dialectically understand the essence of the processes occurring in the human body, to give them the correct interpretation.

The modern (multidisciplinary) stage in the development of practical and experimental medicine, which is characterized by an increase in the requirements for the objectivity of the results of scientific knowledge in the context of expanding the scope of application of cognitive principles, has also generated an increased interest in the logical-mathematical and semantic side of the accuracy of knowledge. This is due to the transfer of the center of research in epistemological issues to knowledge itself, and specifically to the area of the relationship between knowledge and the subject of knowledge, interpretation, etc. This implies the need to analyze the logical structure of knowledge, ways of explicating concepts, premises, problems and ultimate foundations of knowledge, analysis of the language and human factor in medical knowledge.

Accuracy is the path to true knowledge in medicine. It has a specific historical character. Usually, formal and substantive accuracy are distinguished. The latter acquired particular importance when metatheoretical research began to develop and the center of methodological research shifted from direct analysis of the object and ways of approaching experimental knowledge to it to the study of knowledge itself (logical structure, problems of foundations and translation of knowledge, etc.). When analyzing accuracy problems, the focus is on metric, logical and semantic accuracy. We can say that accuracy is one of the foundations of truth. It lies in the unambiguity of the concepts used in science and the correctness of their explication, in the logical means of deploying and formalizing scientific theory, etc. cultural and historical aspect of formation and development. This includes the formation before the formation of their own scientific language, strict scientific concepts and terms with developed forms of presentation and understanding of their subject. In this regard, it can be noted that the problem of the accuracy of medical knowledge under consideration is also based on the analysis of linguistic forms of culture in the broad sense of the word at the level of both metalanguage and objective language, “words” and “concepts”. As Popper noted, language becomes an essential part of scientific activity even in mathematics, and questions of scientific competence can only be resolved through the essential use of its argumentative function. In his opinion, language is more than just a means of communication. It is a means of critical discussion, discussion, since the objectivity of arguments in all sciences, including medicine, is associated with their "linguistic formulation".

Language exists objectively in the speech activity of people as a social fact and, along with other phenomena, ensures the existence of society, the entire spiritual culture, including science. Language, of course, is the immediate reality of thought, but at the same time it is also an instrument of knowledge. Already the formation of a sensory image, the understanding of a fact are directly related to language. Language is always something more than a mere voicing or sign. The variety of functions grows out of its complexity.

Of all the functions of language, communicative and cognitive functions are of paramount importance. Cognitivism, in contrast to behaviorism and neobehaviorism with their stimulus-response relationship, believes that a person's behavior is determined by his knowledge. In this context, cognitivism is the study of thinking and all intellectual and spiritual activity in connection with the computer stage in the development of intellectual technologies. The cognitive approach to language in medicine is, first of all, a certain approach, interest in the problems of organization, expression (representation), processing and use of knowledge. It should certainly be noted the closest connection of the cognitive function of the language with the problem of the accuracy of knowledge, and, finally, this is the problem of creating human-machine systems for solving intellectual problems in medicine, computerization of intellectual activity. In cognitive terms, the role of language in speech and thought activity as a function of the meaningful organization of knowledge should also be emphasized.

From the end of the 19th century the epistemological and methodological problems of science are closely connected with a special set of questions of logic, theoretical linguistics, and semantics, i.e., the problems of language are at the center of research.

In the modern "linguistic turn" with an emphasis on language, its syntax, semantics, pragmatics, it is not about the world as such, not about being in its immediate givenness, but about the correctness or incorrectness of linguistic statements, about the meaningfulness of the questions themselves, about the logical correctness of the argument , understanding and interpretation with a functional approach to understanding the language: the meaning of a word is its use. Linguistic philosophy, which is based on the thesis “meaning is use”, formulates a number of important areas of research: the concept of “language games” and the principle of “family resemblance” of Wittgenstein, the principle of intentionality with a personal or motivational attitude that comes to the fore, affecting the structure of linguistic communication, including in psychology and psychiatry, and finally, understanding and interpretation in their "analytical" and "hermeneutical" traditions.

Cognitive subjects and a wide range of extralinguistic factors create real conditions for the functioning of the language of science. The individual cognitive state of the subjects of cognition (native speakers), different cognitive and life experiences not only affect the immediate context of language use (verbal - non-verbal, sociocultural in the broad sense), but also imply the impossibility of cognitive uniformity of these subjects, just as it is impossible to build one universal (unified) language for all scientific knowledge as a whole, to do without natural language in science.

In the course of language analysis (logical and semantic), in the analysis of natural and artificial languages, the foundations of the analysis and language of science, including medicine, were laid. The natural (ordinary) language, along with the scientific one, is one of the main components of the sociocultural context within which medicine functions. Doctors speak, write and think in natural language with all its multidimensionality, multilevelness, versatility, creativity, variability and stability.

Of all sign systems, natural language is the richest and most universal system of human communication and understanding; only in natural language can all other sign systems be understood and comprehended. Natural language is a semantic interpretant of all other systems of signs and symbols. Language, speech is an open semantic system that provides understanding of reality, the generation of creative information, new meanings and the restructuring of people's consciousness. Language is the "tool of understanding" in all forms of social consciousness.

Natural language is the source and prerequisite for the existence of the language of science. The polysemy of natural language, its universal flexibility, on the one hand, and the (relative) precision of the language of science, on the other, are a definite opposition. The analysis of the language of science is, in particular, solving the issues of constructing a system of terms / concepts, describing the types of definitions. It also includes a description of the structure of knowledge, construction, evaluation, and the use of various types of typologies and classifications. As a set of some formal sign systems with rules of interpretation, it is associated with the problems of the adequacy and accuracy of knowledge.

The analysis of the language of science is primarily a problem of linguistics and philosophy, and the common object of their description is "the semantic structure of science, which is considered by philosophers as the logical and conceptual apparatus of science, and by linguists as a complex linguistic structure of the ultimate components of science - terms and their relationships" (S. E. Nikitina). Of course, the analysis of the language of science is also connected with the general tendency to consider knowledge "through a semiotic prism", just as it is in connection with pragmatics.

The language of science is a way, a means of objectifying scientific knowledge. In the broad sense of the word, it represents both some of the deep foundations of the scientific text and those aspects of the language that determine its relationship with extralinguistic reality and the pragmatic situation; ideas about linguistic and extralinguistic semantics are based on it. Analysis of the language of science as the basis of scientific knowledge allows the data of sensory experience to be reduced to perceptual statements. One of the initial signs of such an analysis is the distinction (R. Carnap and others) of two levels of the "language of science": the "language of observations", consisting of concepts that describe directly observed phenomena and events, and the "language of theories", which includes concepts that designate analytically derived "phenomena", "idealized objects". Attempting to clarify the nature of these proposals causes significant difficulties. If the source and prerequisite for the existence of the language of science is natural language, then the most effective tools for its formation are mathematics and logic, as well as philosophy, linguistics and psychology. However, in relation to medicine, much work remains to be done to decide how much and under what conditions, if at all, mathematics can be the language of medicine.

The main task of logical positivism and logical semantics was the analysis of the language of science, primarily the language of the natural sciences, which was considered from the point of view of the language of developed exact sciences (physics, mathematics), for the description of which the logical and mathematical apparatus was already widely used. Since, as is known, the logical-mathematical formalization only approximately reflects the content of the object of study, then for a more accurate display, ultimately, elements of natural language are needed, which, as is known, is always included in the language of any formalized scientific system, and with it in the scientific knowledge includes both problems of accuracy and elements of personal knowledge. The results obtained in the course of the logical analysis of the language of science are now generally recognized: clarification of the structure of scientific theories; description of various forms of scientific proposals and their logical relationships; formulation of logical requirements for the foundations of scientific theories; research and classification of various ways of defining scientific concepts; revealing the logical structure of scientific explanations, etc. At the same time, of course, it is important to keep in mind that such an analysis is largely based on the construction and study of artificial, formal languages with a simple structure and poor content. And only to the extent that these formal languages reflect the properties of real languages of science or natural language, the results of their study can shed light on the features of natural language.

If we proceed from the fact that semiotics consists of syntactics (the study of the syntax of sign systems and their relationships to each other), semantics (the study of sign systems as a means of expressing meaning, the relationship of signs to what signs denote, to objects of reality and concepts about them, interpretation of signs and sign combinations) and pragmatics (the study of the relationship between such systems and people who perceive, interpret and use them, that is, use the language), then the subject of our analysis is the semantic-pragmatic aspects of language in medicine. Medical science at the present stage is most closely connected with semantics and pragmatics, and it uses sign systems of both artificial and natural languages, and semiotics in medicine has been known since the time of Hippocrates. At the junction of general theoretical research on semiotics and various semiotic disciplines, numerous descriptions of algorithmic languages and programming languages are being developed that implement at a fairly high level of abstraction (but in application to completely specific sign systems) the general principles of semiotics and mathematical logic. Various sign systems in semiotics are interpreted as models of certain fragments of reality, built in the course of cognitive and practical activities of people (V. K. Finn).

In medicine, semiotics is defined as the study of the signs of a disease; it is considered a branch of practical medicine that studies the symptoms of diseases, their diagnostic value, mechanisms of occurrence, as well as a certain combination of them using the methods of medical research. In the 19th century M. Ya. Mudrov wrote about the science of healing: “Whoever wants to succeed in this science of foresight, which is not more difficult, more useful and glorious for a doctor, has two means for this: the first is the study of semiotics, or the science of signs, of good days and bad ones, about the clinical number, about fractures, etc. The second is the daily observation of changes at the patient's bedside. In medicine, semiotics is also defined as "the study of the signs of a disease, revealing their content and manifestation ... an important component of diagnosis." Finally, Yu. K. Subbotin considers the specific task of medical semiotics to be “distinguishing, identifying the diagnostic value and designating in terms of medical language the signs of the human body that are sensibly perceived by the doctor and associated with a certain pathology.” In reality, of course, the situation is much more complicated, since the “sensibly perceived” signs of the human body themselves, their very receipt are associated with a number of mediations, and the diagnostic process is associated with specific conceptual schemes, thinking style, discipline, etc. And in the first , and in the second case, the problem of accuracy arises in the semantic and pragmatic aspects: “sensory perception” as a reflective act is “theoretically loaded”, and the transition from a symptom (single) to nosology (general) is carried out and verified in the same conceptual space that acts as a theoretical prerequisite for sensory perception.

Another important area of semiotic research is the solution of clinical diagnostic problems in the broad (diagnostics as a cognitive process) and narrow (psychopathology) sense of the word. The logical structures of natural languages contain ambiguity (uncertainty) of the meanings of concepts and theoretical constructions based on such languages. Such their imperfection and at the same time their advantage over artificial (formalized) languages provides the possibility of their development and multifunctionality.

In logical positivism, there was a clear tendency to exaggerate the role of precision and rigor in the development of scientific knowledge. In particular, logical-mathematical accuracy was considered by logical positivists and their researchers as one of the highest values of scientific knowledge, however, since the beginning of the 60s, criticism of the exaggerated ideas of logical positivists about the accuracy of knowledge has been growing, which in turn has been replaced by new approaches that claim to be a kind of synthesis of logical the rigor of neopositivists, the exact methods of the language of science with postpositivist historicism and cultural-sociological approach to the analysis of the structure and growth of scientific knowledge. In this context, the analysis of ordinary language reveals “background” knowledge about the world, the nature of the reduction of semantic components, some general correspondences between the meanings and meanings of actions and actions performed, speech acts, etc. In medicine, the role of the linguistic context is especially clearly visible, the connection of language with extralinguistic the context of its use, without which it is impossible to solve questions of meaning as use and other problems associated with the contextual theory of meaning. That is why the adequacy or inadequacy of the context of activity, and on the other hand, the depth and validity of linguistic expressions are important aspects of clinical diagnosis and testing.

The language of medicine is complex. Its basis, like any language, is natural language. Its central core is its own conceptual apparatus for expressing empirical and theoretical medical information (the language of observation, empirical and theoretical constructs), philosophical categories underlying a particular theoretical system of medical knowledge, as well as concepts of related sciences interacting with medicine (chemistry, physics, biology, mathematics, psychology, etc.), performing specific epistemological functions. From an epistemological point of view, the language of medicine is a formation derived from natural language, having a deep cognitive-linguistic specialization, with a special development of the verbal-terminological component.

The analysis of the language of medicine is a wide range of issues of various sciences. Therefore, for methodological analysis, first of all, the problems of the logical analysis of language and the solution of philosophical questions of the analysis of the language of theoretical knowledge in medicine are important. Of course, in this case, along with new questions, traditional ones are also updated, which are concretized in connection with the analysis of the language of medicine. When solving epistemological problems in medicine, no doubt, the semantic aspects of the problem should also be involved, especially in connection with the general context of studying the problems of knowledge accuracy. Thus, the features of modern medical knowledge (and knowledge) have given rise to the problem of the language of medicine.

The language of medicine is created primarily for fixing and transmitting scientific information: the cognitive function comes to the fore in it. Words and concepts are the realities of cultural and professional consciousness, the level from which the initial fixation of knowledge, its understanding and interpretation begins. Here, in medical thinking, the first layer of contradictions arises - “words” and “things”, the resolution of which leads to an important condition for the accuracy of medical knowledge - the formation of word-terms with a certain semantic structure (unambiguous if possible), empirically verified and theoretically deeply substantiated.

In medicine, the problem of language is “a solution to the question of its “language framework”, of the logical and conceptual structure, of how reliable our knowledge is, and with what accuracy, unambiguity and completeness the language created for this purpose is able to express it.” The objective grounds for the accuracy and certainty of the language of medicine lie in the nature of medical knowledge itself - in the ratio of empirical and theoretical (the language of observation and the language of theory), in the possibilities and limits of the formalization of its language, the limitations of such formalization by the specifics of the language system, the subject area and the level of development of medical knowledge. The language of medicine as a semiotic system is based on natural language and at the same time has significant differences from it due to the large proportion of special terminology.

As is known, the ideal of the language of science is accuracy and rigor, which are achieved, firstly, by introducing symbolic notation (while maintaining a fairly clearly expressed "fuzziness" of the meaning), and, secondly, by constructing calculi (while also not achieving absolute precision).

Based on the nature of logical accuracy, both in the case of formalization of medical theory or its elements, and in diagnostic thinking, it should be borne in mind that a sign as an initial element of empirical knowledge and a symptom as an elementary theoretical structure cannot lead to a conclusion (diagnosis) that is correct. to a greater extent than they themselves are true, i.e. the correctness of a logical conclusion in its most general form implies that only true conclusions (a specific true diagnosis, an exact summing up under a nosological unit) should be derived from true premises.

With some degree of conditionality, it can be argued that the task of any diagnostic study includes an accurate explanation of the established facts. The way to achieve this is the use of the logical apparatus, the language of medicine, understanding and interpretation. To do this, of course, you need to have a well-developed system of concepts, terms that allow in the process of cognition to move from phenomenon to essence, from empirical to theoretical, to measure and evaluate qualitative and quantitative deviations, to create an integral system of knowledge.

The pragmatic aspect of accuracy in medicine has an unlimited spectrum associated with semantic analysis, understanding and interpretation in pathology from a sign to a nosological unit (a sign - a symptom - a symptom complex - a syndrome - a nosological unit). The transition from one step to another is at the same time a transition from the individual to the general and from the empirical to the theoretical. This is the path from the sensory perception of a symptom to an abstract-logical study of the disease as a complex process.

The physician inevitably goes beyond the “clinic”, this is inevitable, since “pragmatics” and “semantics” are woven into its fabric in the form of a problem of “meaning” and accuracy of knowledge, because the logic of diagnosis and clinic is not formal, but meaningful.

The language framework of theoretical knowledge in medicine is based on scientific theories, which, according to V. N. Karpovich, are “constructions, the initial elements of which are concepts, judgments, logical relations, etc., fundamentally different from the studied objects and phenomena themselves and relationships between them." Therefore, the question of the determinants of the development of the language of medicine, its links with scientific revolutions, scientific pictures of the world, theoretical and conceptual schemes in medicine deserves the closest attention. Moreover, it acts as a specific semantic system, associated with the problem of the truth and accuracy of medical knowledge, with the processes of their integration and differentiation.

The developing metatheoretical analysis of medical knowledge shows that the prospects for the development of medicine as a science largely depend on the rationalization, streamlining, unification of existing concepts and terminological systems. A term is not a special word, but only a word in a special function, the function of naming a special concept, the name of a special object or phenomenon. From this, the relativity and conditionality of the existence of the term are understandable.

Terms are not only natural language words, they belong to different sciences, as terms have different content and level of abstractness. Their nature, the general patterns of their understanding and interpretation are the subject of close attention of many philosophical trends of the 20th century. They play an important role in the formation and development of medical knowledge. In medicine, the change from one conceptual scheme to another leads to a change in the meaning of medical terms, and new terms appear within the framework of research programs; in the disciplinary units of knowledge, there is also both a change and the emergence of new terms. Consequently, the meaning of all subject terms of medical theory is determined by the entire context of the theory and changes with the change in this context under the influence of practice.

In this regard, we note that there is a huge logical and epistemological difference between a word and a term in medicine: from the words of the "observation language" to the word-concept, to the heuristic word-concept that changes its meaning in various contexts of scientific medical knowledge (temperament, reflex, pain, psora, etc.). The problem of clarifying medical concepts remains a constant, meaningful task at each stage of the development of medicine, and the meaning contained in them depends not only on the level of its development, but also on the development of society, characterizes the era, civilization (the concepts of ancient Chinese, humoral and two theoretical schemes in medicine ). Such an understanding of the meaning of clarifying the language and terms of medicine follows from the fact that this procedure is in fact not just a semantic problem, but also a metatheoretical problem of its foundations. Semantic analysis shows that terms in medicine arise as a result of the deployment of a specific research program for its development, when a particular concept becomes meaningful and acquires the status of a scientific term by assigning a “name” to this established concept. As is known, the problem of semantic accuracy is, first of all, the problem of meaningful use of the language of science. Clarification of the language of medicine, its conceptual apparatus is not only a linguistic, but also to a significant extent a metatheoretical problem of its foundations, i.e. clarification of the language of medicine is a clarification of its foundations through a strict definition of the relevant concepts (clarification of "temperament", "blood circulation"; clarification in connections with the microscope in epidemiology, the relationship between structure and function; refinement as a rejection of natural philosophical concepts such as "vitalism"; refinements associated with the adoption of the form of a disciplinary science). Due to the conditionality of the development of medicine and its language by philosophical, natural science and socio-humanitarian processes, it is impossible to exhaustively clarify the meaning of concepts. So, for example, with a change in ideas about the rationality of medical knowledge in connection with a change in paradigms and scientific programs, new metatheoretical problems of substantiating this knowledge and the problem of clarifying concepts arise.

Scientific terms are comprehended not in subjective-personal meanings, but in the context of social, intersubjective rationality, abstracting from the individuality of the subject. The latter, of course, also exists in the form of a “subjective thesaurus” as organized knowledge “that the subject has about words and other verbal symbols, about their meanings, about the relationships between them and about the rules, formulas and algorithms used to manipulate these symbols, concepts. and relationships” (B. M. Velichkovsky). From the fact that the language of conceptual medical theory and the language of everyday communication do not coincide and, accordingly, they perform different functions, a number of important methodological consequences follow, in particular, the communicative nature of establishing the meaning of signs in psychopathology on the basis of verbal behavior, although the behavioral acts of the patient also have a communicative character. , receiving their "meanings" in the verbal interpretations of the clinician; the meaning of conceptual terms is always determined on the basis of verbalized information.

The development of the concept of a scientific medical term in the semantic aspect is associated with the analysis of its essence and the change in its meaning in connection with the historical reconstruction of medical knowledge, With By questions of the relationship between the meaning of a term and a theory, a scientific term and the object indicated by it, semantics just studies the relation of linguistic expressions to the designated objects and the expressed content.

It should be borne in mind that since the analysis of medical concepts and terms is carried out in the context of “ascent” from ordinary (subjective) language to theory and clinical practice, in this case a number of problems are identified that are related to the accuracy of medical knowledge. For example, studies of the correlation of theoretical terms with terms of observation, analysis of theoretical means of describing the object of theory (for example, the reality of meridians in zheng-jiu therapy, the theoretical foundations of homeopathy, etc.) become relevant in this sense of the word. With the change in the ideal of scientific knowledge in medicine (logical and historical continuity from humoral and solidary theoretical conceptual schemes, or from iatrochemical and iatrophysical scientific programs to modern multidisciplinary medicine), with the strengthening of the role of socio-humanitarian knowledge, the formation of genetic, value, structural and functional approaches, it becomes essential a metatheoretical study of not only the "growth" of medical knowledge, but also its "translation", the transition and interaction of various conceptual systems in medicine and the changes in the meanings of concepts that occur in connection with this. The problem of accuracy also arises in connection with the analysis of the commensurability of various theories (for example, the hierarchy and changeability of theories of oncogenesis, etc.). At the same time, the role of logical ideas and linguistics is noticeably enhanced with the corresponding requirements for the accuracy of both subject and metalanguage. Here it should be noted the connection between the problem of accuracy and the well-known ideas about the two levels of the language of science, the thesis about the theoretical loading of empirical experience, as well as with two aspects of "meaning" - reference and meaning, as they are understood in logic and linguistics. One of the conditions for precision in this sense is a context-sensitive approach to reference. An outwardly paradoxical situation has arisen when it is difficult to distinguish between logical and linguistic studies, which are mutually related to the issues of semantics and pragmatics of natural and subject languages.

In the process of changing theoretical conceptual schemes, there is also a change in the language of medicine. At the same time, the linguistic structure of medical knowledge is multilayered and has varying degrees of stability of its elements in the course of conceptual changes in medicine itself. When changing the language, one should see, first of all, a change in a certain part of the fundamental concepts, which verbally and semantically become alien to the new theoretical conceptual scheme and, moreover, in its context, are devoid of their former meaning. Of course, certain fundamental concepts borrowed from the language of the old theory also arise in the new theory, but they are semantically transformed in such a way that the rules for their functioning in the context of new knowledge become incompatible with the rules according to which these concepts functioned in the language of the previous theoretical-conceptual scheme. . In the new conceptual scheme, new categories, concepts and terms are formed, which reflect changes in the range of phenomena studied, new theoretical constructs and a change in the understanding of the subject of medicine.

As the maturity of scientific medical concepts grows and the expansion of computer processing of information in medicine, the issues of accuracy and unambiguity of medical terms and the language of medicine attract more and more attention. So, in terms of the accuracy of knowledge in medicine, one should, in particular, take into account also linguistic aspects, such as knowledge about discourse, hierarchical knowledge, pragmatic knowledge about the ideas and actions common to the participants, knowledge about the subject area, etc. Pinning hopes on the accompanying computerization formalization of the language, we must not forget that this gives an increase in accuracy only within the framework of a given conceptual scheme, research program, etc.

The study of linguistic means of medical theoretical knowledge contributes to the resolution of a number of topical problems, the correct formulation and analysis of which require proper medical, natural science, mathematical, social and other knowledge. The language of medicine is specifically historical, and therefore its understanding presupposes an understanding of medical terms, categories, schemes, rules, etc., which outline the boundaries and internal structure of the linguistic world as a finite historically limited model capable of effectively describing reality within certain limits.