For the first time introduced the term accentuated personality. Character accentuation: what is it? Intermediate types of accentuation

The study of individual differences, in particular character accentuations, belongs to a separate discipline - the field of this industry, the works of many scientists - Western and domestic - are devoted.

Rationale for research on character traits

Why it is necessary to study the types of accentuation of differences between individuals pursues two tasks. Firstly, this is a research goal - to identify as many groups as possible, to develop specific advice for representatives of each of them. The more classes will be allocated, the more effective will be psychological recommendations for their representatives.

Secondly, it is necessary to know the types so that the person himself understands the features and causes of his behavior, and can, in accordance with this, correct it.

In this respect, everyday psychology is often not enough. For example, there is a common belief about the kindness of fat people. Conversely, a thin person is sometimes perceived as anxious, wary. Of course, such a division into categories may be partly true. Even Hippocrates did not escape such an error in classification, although already in the medical field: once an ancient doctor directly connected the disposition to apoplexy with fullness.

The Soviet psychologist A.E. Lichko, like the German psychiatrist K. Leonhard, used the concept of "accentuation" in their studies. When applied to a certain property, this term means that it is highlighted brighter than others, as if underlined. In other words, accentuation is the expression of a certain character trait. For a person with this or that quality, certain social situations will be very painful, while others will be easily tolerated. This article will consider the types of accentuation according to Lichko and Leonhard.

The psychology of difference is not a strict discipline. Types of accentuation are always descriptive in nature, and are practically never found in their pure form. Each person can find himself in two or more types.

It should also be noted that the assignment of oneself to a certain category should not be aimless. Having fun with psychological tests, you need to ask yourself the question: "Why am I doing this?" If a person understands that he belongs to one or another group, he needs to develop for himself an appropriate strategy of compensation, self-help. To do this, you need to study the advice that psychologists give to representatives of different classes, and apply them in life.

Classification by A. E. Lichko

The Soviet psychologist studied the types of accentuation of adolescents. In total, he identified eleven groups. Features of the types of character accentuation in his theory have much in common with the classification of Karl Leonhard. Let's consider them in order.

Hyperthymic type

A high level of energy, the ability to quickly find contact with people, the desire for leadership - all this distinguishes the hyperthymic type of accentuation. Lichko considered hyperthymia to be a common characteristic characteristic of adolescence. High emotional tone makes representatives of this category leaders in any company. They are not aggressive. They can come into conflict, but only if they encounter a sharp opposition to their activity. Therefore, it is better not to stand in their way, but, on the contrary, to encourage them to work.

The superficiality of interests is a negative feature that the hyperthymic type of accentuation has. Its representatives may have many abilities, but their interests are unstable.

Cycloid type

The main characteristic of this category is mood volatility. The elevated state is replaced by despondency, irritability. And this happens at intervals of two to three weeks.

labile type

The emotional tone of these adolescents, Lichko noted, cannot be defined as consistently low or high. Their mood is unstable, its change can occur very quickly. Within this category, two subtypes can also be distinguished: reactive-labile and emotionally labile. The former are prone to mood swings due to external factors. The state of others is more due to inner experiences.

Representatives of the labile type sometimes seem indifferent to others. But this is far from the case - the real problem for some of them can be the ability to correctly express their feelings. Having deep attachments to loved ones, they do not know how to communicate them.

Astheno-neurotic type

Those who belong to this category are the main visitors to medical institutions. Their main difference is the concentration of attention on the state of their body. As soon as they feel unwell, they may suspect a fatal illness in themselves - their suspiciousness reaches such proportions.

sensitive type

The main characteristic of adolescents in this category, Lichko noted, is hypersensitivity, which is reflected in their behavior. People of the sensitive type are also distinguished by painful irritability. Their weak point is big companies. They always feel uncomfortable in them, try to carefully observe what is happening, and sometimes copy the behavior of others. Representatives of the sensitive type can attract the attention of the whole company, for example, go on some kind of trick. But they succeed poorly, and they again return to the previous state only with even more aggravated timidity.

The advantage of representatives of the sensitive type is diligence, responsibility, the ability to make and maintain deep friendships.

Psychasthenic type

Differs in indecision. Any everyday situation can become a source of painful uncertainty for a psychasthenic. They are distinguished by high intelligence and confidence in their conclusions. But the latter is rarely confirmed by deeds. Psychasthenics are prone to impulsive actions just at those moments when it is worth weighing the pros and cons.

Schizoid type

Despite the fact that they are very vulnerable internally, schizoids have practically no ability to empathize - they are not sensitive to someone else's pain. The schizoid type of accentuation has a positive side - good inventors come out of them. Most of those people who moved forward the progress of mankind were schizoids. Their main feature, which immediately catches the eye, is eccentricity. “Not of this world” - this can be safely said about schizoids.

epileptoid type

The most pedantic and meticulous type. It would seem that what is good in these qualities of character? But representatives of other types are difficult to imagine in some professions. For example, the best teachers of mathematics or physics are epileptoids. Their accuracy and attention to detail are undeniable advantages in teaching the exact sciences.

hysteroid type

For this category, all life is one huge stage. Some people may initially find it unpleasant to be in a society with a hysteroid. After all, their main quality is the constant desire to be in the spotlight. But for certain professions, belonging to this class (its counterpart in Leonhard's is a demonstrative type of accentuation) is an advantage. For example, great sellers, actors, singers come out of hysteroids.

Unstable type

Lichko's representatives of this category turned out to be the most irresponsible teenagers. These were those who did not have stable interests, practically did not think about their future. The unstable cannot concentrate on work for a long time, they are distinguished by a constant craving for idleness and entertainment.

Conformal type

A distinctive feature of conformists is the desire not to differ from the environment. Their credo is "to be like everyone else." A negative feature of this category is the tendency to betray in a difficult situation. A conforming person will not suffer from remorse - he will always find an excuse for his actions.

Types of character accentuation according to Leonhard

Karl Leonhard identified twelve. In many ways, his classification intersects with Lichko's theory, and some types are identical in them. Leonhard created three categories: the first was associated with character accentuations, the second - with temperament accentuations. The criterion for the selection of the third group is personal characteristics (focus on oneself or on the outside world).

To begin with, it is necessary to clarify the difference between temperament and character. People who are not familiar with psychology often confuse these concepts. But even some psychologists tend to believe that temperament and character are one and the same.

Temperament is the speed of a person's reaction to ongoing events. This quality is rather a physiological property of the nervous system. Temperament includes emotionality, degree of response, balance. Character is a public education. Starting from birth, the people around leave their mark on the child. Such social interactions mold his personality.

So, he carried out a classification in accordance with the character, temperament and personality traits, and the styles of human social interaction served as criteria for distinguishing categories.

Accentuations associated with temperament

• Hyperthymic type. The main characteristics are mobility, sociability. In childhood, hyperthyms have a good memory and are easily trained. In adolescence, conflicts are possible, since the group does not always allow hyperthym to take a leading position. As adults, representatives of this category remain sociable and energetic. It is easy to find a common language with them, if you do not oppose.
• Dysthymic type. Gloominess, phlegm, inhibition of reactions are the main features of dysthymics. They are silent and seem to be incorrigible pessimists. The positive side of the dysthymic type is responsibility, a developed sense of justice.
• Labile type. It, as in Lichko's classification, is distinguished by the ability to quickly change mood. Even a roughly spoken word can affect a representative of a labile type. A good mood can be ruined even by the rain.
• exalted type. Representatives of this type are non-conflict, love society, attentive to others. The exalted type of accentuation is distinguished by amorousness, a tendency to elevated feelings, and sociability. Such people are very quickly influenced by the events of the outside world - from the positive they are easily delighted, from the negative they give in to panic. Many designers, musicians and artists have an exalted type of accentuation.

• Anxious type. The main feature is a feeling of anxiety for no apparent reason. are quickly recognized by peers, and because of their indecision, they can become an object of ridicule. As adults, they remain no less suspicious than they were children. It is difficult for such people to insist on their own. However, the disturbing type of accentuation has its advantages - its representatives have a rich inner world, and are also always able to adequately assess their capabilities. Among other types, they perceive reality most clearly.
• It is believed that representatives of this category “think” with feelings. Their main characteristics are kindness, responsibility, empathy, low conflict. People of the emotive type can feel relaxed only in the company of close people. They are soft-hearted, compassionate, and also appreciate the beauty of nature more than others. In communication with them, their feelings are always recognized. The main value for them is good relationships in the family and in the workplace. Representatives of the emotive type are very vulnerable to callousness and rude behavior.

Accentuations according to character traits

• Stuck type. A person belonging to this category can carry certain feelings in himself for years. If these are negative emotions that have not been properly expressed, then they torment the stuck person for a long period of time. The desire for a goal is the main characteristic of this accentuation. The stuck type will get his way no matter what. Often, for this, he seeks to pick up good fellow travelers. Those who get stuck make good leaders in any activity. However, if their fate is not so rosy, they can become leaders of gangs. In addition, like the demonstrative, stuck type of accentuation, it needs to be recognized by society. However, this should be really well-deserved respect, glory, which has a basis.

• Pedantic type. As with epileptoids in the Lichko classification, the main features of the representatives of this group are scrupulousness and attention to detail. Pedantic people are highly valued in the office environment for their responsibility and efficiency. Also, this accentuation is manifested in taking care of one's own health, the absence of bad habits. The reverse side of the coin for such people is the constant fear of making a mistake, perfectionism.

• Excitable type. Impulsivity, irritability, the desire to satisfy the surging impulses immediately - this is what characterizes the excitable type of accentuation. People belonging to this group are usually endowed with a high level of conflict, which often prevents them from building full-fledged relationships. The advantage is that they live entirely in the present.
• Demonstrative type. It is easy to determine, already starting at the age of two. Such kids, once having been in the spotlight, then try to win it at all costs. If this trend is supported by parents, then they almost always have an overestimated self-esteem that is not really supported by anything. Students of this type can be set as an example to others. Therefore, it is not always easy to recognize that their abilities in a certain area are hardly above average. On the other hand, a demonstrative type of accentuation is distinguished by artistry, good taste in clothes.

Types of accentuations in accordance with personality traits

• introverted type. It is characterized by focusing on their experiences, avoiding social contacts. Reality for them is secondary in relation to the inner world. Introverts are responsible, unobtrusive, love solitude.
• Extrovert type. Its representatives are self-confident people who love to be among people and receive energy from communication. They do not tend to get hung up on aspects of their inner life, they always act in accordance with what reality presents them.

Currently, Lichko's theory is more widely used among psychologists, since the scientist conducted his research on healthy people (teenagers). Leonhard's classification is more commonly used by psychiatrists. Despite the names presented in both classifications, these groups have nothing to do with mental disorders. The schizoid type of accentuation, for example, in no way means the presence of schizophrenia - all terms are conditional. Different types of accentuation mean the severity of the trait is within the normal range.

Carl Leonhard- an outstanding German psychiatrist, known for his approach to the diagnosis and differentiation of the most common mental illness - schizophrenia. He was a follower of the views of K. Kleist, who believed that, as in neurological diseases, mental disorders should be explained by pathological processes that have their localization in the brain, and the very nature of schizophrenia lies in hereditary degeneration. But nevertheless, in the history of psychiatry and psychology, Leonhard remains as the author of the concept of accentuated personalities. The development of precisely this question is of the greatest interest and necessity for my work.

The concept of accentuated personalities presented in this work is based on the monograph Normal and Pathological Personalities, written and published in 1964 (VEB. Volk und Gesundheit Publishing House). Much has been borrowed from this monograph. Many corrections and additions were made to the second edition, and in March 1975 in Berlin the book of the ball was completed and sent to print. However, it is published in the USA by Donald Press, New-York, in 1976.

The first part of the monograph provides a psychological and clinical analysis of various accentuated personalities, i.e. people with a peculiar sharpening of personality traits and a special response.

The second part is, as it were, an illustration of the first, i. it provides a characterological analysis of the heroes of classical works of world literature by more than thirty writers: Tolstoy, Dostoevsky, Gogol, Shakespeare, Cervantes, Balzac, Goethe, Stendhal and others. In the preface to his work, the author explains his desire not to be "an unfounded scientist, but to concretely confirm theoretical reasoning with illustrative examples taken from life or from the books of great writers - psychologists."

This work is devoted to personalities not pathological, but normal, although accentuated. If their depiction is sometimes so vivid and expressive that one gets the impression that the described people are pathological, then this is due only to the intention of one or another author to emphasize the analyzed personality traits as sharply as possible. That is why Leonhard refers to Dostoevsky and Tolstoy, explaining that Dostoevsky shows with exceptional force the differences in the behavior of different people. Accentuated personalities, representing no more than scientific interest in a business professional description, thanks to Dostoevsky become close to us, we perceive them more directly, visibly. To some critics, Dostoevsky's characters seemed pathological. However, according to the author, this opinion is based on a misunderstanding: precisely because Dostoevsky depicted the psychology and actions of people so figuratively, so excitingly, they were attributed a pathological character. In fact, the behavior of all the characters is the behavior of perfectly normal people.

Everything is described in a living literary language, and the terms are explained in great detail, which makes it inappropriate to publish a special glossary.

In this work, Leonhard does not define the term “accentuation” he introduced, moreover, he considers accentuation to be a characteristic of temperament, but this is worth dwelling on.

accentuation- this is an excessive sharpening of individual personality traits. If in a normal person all life difficulties are connected with the difficulties of the external situation, and not with oneself, then with a hidden feature, associated with inclinations or abilities, they are corrected by proper education. And in communication, signs of accentuation are not revealed, but the person herself experiences certain difficulties. When compensatory mechanisms begin to fail, then signs of accentuation can come out. With implicit accentuation, personality traits appear only in special cases when a person encounters an obstacle. If the life of an accentuated personality develops unfavorably, then a complete deformation of the personality may occur, which is difficult to distinguish from psychopathy.

Accentuated personality traits.

demonstrative personalities.

The essence of the demonstrative or hysterical type lies in the anomalous capacity for repression. The meaning of the process of repression is convincingly illustrated in a passage from Nietzsche ("Beyond Good and Evil"). “I did it,” my memory tells me, “I could not do it,” my pride tells me, which remains implacable in this dispute. And then comes the moment when the memory finally recedes.

In fact, each of us has the ability to do this with unpleasant facts. However, this repressed knowledge usually remains at the threshold of consciousness, so it cannot be completely ignored. In hysterics, this ability goes very far: they can completely “forget” about what they do not want to know, they are able to lie without realizing at all that they are lying.

Pedantic personalities.

In persons of the pedantic type, in contrast to the demonstrative type, the mechanisms of repression are extremely poorly represented in mental activity. If the actions of hysterics are characterized by a lack of reasonable weighing, then pedants "drag" with a decision even when the preliminary deliberation stage is finally completed. Before they take action, they want to make sure once again that a better solution cannot be found, that better options do not exist. The pedant is not able to displace doubts, and this slows down his actions. Thus, the thoughtlessness of hysterics is opposed by the indecisiveness of pedants. Of course, the decisions that the pedantic subject's hesitations are associated with must be important to him to some extent. That which is of no serious importance to a person, the consciousness displaces without any difficulty; for this, even a pedant does not need to make a special decision.

Stuck personalities.

The basis of the stuck, paranoid type of personality accentuation is the pathological persistence of affect.

Feelings that can evoke strong reactions usually subside after the reactions are "let loose": the anger of an angry person goes out if the person who angered or offended him can be punished; The fear of the timid person disappears if the source of fear is eliminated. In those cases when an adequate reaction for some reason did not take place, the affect stops much more slowly, but still, if the individual mentally turns to other topics, then normally the affect passes after a while. Even if an angry person could not react to an unpleasant situation either in word or deed, then nevertheless it is possible that the next day he will not feel strong irritation against the offender; a fearful person who has not managed to get away from a fearful situation still feels, after a while, freed from fear. In a stuck personality, the picture is different: the affect stops much more slowly, and as soon as the thought returns to what happened, the emotions accompanying stress immediately come to life. The affect of such a person lasts for a very long time, although no new experiences activate it.

Excitable personalities.

A very interesting personality with insufficient controllability of character. This is manifested in the fact that it is not prudence, not the logical weighing of one's actions, but inclinations, instincts, uncontrollable impulses that are often decisive for a person's lifestyle and behavior. What is suggested by the mind is not taken into account.

The reactions of excitable personalities are impulsive. If they do not like something, they do not look for an opportunity to reconcile, tolerance is alien to them. On the contrary, both in facial expressions and in words, they give vent to irritability, openly declare their demands, or even retire angrily. As a result, such individuals, on the most trifling occasion, come into contact with superiors and employees, are rude, aggressively throw away work, file a letter of resignation, without realizing the possible consequences. The reasons for dissatisfaction can be very different: either they do not like the way we are treated in this enterprise, or the salary is small, or they are not satisfied with the work process. Only in rare cases is it about the severity of the work itself, because excitable individuals, as a rule, have a tendency to engage in physical labor and can boast here of higher indicators than other people. They are most often annoyed not so much by hard work as by organizational moments. As a result of systematic friction, there is a frequent change of place of work.

As the anger of a person with increased excitability increases, he usually moves from words to “deeds”, i.e. to manhandling. It happens that the assault of excitable people is ahead of words, since such people are generally not very inclined to exchange opinions. After all, the exchange of opinions is equivalent to the exchange of thoughts, and the level of thinking of such people is quite low. And yet you can’t say that the actions and actions of these impulsive people are reckless, rather, on the contrary, their annoyance grows latently, gradually intensifies and is looking for a way out, détente.

Hyperthymic personalities.

Hyperthymic natures always look at life optimistically, overcome sadness without much difficulty, in general it is not difficult for them to live in the world. High spirits is combined with a thirst for activity, increased talkativeness and a tendency to constantly deviate from the topic of conversation, which sometimes leads to a jump in thoughts. Hyperthymic accentuation of the personality is not always fraught with negative consequences, it can have a beneficial effect on the whole way of life of a person. Thanks to the increased thirst for activity, they achieve industrial and creative success. The thirst for activity stimulates their initiative, constantly pushes them to search for something new. Deviation from the main idea gives rise to many unexpected associations, ideas, which also favors active creative thinking. In society, hyperthymic personalities are brilliant interlocutors, they are constantly in the center of attention, they entertain everyone.

However, if this temperament is expressed too brightly, a positive forecast is removed. Unclouded gaiety, excessive liveliness are fraught with danger, because such people, jokingly, pass by events that should be taken seriously. They constantly violate ethical norms, because at certain moments they seem to lose both a sense of duty and the ability to repent. An excessive thirst for activity turns into fruitless scattering, a person takes on a lot and does not bring anything to the end. Excessive cheerfulness can turn into irritability.

Dysthymic personalities.

The dysthymic temperament is the opposite of the hyperthymic temperament. Personalities of this type are serious by nature and usually focus on the gloomy, sad sides of life to a much greater extent than on the joyful ones. Events that have shaken them deeply can bring this serious pessimistic attitude to a state of reactive depression. In society, dysthymic people almost do not participate in the conversation, only occasionally interjecting remarks after long pauses.

A serious attitude brings to the fore subtle, lofty feelings that are incompatible with human egoism. A serious attitude leads to the formation of a serious ethical position. A negative manifestation is passivity in actions and slow thinking in those cases when they go beyond the norm.

Affectively - labile personality type.

Affectively - labile, or cyclothymic, personalities are people who are characterized by a change in hyperthymic and dysthymic states. Now one or the other of the poles comes to the fore, sometimes without any visible external motives, and sometimes in connection with one or another specific event. It is curious that joyful events evoke not only joyful emotions in such people, but are also accompanied by a general picture of hyperthymia: a thirst for activity, increased pride, a jump in ideas. Sad events cause depression, as well as slowness of reactions and thinking.

The reason for the change of poles is not always external stimuli, sometimes an elusive turn in the general mood is enough. If a cheerful society gathers, then affectively - labile individuals can be in the center of attention, be "ringleaders", amuse all those gathered. In a serious, strict environment, they can be the most withdrawn and silent.

Affectively exalted temperament.

Affectively - exalted temperament could be called the temperament of anxiety and happiness. This name emphasizes its close association with the psychosis of anxiety and happiness, which is accompanied by severe mood swings.

Affectively - exalted people react to life more violently than others, they are equally easily delighted with joyful events and despair of sad ones. From "passionate jubilation to deadly longing" they have one step. Exaltation is motivated by subtle, altruistic urges. Attachment to loved ones, friends, joy for them, for their success can be extremely strong. There are enthusiastic impulses that are not associated with a purely personal relationship. Love for music, art, nature, passion for sports, religious experiences, the search for a worldview - all this can capture an exalted person to the core.

The other pole of his reactions is his extreme sensitivity to sad facts. Pity, compassion for unfortunate people, for sick animals can bring such a person to despair. Regarding an easily correctable failure, a slight disappointment that others would have forgotten tomorrow, an exalted person may experience sincere and deep grief. He will feel some ordinary trouble of a friend more painfully than the victim himself. Even with a slight fear in an exalted personality, physiological manifestations (trembling, cold sweat) are immediately noticeable.

The fact that exaltation is associated with subtle and very human emotions explains why this temperament is especially often possessed by artistic natures - artists, poets.

Anxious (fearful) personality.

Such people are distinguished by timidity, self-doubt, there is a component of humility, humiliation. Overcompensation is possible in the form of self-confident or even impudent behavior, but its unnaturalness immediately catches the eye. At times, fearfulness joins timidity.

Emotive personalities.

Emotivity is characterized by sensitivity and deep reactions in the field of subtle emotions. It is not rude feelings that excite these people, but those that we associate with the soul, with humanity and responsiveness. Usually such people are called soft-hearted. They are more compassionate than others, more amenable to emotion, experiencing a special joy from communicating with nature, with works of art. Sometimes they are characterized as sincere people.

In a conversation with emotive personalities, it is immediately clear how deeply they are affected by the feelings they speak about, since all this is clearly expressed by their facial expressions. Tearfulness is especially characteristic of them: they cry, talking about a movie with a sad ending, about a sad story. It is just as easy for them to have tears of joy, emotion. Emotive children are often not allowed to read fairy tales, because when the plot turns sad, they immediately begin to cry. Even men often cannot help crying, which they admit with considerable embarrassment.

The special sensitivity of nature leads to the fact that mental upheavals have a painfully deep effect on such people and cause depression. A person of an emotive warehouse cannot be “infected” with fun in a cheerful society; he cannot become either laughable or happy for no reason.

Of particular interest is the "Combination of accentuated character traits and temperament." The author does not set himself the goal of showing all possible combinations of character traits and temperament, however, he points out that their combination will greatly expand the boundaries of understanding the personality.

It could be assumed that a demonstrative personality prone to pretense would be especially pronounced in combination with hyperthymia. But this assumption is valid only in relation to childhood, when indeed, often with such a combination, the thirst for activity entails a whole series of dishonest acts. In adults, on the contrary, hyperthymia often weakens immoral manifestations. Cunning, insincerity, pretense do not fit with their attitude towards life.

The combination of demonstrative character traits with hyperthymic liveliness of temperament contributes to the activation of acting data in a person.

Of particular interest is the combination of demonstrative and affective-labile traits, since both are associated with a penchant for poetic and artistic activity. Demonstrative character traits stimulate fantasy, affective-labile temperament gives rise to an emotional orientation, has a softening effect on hysterical egoism.

The pedantic character softens when combined with a hyperthymic temperament, since the latter is somewhat superficial.

There is no simple summation with a combination of pedantic and dysthymic features. However, with this combination, the specificity of both is enhanced; deviation from the norm is more significant.

Pedantry and anxious temperament belong to different mental planes. However, if both types of accentuation are observed in one person, a summing effect is possible. This is due to the fact that one of the most important signs is fear, especially in childhood.

Among the combinations of stuck character traits with temperament properties, the stuck-hyperthymic combination is especially important. Such people never find peace, they are always in high spirits.

The combination of stuckness and anxiety has a special quality. Anxiety is associated with the humiliation of human dignity. Such persons are weak, helpless. Stuck personalities cannot bear it, they try in every possible way to force out, it is very easy to set their pride. This is how overcompensation occurs.

Turning to excitable accentuated personalities, it is important that when combined with other temperaments, nothing else arises, but curious varieties are possible.

In order to understand what is meant by character accentuations, it is necessary to analyze the concept of "character". In psychology, this term is understood as a set (or set) of the most stable features of a person that leave an imprint on the entire life of a person and determine his relationship to people, to himself and to business. Character finds its manifestation both in human activity and in his interpersonal contacts, and, of course, he gives his behavior a peculiar, characteristic shade only for him.

The term character itself has been proposed Theophrastus, who was the first to give a broad description of the 31st type of human character ( read about), among which he singled out boring, boastful, insincere, talkative, etc. Subsequently, many different character classifications were proposed, but all of them were built on the basis of typical features inherent in a certain group of people. But there are times when typical character traits appear more vividly and peculiarly, which makes them unique and original. Sometimes these features can "sharpen", and most often they appear spontaneously, under the influence of certain factors and in appropriate conditions. Such a sharpening (or rather, the intensity of features) in psychology is called character accentuation.

The concept of character accentuation: definition, essence and severity

character accentuation- excessive intensity (or strengthening) of a person's individual character traits, which emphasizes the originality of a person's reactions to influencing factors or a specific situation. So, for example, anxiety as a character trait in its usual degree of manifestation is reflected in the behavior of most people who find themselves in extraordinary situations. But if anxiety acquires features of personality character accentuation, then a person’s behavior and actions will be distinguished by the predominance of inadequate anxiety and nervousness. Such manifestations of traits are, as it were, on the border of the norm and pathology, but, under the influence of negative factors, certain accentuations can turn into psychopathy or other deviations in a person’s mental activity.

So, the accentuation of human character traits ( in lane from lat. accentus means stress, strengthening) inherently do not go beyond the boundaries of the norm, but in some situations quite often prevent a person from building normal relationships with other people. This is due to the fact that each type of accentuation has its own “Achilles heel” (the most vulnerable spot) and most often the impact of negative factors (or a traumatic situation) falls on it, which in the future can lead to mental disorders and inappropriate behavior person. But it is necessary to clarify that accentuations themselves are not mental abnormalities or disorders, although in the current International Classification of Diseases (10th revision) accentuations have all the tact and are included in class 21 / paragraph Z73 as a problem that is associated with certain difficulties in maintaining normal for a lifestyle person.

Despite the fact that the accentuation of certain traits in character, in terms of their strength and characteristics of manifestation, quite often go beyond the boundaries of normal behavior for a person, yet they cannot in themselves be attributed to pathological manifestations. But it must be remembered that under the influence of difficult life circumstances, traumatic factors and other irritants that destroy the human psyche, the manifestations of accentuations intensify and the frequency of their repetitions increases. And this can lead to various neurotic and hysterical reactions.

Samo the concept of "character accentuation" was introduced by a German psychiatrist Carl Leonhard(or rather, he used the terms "accentuated personality" and "accentuated personality trait"). He also owns the first attempt to classify them (it was presented to the scientific community in the second half of the last century). The term has since been clarified. A.E. Lichko, who under accentuations understood the extreme variants of the norm of character, when some of his features are excessively strengthened. According to the scientist, in this case, selective vulnerability is observed, which is related to certain psychogenic influences (even in the case of good and high resistance). A.E. Lichko emphasized that, regardless of the fact that any accentuation, although it is an extreme option, is still the norm, and therefore it cannot be presented as a psychiatric diagnosis.

The degree of severity of accentuations

Andrei Lichko singled out two degrees of manifestation of accentuated features, namely: explicit (the presence of clearly defined features of a certain accentuated type) and hidden (under standard conditions, features of a particular type appear very weakly, or are not visible at all). The table below provides a more detailed description of these degrees.

Degrees of severity of accentuations

Severity	Norm Options	Peculiarities
explicit	extreme	Accentuated features are well expressed and appear throughout the individual life of a person. Accentuated features are most often well compensated (even if there is no mental trauma), but maladjustment can be observed in adolescence.
hidden	ordinary	Accentuations find their manifestations most often due to mental trauma or under the influence of a traumatic situation. Basically, accentuated features do not lead to a violation of adaptation (short-term maladjustment is occasionally possible).

Dynamics of personality character accentuation

In psychology, unfortunately, today the problems related to the development and dynamics of accentuations have not yet been sufficiently studied. The most significant contribution to the development of this issue was made by A.E. Lichko, who emphasized the following phenomena in the dynamics of types of accentuations (in stages):

• the formation of accentuations and the sharpening of their features in a person (this happens in the puberty period), and later they can be smoothed out and compensated (obvious accentuations are replaced by hidden ones);
• with hidden accentuations, the features of a particular accentuated type are revealed under the influence of psycho-traumatic factors (a blow is applied to the most vulnerable place, that is, where there is the least resistance);
• against the background of a certain accentuation, certain violations and deviations occur (deviant behavior, neurosis, acute affective reaction, etc.);
• types of accentuations undergo a certain transformation under the influence of the environment or due to the mechanisms that were laid down constitutionally;
• the formation of acquired psychopathy takes place (accentuations were the basis for this, creating a vulnerability that is selective for the adverse effects of external factors).

Typology of character accentuations

As soon as scientists turned their attention to the features of the manifestation of a person’s character and the presence of some similarities, their various typologies and classifications immediately began to appear. In the last century, the scientific searches of psychologists were focused on the features of the manifestation of accentuations - this is how the first typology of character accentuations appeared in psychology, which was proposed back in 1968 by Karl Leonhard. His typology gained wide popularity, but the classification of types of accentuations developed by Andrei Lichko became even more popular, who, when creating it, relied on the work of K. Leonhard and P. Gannushkin (he developed the classification of psychopathy). Each of these classifications is intended to describe certain types of character accentuation, some of which (both in the typology of Leonhard and in the typology of Lichko) have common features of their manifestations.

Character accentuations according to Leonhard

K. Leonhard divided his classification of character accentuations into three groups, which were distinguished by him depending on the origin of accentuations, or rather, where they are localized (related to temperament, character or personal level). In total, K. Leonhard distinguished 12 types and they were distributed as follows:

• temperament (natural formation) included hyperthymic, dysthymic, affective-labile, affectively-exalted, anxious and emotive types;
• to character (socially conditioned education), the scientist attributed the demonstrative, pedantic, stuck and excitable types;
• two types belonged to the personal level - extra- and introverted.

Character accentuations according to Leonhard

Type	Characteristic
hyperthymic	optimistic, active, luck-oriented; there is a desire for activity, a need for experiences
dysthymic	slow (inhibited), silent, focused on failure; characterized by excessive emphasis on ethical manifestations, frequent fears and various experiences, a heightened sense of justice
affectively labile	oriented to standards, compensation (mutual) traits is observed
affectively exalted	emotional, (the desire to elevate feelings and cult various emotions), excitable, inspired, contact
anxious	timid, timid (fearful), submissive, confused, non-contact, insecure, executive, friendly, self-critical
emotive	soft-hearted, sensitive, impressionable, fearful, executive, sympathetic (tendency to compassion)
demonstrative	self-confident, boastful, agile, ambitious, vain, light, deceitful; focused on one's "I" (is the standard)
pedantic	indecision, non-conflict and conscientiousness: hypochondria is observed; often there is a fear that one's own "I" does not correspond to ideals
stuck	suspicious, touchy, responsible, conceited, stubborn, conflict; subject to jealousy; there are transitions from elation to despair
excitable	quick-tempered, pedantic, hard on the rise, focuses primarily on instincts
extroverted	contact, sociable, open, non-conflict, frivolous, spontaneity
introverted	non-contact, closed, silent, restrained, principled, stubborn

K. Leonhard developed his typology of accentuations based on an assessment of interpersonal communication between people. His classification is focused mainly on adults already. Based on the concept of Leonhard, a characterological questionnaire was developed, the author of which is H. Shmishek. This questionnaire allows you to determine the dominant type of accentuation in a person.

The types of accentuation of Shmishek's character are as follows: hyperthymic, anxious-fearful, dysthymic, pedantic, excitable, emotive, stuck, demonstrative, cyclomitic and affective-exalted. In the Shmishek questionnaire, the characteristics of these types are presented according to Leonhard's classification.

Character accentuations according to Lichko

Basis of classification A. Lichko accentuations of character in adolescents were, because he directed all his research to studying the characteristics of the manifestation of character in adolescence and the causes of the appearance of psychopathy in this period. According to Lichko, during adolescence, pathological character traits manifest themselves most clearly and find their expression in all spheres of a teenager's life (in the family, school, interpersonal contacts, etc.). Adolescent accentuations of character are manifested in a similar way, for example, a teenager with a hyperthymic type of accentuation splashes his energy everywhere, with a hysteroid type he attracts as much attention as possible, and with a schizoid type, on the contrary, he tries to protect himself from others.

According to Lichko, they are relatively stable in the pubertal period, but speaking of this, it is necessary to remember the following features:

• most types are sharpened precisely in adolescence, and this period is the most critical for the occurrence of psychopathy;
• all types of psychopathy are formed at a certain age (the schizoid type is determined from an early age, the features of a psychosthenic appear in elementary school, the hyperthymic type is most pronounced in a teenager, the cycloid type is mainly in youth (although girls can appear at the beginning of puberty), and the sensitive mostly formed by the age of 19);
• the presence of patterns of transformation of types in adolescence (for example, hyperthymic features can change to cycloid), under the influence of biological and social factors.

Many psychologists, including Lichko himself, argue that the term “character accentuations” is the most ideal for the puberty period, because it is adolescent character accentuations that manifest themselves most clearly. By the time puberty comes to an end, accentuations are mostly smoothed out or compensated, and some move from explicit to hidden. But it should be remembered that adolescents who have obvious accentuations are a special risk group, since under the influence of negative factors or traumatic situations, these traits can develop into psychopathy and affect their behavior (deviations, delinquency, suicidal behavior, etc. ).

Accentuations of character according to Lichko were identified on the basis of the classification of accentuated personalities by K. Leonhard and psychopathy by P. Gannushkin. The following 11 types of character accentuations in adolescents are described in Lichko's classification: hyperthymic, cycloid, labile, asthenoneurotic, sensitive (or sensitive), psychasthenic (or anxious and suspicious), schizoid (or introverted), epileptoid (or inert-impulsive), hysteroid ( or demonstrative), unstable and conformal types. In addition, the scientist also called a mixed type, which combined some features of various types of accentuations.

Character accentuations according to Lichko

Type	Characteristic
hyperthymic	most often there is a good mood, sometimes irascibility and irritability are manifested; good health, increased activity, energy, high performance
cycloid	frequent mood swings (polar) - from depressive and irritable to calm and upbeat (phase alternation)
labile	increased mood volatility (and the cause may be the most insignificant), outwardly fragile and infantile, increased affectivity, need for friendship and
asthenoneurotic	high fatigue, irritability, capriciousness, suspiciousness, low concentration, weakness and an increased level of claim
sensitive	high sensitivity and responsibility, there is instability of self-esteem, fearfulness, timidity, impressionability
psychasthenic	increased suspiciousness (anxious), indecision, prudence, pedantry,
schizoid	introversion, isolation, dryness (do not show empathy), low emotionality,
epileptoid	a combination of inert traits and impulsive manifestations (painstakingness, accuracy, purposefulness, suspicion, conflict and hostility)
hysterical	emotionality, instability of self-esteem, the need for increased attention in oneself
unstable	characterized by weak will, inability to resist negative influences
conformal	high comfort (adapts to the standards of behavior established in a particular group), therefore this type is characterized by stereotyped, banal, conservatism

Although A.E. Lichko studied mainly adolescent character accentuations, his typology is widely used to identify accentuations in adults.

Accentuation of character - too pronounced character traits in a certain person, which are not considered pathological, but are an extreme version of the norm. They arise due to improper upbringing of the individual in childhood and heredity. There are a large number of accentuations, which are characterized by their own characteristics. In most cases, they occur during adolescence.

Character accentuation: what is it?

Accentuation (accentuated personality) is a definition used in psychology. This term is understood as the disharmony of character development, which manifests itself in the excessive severity of its individual features, causing an increased vulnerability of the individual to certain types of influences and making it difficult to adapt to some specific situations. Accentuation of character arises and develops in children and adolescents.

The term "accentuation" was first introduced by the German psychiatrist K. Leonhard. Accentuation of character, he calls overly pronounced individual personality traits that have the ability to move into a pathological state under the influence of adverse factors. Leonhard owns the first attempt to classify them. He argued that in a large number of people, character traits are pointed.

Then this question was considered by A.E. Lichko. Under the accentuation of character, he understood the extreme variants of his norm, when some features are excessively strengthened. At the same time, selective vulnerability is noted, which refers to certain psychogenic influences. Any accentuation cannot be presented as a mental illness.

A.E.Lichko

Causes

An accentuated character arises and develops under the influence of many reasons. The most basic is heredity. The reasons for the occurrence also include an insufficient amount of communication in adolescence, both with peers and with parents.

The social environment of the child (family and friends), the wrong parenting style (hyper-custody and hypo-custody) influence the appearance of pointed character traits. This leads to a lack of communication. Lack of satisfaction of personal needs, an inferiority complex, chronic diseases of the nervous system and physical ailments can also lead to accentuation. According to statistics, these manifestations are observed in people who work in the field of "man-man":

• teachers;
• medical and social workers;
• military;
• actors.

Types and types, main clinical manifestations

There are classifications of character accentuations that were distinguished by A. E. Lichko and K. Leonhard. The first proposed a typology of accentuations, consisting of 11 types, each of which is characterized by specific manifestations that can be observed in adolescence. In addition to types, Lichko distinguished types of accentuation, which differ depending on the degree of severity:

• explicit accentuation - an extreme version of the norm (character traits are expressed throughout life);
• hidden - the usual option (pointed character traits appear in a person only in difficult life circumstances).

Types of accentuations according to A. E. Lichko:

View	Manifestations
Hyperthymic	There is increased activity and mood. Such individuals cannot endure loneliness and monotony in life. They love communication, there is a tendency to frequent changes in hobbies and hobbies. They rarely finish what they start.
Cycloid	There are cyclic changes in mood from hyperthymic to dysphoric (evil)
Emotionally labile	Unreasonable and frequent mood swings. People are highly sensitive. They openly express their positive emotions towards the people around them. Responsiveness, altruism and sociability are noted
sensitive	Such individuals are characterized by the presence of a sense of inferiority. There is an increased sensitivity. Interests lie in the intellectual and aesthetic sphere
Astheno-neurotic	There is increased moodiness and tearfulness. Such people quickly get tired and exhausted, against the background of this, irritability often occurs.
Schizoid	Such people are characterized by isolation and like to spend time alone. It is typical for adolescents that they do not communicate with their peers. They like to be around adults.
Psychasthenic	Personalities with this character are prone to careful introspection and reflection. They take a long time to make a decision regarding any situation, to be afraid of responsibility. self-critical
epileptoid	The behavior is characterized by bouts of anger towards other people. Increased irritability and tension
hysterical	They love to be the center of attention. Prone to demonstrative suicide and fear of ridicule from others
Conformal	Dependent on other people. Submit to authority. Strive to be different from others
Unstable	Craving for various interests and hobbies. Such people are lazy. They have no plans for their future

Leonhard identified a classification of character accentuations, consisting of 12 types. Some of them coincide with the typology of A. E. Lichko. He studied the typology of characters in adults. The species are divided into three groups:

1. 1. temperament (hyperthymic, dysthymic, exalted, anxious and emotive);
2. 2. character (demonstrative, stuck and excitable);
3. 3. personal level (extroverted and introverted).

Types of accentuations according to K. Leonhard:

View	Characteristic features
Hyperthymic	Ready to contact at any time. There is a pronounced expression of facial expressions and gestures during communication. Energetic and proactive. In some cases, there is conflict, irritability and frivolity
dysthymic	Lack of sociability. Pessimistic and melancholic mood and outlook on the future
Cycloid	Frequent and sudden mood swings. The behavior and manner of communication with other people depends on the mood.
Excitable	Slow verbal and non-verbal reactions to situations. If a person is emotionally aroused, then irritability and aggression are noted.
stuck	There is boredom. They are prone to teaching and resentment. In some cases, such people are able to take revenge
Pedantic	In conflicts they are passive. Conscientiousness and accuracy in the performance of affairs is noted. There is a tendency to boredom
alarming	There are anxiety states with and without it. Such individuals are insecure
emotive	They feel comfortable exclusively next to loved ones. The ability to empathize and sincerely rejoice in the happiness of others is noted. There is increased sensitivity
Demonstrative	Such individuals strive to take a leadership position. They are artistic. There is non-standard thinking, selfishness, hypocrisy and a tendency to boast
Exalted	They like to communicate, altruists. There is a tendency to commit impulsive actions
extroverted	Personalities of this type willingly make contact with people, have a large number of friends. They are non-conflict, easily amenable to other people's influence. Sometimes rash actions and a tendency to spread gossip are noted.
introverted	Closedness, a tendency to fantasize and loneliness are noted

Peculiarities

According to A. E. Lichko, most types are sharpened in adolescence. Certain types of accentuations occur at a particular age. Sensitive arises and develops by the age of 19. Schizoid - in early childhood, and hyperthymic - in adolescence.

Character accentuations are found not only in pure form, but also in mixed forms (intermediate types). Manifestations of accentuation are fickle, they tend to disappear in some periods of life. Character accentuation is found in 80% of adolescents. Some of them, under the influence of adverse factors, can turn into a mental illness at a later age.

In the development of character accentuations, two groups of changes are distinguished: transient and persistent. The first group is subdivided into acute emotional reactions, psycho-like disorders and psychogenic mental disorders. Acute affective reactions are characterized by the fact that such people harm themselves in various ways, there are suicide attempts (intrapunitive reactions). This behavior occurs with sensitive and epileptoid accentuation.

Extrapunitive reactions are characterized by the displacement of aggression on random persons or objects. Characteristic for hyperthymic, labile and epileptoid accentuation. The immune reaction is characterized by the fact that a person avoids conflicts. It occurs with unstable and schizoid accentuation.

Some people have demonstrative reactions. Psycho-like disorders are manifested in petty misdemeanors and offenses, vagrancy. Sexual deviant behavior, the desire to experience a state of intoxication or experience unusual sensations through the use of alcohol and drugs, is also found in individuals of this type.

Against the background of accentuations, neuroses and depressions develop. Persistent changes are characterized by a transition from an explicit form of character accentuation to a latent one. Perhaps the emergence of psychopathic reactions with prolonged exposure to stress and critical age. Persistent changes include the transformation of types of accentuations from one to another due to improper upbringing of the child, which is possible in the direction of compatible types.

HUMAN AS INDIVIDUALITY AND AS ACCENTED PERSONALITY

People are distinguished from each other not only by innate individual traits, but also by the difference in development associated with the course of their lives. A person's behavior depends on what family he grew up in, what school he studied in, who he is by profession, in what circle he rotates. Two people with natures, initially similar, may subsequently have very little in common with each other, and, on the other hand, the similarity of life circumstances can develop similar traits and reactions in people who are radically different.

The so-called life types, for example, the type of employee, officer, businessman, scientist, teacher, waiter, are formed due to the fact that a certain position or position leaves an imprint on the way of life. Of course, this is often facilitated by the fact that the tendency inherent in man by nature interacts with the chosen profession, moreover, a person often chooses a certain profession precisely because it corresponds to his individual inclinations. The imprint in question in an adult cannot seriously affect the diagnosis of personality, because external forms of behavior are determined to a much greater extent by acquired habits than by the manifestation of an internal orientation. So, for example, a teacher has a certain self-confidence, self-confidence is natural, since he is used to playing an important role in the children's team. A completely different impression is produced by a person whose self-confidence is not due to his profession. By the way, along with self-confidence, a teacher can have unconditional modesty. Or let's take an officer who is distinguished by exceptional discipline and accuracy. Such a feature in the military is more justified than out of the ordinary pedantry inherent in the very nature of man.

Usually, the behavior associated with a professional habit is not confused with the behavior that reflects the inner originality of a person. It is a different matter if the traits of great originality appeared already in early childhood. Here it can be difficult to establish how deeply this originality was reflected in the structure of the adult's personality.

I must make the reservation that the question of the origin of accentuated personality traits is not the subject of special attention in this work: these traits concern us only in the form in which we directly observe them in the individuals being examined. For example, it can be considered established that any person in nature has a desire to earn praise, approval, that any person is not devoid of a feeling of pity. It is quite possible that the impressions of childhood left a certain imprint on the features of the manifestation of these traits in an adult. However, one thing is indisputable: both inclinations and the orientation of a person's interests come from outside. In which direction a person's ambitious thoughts are directed depends solely on external incentives. Two equally ambitious people can be bitter enemies due to the fact that they set themselves directly opposite goals. The sense of duty can also be directed differently. Which direction a person chooses depends largely on the society in which he lives. In the same way, the innate orientation of interests and inclinations in no way interferes with educational influence. Moreover, it is the innate orientation that is the basis of education; without it, education is generally impossible. If a person did not have a tendency to form a sense of duty, then with the help of education it would not be possible to induce him to do one thing and not to do another.

People are different from each other, no matter how the difference arises. Just as in appearance one person always differs from another, so the psyche of each person is different from the psyche of other people.

And yet, speaking of individual traits, we do not imagine them as some kind of boundless range of possibilities, in addition, with many transitions: there can be no question of an infinite number of unique individual traits. The following thesis can be put forward: the main features that determine the individuality and character of a person are very numerous, but still their number cannot be considered unlimited.

The features that determine the individuality of a person can be attributed to various mental spheres.

First of all, let us name the sphere that would be most correct to designate as the sphere of orientation of interests and inclinations. Some interests and inclinations are selfish in nature, while others, on the contrary, are altruistic. So, one person can subordinate everything to the thirst for profit or have exorbitant vanity, the other is sympathetic, kind, he has a highly developed sense of civic responsibility. A sense of justice, timidity or hatred of a person also belong to this area. If one of these properties of the psyche is very pronounced or, on the contrary, poorly developed, then there is reason to speak of them as individual traits of a person, i.e., the vivid expression of the described individual traits cannot yet be considered the main reason for the accentuation of individuals who are invariably something stand out from the background of average people.

It is easy to establish that deviations in one direction or another in non-accentuated individuals are always within the limits of universal human norms. These traits, inherent in a person by nature, precisely because of their universal significance, form such a strong framework that there is usually no particular individual "discordance". Variations in human response are not ruled out, of course: there are people who are more or less selfish or altruistic, more or less vain, more or less conscious of their duty. In this way, that is, against the background of variations in the sphere of orientation of interests and inclinations, various personalities arise, but they cannot yet be attributed to accentuated personalities.

The second sphere can be designated as the sphere of feelings and will. The nature of the internal processing of phenomena also determines significant individual differences. As a result, modifications of personality and character occur. We are talking about the very process of the flow of emotions, about the speed with which they take possession of a person and then weaken, about the depth of feeling. This also includes the types of volitional reactions, to which we include not only weakness or willpower, but also internal volitional excitability in terms of choleric or phlegmatic temperament. The properties of this emotional-volitional sphere also, to one degree or another, determine various variations in behavior, endowing people with specific individual traits. However, they do not by themselves determine the personality, which would clearly stand out against the average background.

The third area is related to the intellect, which is usually not included in the concept of personality. There is, however, an area of ​​associative feelings (op. cit., pp. 117–140)1, which contain such personality traits as interest, the desire for orderliness. This area can be called associative-intellectual. Such a trait of a person as love for order cannot be immediately categorically defined as an anancaste need for orderliness. Quite often, this feature is only one of the individual manifestations of the associative-intellectual sphere, which should by no means be associated with personality accentuation features.

To understand the essence of a person, it is necessary to look closely at the various features of the mental spheres that are characteristic of him. I will try to illustrate in this book the features of accentuated personalities with specific examples from life. The same should be done with respect to the listed variations of human individuality. But even if you want to, this is not easy to do. The specific properties discussed here are not so conspicuous that they can be convincingly confirmed by the corresponding material. Neither observations nor conversations with people help to unambiguously describe and define the variations mentioned above. But they can be very clearly imagined if you look at a person from the inside. This is exactly what writers give us. They not only depict the purely external actions of the heroes, convey their words and even statements about themselves, but often tell us what their heroes think, what they feel and what they desire, showing the inner motives of their actions. It is easier to identify very subtle individual variations in the characters of works of art. If a person shows timidity or self-confidence, compassion or a sense of justice, or even without showing these qualities he attributes them to himself, then it is difficult to say with certainty whether he has crossed the boundaries of normal reactions. But when we meet a character in a writer who has the named features, written out with talent, with all his thoughts and feelings, this in most cases makes it possible to accurately recognize the manifestation of one of the spheres of individuality. So, the characters of fiction give us the most curious examples of individual variations of the human psyche.

It is not always easy to draw a clear line between the traits that form an accentuated personality and the traits that determine variations in a person's personality. Fluctuations here are observed in two directions. First of all, the features of a stuck, or pedantic, or hypomanic personality can be expressed in a person so insignificantly that accentuation as such does not take place, one can only state a deviation from a certain “cliché” pattern. This is especially pronounced when determining certain properties of temperament, representing all the intermediate stages of its types up to almost neutral. Accentuation always generally implies an increase in the degree of a certain feature. This personality trait thus becomes accentuated.

Many features cannot be strictly differentiated, that is, it is difficult to establish whether they relate to a number of accentuations or only to individual personality variations. For example, if we talk about ambition, then we should first of all determine whether it belongs to the sphere of interests and inclinations or is a feature of accentuated stuckness. The latter definition is possible if this trait is pronounced: hard-nosed, blind careerism can hardly be attributed to the sphere of orientation of interests. In addition, stuckness is never manifested only by ambition, it is joined by an increased sensitivity to resentment and a pronounced vindictiveness.

We encounter a similar situation when we observe vivid manifestations of a sense of duty. It can be attributed to the sphere of orientation of interests and inclinations, but one can also see in it a trait characteristic of anancasts. Differentiation should take into account the following points: in cases where a sense of duty is simply a characterological feature, a person is distinguished by an even, calm behavior, his devotion to duty is devoid of tension and is a trait, as it were, for granted; in the anancaste, the sense of duty is associated with anxiety, constant questions about whether he acts selflessly enough.

It is very interesting and significant from a psychological point of view that stuck individuals show manifestations of egoistic feelings (ambition, painful resentment), while pedantic ones show altruistic manifestations, in particular a sense of duty. It should be emphasized that the traits of getting stuck are mainly interconnected with egoistic feelings, and the traits of doubt, constant fluctuations (anancastic) - with feelings of an altruistic order. The more a person hesitates in his decisions, the stronger altruistic feelings take over consciousness and influence decision making.

The contrast is even more striking when comparing an anankastic personality not with a stuck one, but with a hysterical one, since hysterics are even more prone to egoism. They often make rash decisions, rarely weigh their actions, remaining in the selfish circle of interests that is closer to them (see: op. cit.).

Anankastic and hysterical traits intersect with other personality traits. I have already dealt with the question before (see: op. cit., pp. 212-214) whether prolonged deliberation when making a decision is not a mild form of anankastic disposition, or is it simply one of the properties of the sphere of feeling and will. In parallel with this, I also tried to establish whether the readiness for rash actions is an expression of a slightly hysterical bias, or whether it should be regarded as an independent manifestation of a property from the sphere of feeling and will. There are other ambiguities of this kind.

A highly developed area of ​​emotions in a person activates altruistic feelings - a sense of compassion, joy for someone else's luck, a sense of duty. To a much lesser extent, in such cases, the desire for power, greed and self-interest, indignation, anger in connection with the infringement of pride are developed. For an emotive nature, such a property as sympathy is especially characteristic, but it can also develop on other grounds.

Does not reveal a single genetic basis and such a personality trait as anxiety (fearfulness). In a normal degree, timidity is characteristic of many people, but it can become dominant, leaving its mark on all human behavior. In these cases, the physical basis of this condition is often found in the form of increased excitability of the autonomic nervous system, which, acting on the vascular system, can lead to a physical feeling of constraint, fear and longing. Probably, only in the latter case is there a tendency to overstep the boundaries of average manifestations of timidity and cause an accentuation of the personality.

Due to the large number of intersections, some experts believe that, considering the individual traits of people, one should abandon all classifications and only describe the observed in a general way. I take a different point of view, and therefore I can expect reproach for trying to fit into the scheme what cannot be clearly defined. And yet I am convinced that there are basic features of human individuality, they exist objectively, and that, because of this, science should strive to isolate and describe them. Naturally, this is associated with great difficulties, because the point is not to adapt the diffuse material to a more or less acceptable scheme, but to reveal the objectively existing features that underlie the concept of “personality”, despite the presence of their numerous intersections. .

Accentuated features are far from being as numerous as varying individual ones. Accentuation is, in essence, the same individual traits, but with a tendency to move into a pathological state. Anankastic, paranoid and hysterical traits can be inherent to some extent, in fact, in any person, but their manifestations are so insignificant that they elude observation. With greater severity, they leave an imprint on the personality as such and, finally, can acquire a pathological character, destroying the structure of the personality.

The personalities that we designate as accentuated are not pathological. With a different interpretation, we would be forced to come to the conclusion that only the average person should be considered normal, and any deviation from such a middle (average norm) would have to be recognized as pathology. This would force us to transcend the norm of those individuals who, by their originality, clearly stand out against the background of the average level. However, that category of people about whom they say “personality” in a positive sense, emphasizing that they have a pronounced original mental warehouse, would also fall into this rubric. If a person does not exhibit manifestations of those properties that in "large doses" give a paranoid, anankastic, hysterical, hypomanic or subdepressive picture, then such an average person can be unconditionally considered normal. But what is the forecast for the future in this case, what is the assessment of the state? It can be said without hesitation that such a person does not expect the uneven life path of being a sickly, strange, loser, but it is also unlikely that he will excel in a positive respect. Accentuated personalities, on the other hand, potentially contain both the possibilities of socially positive achievements and a socially negative charge. Some accentuated personalities appear before us in a negative light, since life circumstances did not favor them, but it is quite possible that under the influence of other circumstances they would become extraordinary people.

A person who gets stuck under adverse circumstances can become an intractable, arrogant debater, but if circumstances favor such a person, it is possible that he will turn out to be a tireless and purposeful worker.

A pedantic personality, under unfavorable circumstances, can become ill with obsessive-compulsive disorder, under favorable circumstances, an exemplary worker with a great sense of responsibility for the assigned work will come out of it.

A demonstrative personality can act out a rent neurosis in front of you; under other circumstances, it can stand out with outstanding creative achievements. In general, with a negative picture, doctors tend to see psychopathy, with a positive picture, rather, personality accentuation. Such an approach is sufficiently justified, since a mild degree of deviations is more often associated with positive manifestations; and high - with negative.

The designation "pathological personality" should be used only in relation to people who deviate from the standard, and when external circumstances that impede the normal course of life are excluded. However, various border cases must be taken into account.

There is no hard border between normal, average people and accentuated personalities. Here, too, I would not like to approach these concepts too narrowly, i.e., it would be wrong, on the basis of some minor feature of a person, to immediately see in him a deviation from the norm. But even with a fairly broad approach to what qualities can be called standard, normal, not conspicuous, there are still many people who have to be attributed to accentuated personalities. According to surveys conducted at the Zitte Clinic in Berlin among adults and by Gutjar among children, the population of our country, in any case the population of Berlin, is 50% accentuated personalities and 50% the standard type of people. In relation to the population of any other state, the data may turn out to be completely different. German nationality, for example, is credited with not only such a flattering trait as determination, but also a rather unpleasant one - careerism. Perhaps this can explain why Sitte found among the people she examined many stuck and pedantic personalities.

Below I detail my understanding of the accentuated personality. However, since I always refer to pathological personalities, it would be necessary to set out in detail the essence of my differences of opinion with some well-known scientists dealing with identical problems. I will preliminarily point out that Bergman, dealing with combined pathological features, noted how much our views coincide with the scheme proposed by K. Schneider. In the small book "Children's Neuroses and the Personality of the Child" I have presented my views on these questions more fully, so I will confine myself here to a few brief remarks.

Pedantic or anankastic personalities, which K. Schneider does not single out at all, are, in my opinion, a particularly important group both because of their prevalence and in connection with the very wide range of deviations from the average level.

The same can be said about demonstrative, or hysterical, personalities, which recently a number of scientists also refuse to single out as a separate group. Meanwhile, anankastic and hysterical traits can strongly affect a person's personality.

I interpret the concept of "paranoid" somewhat differently than it has been accepted so far, since I consider its most essential side to be the tendency to get stuck in the affect.

I do not introduce unstable, unstable personalities into my systematics, since in their description I do not find the unity of the personality structure: when you read about such people, you see in front of you either hysterical, or hypomanic, or epileptoid personalities. Even if instability meant only weak will, I still could not attribute this trait to accentuation, but would refer it only to variations in individuality: after all, weak will can never reach such a degree at which one could speak of imprinting on personality as a whole. It should be noted that under the current diagnostic conditions, instability is the most common form of psychopathy. This is due to the fact that the concept of instability additionally includes many more pathological personality traits, while at the same time, weak will itself is often not included in this concept.

In the chapters on personality accentuation, I do not deal with insensitivity, which is sometimes referred to by the term "heboid"2.

In these cases, we are talking, judging by the last term, about a latent mental illness. As for the usual coldness of feelings, we encounter it only with variations of character, and not with its accentuation.

Hyperthymic, dysthymic and cyclothymic personalities are distinguished by me according to Kretschmer, however, it must be stipulated that I regard them as individuals with a labile temperament, and therefore constantly fluctuating between a hyperthymic and dysthymic state. Syntone, on the contrary, I consider such people who, as a rule, have an average balanced mood. From the general mass of cyclothymic personalities, I single out affectively labile ones, prone to constant excessive mood swings, as it were, between two poles.

Due to the area of ​​\u200b\u200bthinking and psychomotor, it would be necessary to increase the number of special groups of temperament accentuation, since some people show a special excitation or inhibition precisely in the process of thinking, which is also associated with their psychomotor, in particular, liveliness or lethargy of facial expressions. Thorstorff described these phenomena in detail.

In more detail here it is necessary to deal with introverted and extroverted personalities, since there is no such information in the works I cite. In these concepts, I also put a meaning somewhat different from the generally accepted one, although they already only partially retained the content that Jung put into them in his time.

In my view, these concepts are closely connected with the period of transitional age, i.e., with the period of formation of the adult psyche in a child (see: op. cit., pp. 2280–237). I will briefly outline my views on this issue.

The child is extroverted: he is turned to the processes that affect his feelings, and reacts to them with appropriate behavior, with little hesitation. An adult, in comparison with a child, is introverted: he is much less interested in the environment, the outside world, his reactions are much less direct, he tends to pre-think about the act. With extroversion in thoughts and behavior, the world of perceptions prevails, with introversion - the world of ideas. In an extroverted adult, the joy of making a decision is much more intense, because he is more focused on the external world around him and therefore, to a much lesser extent, reasons, weighs various possibilities; introverted - the tendency to pre-think and evaluate decisions prevails. An extroverted person is characterized by a manifestation of purely external activity, independent of thought processes, that is, a significantly greater impulsiveness of behavior: this feature is also akin to child psychology. The indecision of an introverted person is associated with increased work of thought, but, despite this, he is less able to feel joy in connection with the decision.

In childhood, extroversion in both sexes has the same form of expression. In adolescence, the turn to introversion in boys is much more pronounced than in girls. Therefore, a woman is always more connected with the objective events of life, more dependent on them and in most cases has a more practical mind. However, making a rash decision inspired by the moment and acting without weighing the consequences is always a real danger for her. A man better understands the interconnection of phenomena and their true, not always obvious reasons, he is more inclined to generalizations, his thought works in the appropriate direction more efficiently. The danger for a man lies in the fact that he indulges in theoretical reasoning and misses those opportunities that require immediate action. As a result of this difference, accentuated extroversion and introversion cannot be equally regarded in men and women. What is the norm for a woman is extroversion for a man, and vice versa, what should be considered the norm for men should be considered as introversion for women.

An extraverted decision may be less realistic and less objective than an introverted one, since the latter, taken after a thorough and comprehensive weighing, is always more sensible and sober. I agree with Jung when he says: "Extroverted natures are guided by given concrete facts, an introverted person develops his own opinion, which he, as it were," pushes "between himself and objective reality."

I will dwell on what Jung writes about further: “Speaking of introversion, one must also keep in mind another type of thinking, which, in fact, can fit under this heading even more quickly, namely, the type that is not oriented either to direct objective experience, nor on general ideas obtained by means of objective calculations.

So, Jung here comes to the conclusion that not only a concrete orientation to the object excludes introversion, but also such ideas that are "repelled from the object." In the beginning, Jung said that the extraverted person accepts objective reality as it is, while the introverted one internally processes it; Subsequently, he puts forward the position according to which an introverted person in general perceives everything objective under a subjective sign: “I use the term “subjective factor” in relation to those psychological actions and reactions that, being influenced by an object, give rise to a new fact of a mental order.”

Further, what exactly is thinking on the introverted plane is stated even more clearly: “It cannot be denied in such cases that the idea originates in an obscure and gloomy symbol. Such an idea has a certain mythological character: in one case this idea is interpreted as a manifestation of originality, in another, worse, as eccentricity. The fact is that an archaic symbol for a specialist (scientist) who is unfamiliar with mythological motifs always seems to be veiled. Specifically, this means that a considerable number of ideas can be associated only with extraversion. Us. 468 we read: “In the process of practical thinking of a businessman, technician, naturalist, thought cannot but be directed to an object. The picture is not so clear when it comes to the thinking of a philosopher dealing with the field of ideas. In this case, it is necessary first of all to establish whether these ideas are not only abstractions that arise in the process of cognition of an object. If this is so, then the corresponding ideas are nothing but general concepts of a higher order, including a certain sum of objective facts. If the ideas are not abstractions from direct experience, then it should also be established whether they are adopted from somewhere by tradition and whether they are borrowed from the surrounding intellectual environment. If so, then these ideas also belong to the category of objective givenness, and thus this thinking will also have to be recognized as extraverted.

I consider the mental work of a natural scientist extraverted only in cases where his activity is in the nature of collecting, collecting. The more he mentally processes the observed, the more his mental activity approaches the plan of introversion. To the philosopher who develops certain ideas, I attribute only the introverted character of mental activity, even in cases where the course of his thought is based on objective sources or facts.

If, despite my differences of opinion with Jung, I use his terminology, it is for two reasons. First, in medical psychology, these terms are more rooted in the meaning that I ascribe to them. Secondly, in the practical approach to the issue, there is not such a big divergence as in the field of theory. The more specific the examples given by Jung, the more I tend to agree with him. For example, Jung writes: “One person, having only heard that it is cold outside, immediately rushes to put on a coat, another considers it superfluous from those considerations that “you need to temper yourself”; one admires the new tenor for the reason that everyone is "obsessed with him", the other does not admire him at all, but not because he does not like him, but because he is deeply convinced that if everyone admires something, then this does not mean at all that this phenomenon deserves admiration; one submits to the existing circumstances, because, as his experience shows, anything else is still impossible, while the other is sure that even if such a result has already been a thousand times, but the thousand and first case can turn out differently. These opposite types of behavior I consider from the same angle as Jung.

Sometimes experts do not clearly distinguish between extroversion and introversion of behavior with temperamental traits. For example, hypomanic personalities are constantly distracted, they are completely oriented towards the events taking place around them, ready to join them at any moment. They can also be described as an extraverted type, but their behavior is devoid of the specifics of extraversion.

Eysenck, in whom extroversion and introversion play a paramount role in the diagnosis of personality, in my opinion, did not escape the aforementioned danger and involved the hypomanic temperament among the signs as well. Of an extroverted person, Eysenck writes: “He loves to joke, is very resourceful, constantly looking for entertainment, variety; he is an optimist, he laughs a lot and willingly. An extremely active person, prone to aggression, often impatient. Does not follow restraint in the manifestation of feelings; you can't always rely on him." In this description, notes of a hypomanic temperament are clearly heard, which are fundamentally different from the temperament of an extroverted personality. A person who is always serious, not inclined to optimism, does not like to laugh, can also show signs of extroversion, only his extroversion is not so striking. On the other hand, a hypomanic person may have traits of introversion. In what follows, we will illustrate this with relevant examples.

There is another factor of insufficient differentiation of types, which manifests itself in the sphere of contacts between people. Thus, a person who lives mainly in the world of perceptions easily establishes contact with other people; for those who are more introverted, it is more difficult to establish relationships with others. However, this dependence is not always observed. An introverted person does not show much willingness to join in communication, and yet he can quickly become friends with someone, while another person, always guided by the environment, living “open”, may experience difficulties in establishing contacts. What is the reason for this? Obviously, in the establishment of direct understanding between two people, connected to a large extent with the area of ​​expressiveness, expression of behavior. Undoubtedly, some people have a special gift to act on others with an expressive, inviting manner of communication, to sensitively understand the subtlest shades of feelings and moods of others. But there are people who are deprived of such a gift, such sensitivity. In the first case, contact is established quickly even in the presence of introversion, in the second, even in extroverted people, establishing contact with others is difficult. The ability to establish contacts and the weakened contact-making function are often considered as something identical to extroversion and introversion, respectively. Especially often the terms autism or schizoid nature are deciphered as introversion plus weakness of contacts. Thorstorff managed to draw a clear line between the one and the other.

After my preliminary remarks, I can turn to the diagnosis of accentuated personalities. Even where my diagnostic method does not differ in any way from the methods of other authors, its description will still not be redundant: it will show how one can specifically distinguish one accentuated personality from another.

Kurt Schneider said that his scheme of psychopathy is difficult to put into practice, as a number of individual features pass too imperceptibly into each other. Because of this, he in most cases prefers such a general designation as "psychopathy". I have repeatedly objected to this approach. In this paper, I would like to show specifically that those accentuated personalities that I propose to distinguish from each other can in most cases be recognized quite clearly, regardless of whether we are talking about one accentuated feature or several. Personality diagnostics should be carried out according to the proper methodology.

From the book Accentuated Personalities author Leonhard Karl

MAN AS INDIVIDUALITY AND AS ACCENTED PERSONALITY People are distinguished from each other not only by innate individual traits, but also by the difference in development associated with the course of their lives. A person's behavior depends on what family he grew up in, what school

From the book Psychology of Personality author Guseva Tamara Ivanovna

1. Personality and individuality Individuality is the originality of an individual, the totality of features belonging only to him. In psychology, the problem of individuality is posed in connection with the integral characteristics of the individual in the diversity of his

From the book Psychology of Personality: Lecture Notes author Guseva Tamara Ivanovna

LECTURE No. 1. Personality and individuality Individuality is the originality of an individual person, the totality of features belonging only to him. In psychology, the problem of individuality is posed in connection with the integral characteristics of the individual in

From the book Essay on Personality Psychology author Leontiev Dmitry Borisovich

Personality or type? There is a well-known psychological test called "Who am I?". It takes five minutes for a person to write on a piece of paper as many characteristics as possible that answer the question “who am I?” These characteristics are

From the book Psychology: Cheat Sheet author author unknown

From the book Psychology and Pedagogy: Cheat Sheet author author unknown

From the book Psychology of Personality [Cultural and Historical Understanding of Human Development] author Asmolov Alexander Grigorievich

Section III MAN AS PERSONALITY: SOCIOGENETIC HISTORICAL AND EVOLUTIONARY ORIENTATION IN THE PSYCHOLOGY OF PERSONALITY A man walked on four, But his quick-witted grandchildren Abandoned their front legs, Gradually turning them into hands. None of us would take off, Leaving the earth, in

From the book Differential Psychology of Professional Activity author Ilyin Evgeny Pavlovich

Section IV MAN AS INDIVIDUALITY: PERSON-GENETIC HISTORICAL AND EVOLUTIONARY ORIENTATION IN PERSONAL PSYCHOLOGY Everything dies on land and in the sea, But man is more severely condemned: He must know about the death warrant Signed when he was born. But, conscious of life

author Voytina Yulia Mikhailovna

CHAPTER 9 Differential-psychological features of the personality and activity of workers of professions of the type "person - person" 9.1. Differential psychological characteristics of the personality and activities of teachers

From the book Who is in sheep's clothing? [How to recognize a manipulator] by Simon George

9. INDIVIDUAL, PERSONALITY, SUBJECT OF ACTIVITY AND INDIVIDUALITY There are many different points of view on how to solve the problem of studying a person and his psyche. One of the most popular approaches to the study of a person in Russian psychology was proposed by B.G.

From the book Cheat Sheet on General Psychology author Rezepov Ildar Shamilevich

The neurotic personality and the personality with character disorders There are two more important opposite types. A person who is overly insecure about his ability to cope and overly anxious when trying to secure his basic

From the book Psychology. Full course author Riterman Tatyana Petrovna

11. The concepts of "man", "personality", "individuality" and their relationship Both in the social sciences and in everyday practice, the concepts of "man", "personality", "individuality" are widely used. In this case, they are often either identified or contrasted. That and

From the book Conversations with Daughter [A Handbook for Caring Fathers] author Kashkarov Andrey Petrovich

From the author's book

Individual, personality, subject and individuality In psychology, there are several concepts that characterize the spiritual world of a person, his values, self-consciousness, worldview, etc. An individual is a single representative of the Homo sapiens species. How do individuals differ from each other?

From the author's book

Individual, personality, subject, individuality An individual is a single representative of the species Homo sapiens. As individuals, people differ from each other in morphological features and psychological properties. An individual (from Latin individuum - indivisible) is a single natural