Tropical African countries. Africa tropical and southern (black Africa)

Tropical African countries

Negro-African civilization. The existence of this civilization is often questioned. The diversity of African peoples, languages and cultures south of the Sahara gives reason to argue that here, they say, there is no single civilization, but there are only "otherness". This is an extreme judgment. The traditional Negro African culture is an established, fairly well-defined system of spiritual and material values, i.e. civilization. According to L. Senghor (former president of Senegal, philosopher, one of the authors of the African ideology "Negritude"), the main factors that determined the development of African civilization - "emotionality, intuition, close connection with nature." Similar historical and natural and economic conditions determined a lot in common in the social structures, art, mentality of the Negroid peoples bantu, mande and etc.

Already in the Neolithic era, famous rock carvings were created in the Sahara. In IV-VI centuries. reached its peak Aksumite state on the Abyssinian Highlands (whose culture was closely related to the South Arab). On the territory of modern Nigeria and Chad in VIII-XIX centuries the states of the Hausa peoples (in particular, the Kano Sultanate) successfully developed. In the XIV-XVII centuries. a number of large states formed in the basin of the river. Kongo, of which the kingdom of the Kongo is the most famous. In the Middle Ages, an outstanding culture flourished in the Zambezi-Limpopo interfluve Zimbabwe, characterized by monumental stone structures and developed metallurgy. Its creators, the farmers and pastoralists of the Bantu peoples, formed a powerful early class power - Monomotapu, which had a huge impact on the development of the culture of the peoples of modern Zimbabwe, Mozambique, Botswana, etc. The art of the peoples of the Ashanti, Yoruba and other ethnic groups and

States formed in the late Middle Ages on the Guinean coast of Africa.

Of course, the development of the culture of countries south of the Sahara was significantly influenced by colonization, the slave trade, racist ideas (especially those deliberately planted in the south of the continent), mass Islamization and Christianization of the local population. The beginning of an active mixing of two civilizational types, one of which was represented by a traditional community (a century-old form of organizing peasant life), the other by Western European missionaries who imposed Euro-Christian norms, was laid around the turn of the 19th-20th centuries. At the same time, it turned out that the old norms, rules of life are being destroyed faster than new, market ones are being formed. Difficulties were found in the cultural adaptation of Africans to Western values.

Of course, most of the Negroid peoples of Africa until the 20th century. did not know writing (it was replaced by oral and musical creativity). “High” religions (like Christianity, Buddhism or Islam) did not develop independently here, technical creativity, science did not appear, market relations did not arise - all this came to Africans from other regions. However, it would be a mistake to underestimate African culture and its "threads that bind". There is no people without culture, and it is not synonymous with European standards.

Thus, the basis of African civilization is the harmonious coexistence of people with nature. African civilization is not at all like Western culture, where individuality, competitiveness and material success are clearly expressed. The ideology of African civilization is, as noted above, negrshpyud, absolutizing features of the Negroid race.

The connections between nature and society in Africa have led to the creation of conditions for the sustainable dominance of such extensive forms of adaptation of the population to the natural environment as gathering (along with hunting) and slash-and-burn agriculture. These types of activities fit into the surrounding world, almost without changing it, and at the same time prevented the territorial concentration of the population and the formation of complex civilizational structures. At the same time, Africans have always been able to quickly adapt to a dynamic natural situation and change their lifestyle depending on the state of natural conditions.

Rivers had a great influence on the content and appearance of African civilizations. Their role in the development of the region is constantly becoming more complex. During the colonization of Africa by the European powers, the rivers became the ways for the colonizers to penetrate deep into the continent. It is no coincidence that the territories of many modern African cities

The states are stretched along the rivers and often bear their name (Sene-2 Gambia Ghana, Zambia, Congo, etc.). Rivers in Africa have also played a big role in the economic life of the countries of the region. I mean the use of water in irrigation, which is getting more and more developed, especially in the conditions of the onset of the desert on the savannah and the savannah on the forest. Farming in many countries of the region is entirely or to a large extent associated with artificial irrigation. At the same time, the utilization of waters and rivers for irrigation is increasingly combined with their energy use. Complex guide-building has become quite epic for many African countries. The use of rivers for navigation and fishing has been declining in recent decades.

The rivers of Africa, as before, play a very important role in the processes of consolidation and expansion of various racial types of ethnic groups and confessions. As the economy develops, the attraction of the population to the banks of the rivers noticeably increases. Often these areas become the main centers of the population explosion. These same territories are turning into urbanized spaces, where foreign and local capitals are held together.

The deep connection of man with nature determined the typological features of African civilization. Its basis remains ojoana and the multiplication of natural sources of livelihood (T e natural environment). Africans in the course of civilization worked out the structure and methods of conducting a traditional economy that best suits the natural characteristics of the region. Natural conditions have directly affected the person. Specific features of the African character stand out - sociability, good nature, natural rhythm, but also impulsiveness. This also explains phlegm, indifference and a weakly expressed desire for innovation. Meanwhile, the undoubted value of African civilization is the community of people. In African conditions, man is given an equal place along with traditional realities and other images of civilization*.

* By the end of the original African civilization, the primary social friendship gradually gave way to a special type of community - secret titular community. Secret ritual corporations were „remain an important part of the social structure of African society. They are a kind of counterbalance to all other types of power. With their help, "traditional justice" is carried out, as well as strict observance of customs. Classic examples in this sense are Sierra Leone. -minalnTbranch In the conditions of intensive settlement of Africans in the countries of Western Europe (and in Russia), there is no guarantee that sprouts or even owls of these secret ritual communities do not penetrate there.

Describing African civilization, it should be noted that
the northern part of the continent and its eastern coast belong to
to the Islamic world. Ethiopia is a distinct culture.
In the south of the continent, a European culture was formed
heavily fragmented by regional tribal compo
nettom. It is important to note that the Europeans instilled Christianity
also in other parts of sub-Saharan Africa. However, so far in
this part of Africa is dominated by various tribal identities
nosti, paganism. On the ground tribalism* many
military intra- and interstate armed conflicts
The well-known Kenyan scientist A. Mazrui characterizes
temporary state on the African continent south of Sakha
ry: “A significant part of modern Africa is in
the process of decay and decay. Even the relative level of addiction
modernization achieved under colonial rule those
pen is lost. The subsequent collapse of statehood in
one after another African country in the early 90s. hint
There is a hitherto unbelievable solution: recolonization. For more and more
kyanpkL FRIKANTSEV ET ° s T o r o t e r t e r t e r t . If African
free^ ? Ma USP 6 ShN 0 united in the struggle for national
freedom, then, obviously, we failed to unite in the name of eco
economic development and political stability
law and ruin have become a post-colonial reality for too
many Africans. As a result, the question of recolonvdi arises.
from outside, this time under the banner of humanism" ionization

Natural Conditions "Resources of the UR - the African continent is a classic platform area of tropical land, the only one of its kind on the globe (Fig. 8.1). It is distinguished by a weak orographic contrast and the antiquity of the modern massive block of tropical land, is also reflected in the climatic peculiarity of this sector of the tropics: in ^ aridity, in the extreme unevenness of the territorial distribution of water resources and lower average water supply compared to other areas of tropical land and so-^TGG 5 ^ 3 "™ XerO F I -ny vegetable types over

Rice. 8.1. Tropical African countries:

/ - Gambia, 2 - Guinea-Bissau, 3 - Sierra Leone, 4 - Liberia, 5 - Togo, 6 - Equatorial Guinea, 7 - Eritrea, I? - Djibouti, 9 - Rwanda, 10 - Burundi, // - Malawi, 12 - Swaziland, 13 - Lesotho

makes African coasts inconvenient for modern seaports.

Africa is one of the most elevated continents. The average surface height above sea level is 750 m. According to this indicator, Africa is second only to Antarctica (2,040 m, considering the thickness of the ice sheet) and Asia (950 m). At the same time, Africa is characterized by a weak vertical dissection, which significantly distinguishes it from Europe, Asia and America, where vast lowlands stretch alongside powerful mountain ranges.

Nosti. The relief of Africa is dominated by monotonous elevated plains, over which isolated massifs and solitary mountains rise in places. The lowlands in Africa, in comparison with other regions, occupy a small area, located in narrow strips along the coasts.

Africa south of the Sahara almost completely "fits" within the hot belt of the Earth and the subtropics adjacent to it. Hence the important consequence: high temperatures during most of the year. In the equatorial and constantly humid subequatorial regions of the region, multi-layered moist forests grow, dark and difficult to overcome. In such forests, the crowns of trees, reaching several tens of meters, are intertwined so densely that the sky is completely invisible. It is stuffy and gloomy in the forests, there is neither grass nor clearings, only a layer of fallen, wet, rotten leaves, sometimes forming a viscous mess. Forests are exceptionally diverse in terms of tree species composition (the region accounts for 17% of the world's forest land with valuable tree species).

On both sides of the equatorial strip there are areas of tropical woodlands, or savannah forests, and tropical forest-steppe - savannahs. Its most humid areas are characterized by very high (up to 2-3 m) grass cover. Individual trees are scattered among the grass and herbaceous plants. Savannah areas abound in pastures, cultivated lands, and quite large rural settlements are found.

In the north of the region, between the savannah and the Sahara, there is a vast and steadily expanding Sahel zone(Sahel means coast, in this case it means the edge, the coast of the desert). The process of desertification here began to bear the character of a catastrophe. To the south are the Namib Desert and the Kalahari semi-desert. There are no permanent surface waters, but in some areas there is a significant network of temporary watercourses that fill for a short time (they are called "omu-rambo").

The abundance of rivers and lakes makes sub-Saharan Africa rich in water resources. The equatorial regions are best provided with water. With distance from the equator, the availability of moisture and surface water resources decreases, reaching the minimum in deserts. Water resources in Africa are a source of artificial irrigation of arid regions, a source of energy resources, and transport arteries. Fish stocks of inland waters are of great importance.

In Africa, as nowhere else, latitudinal landscape zonality is clearly manifested, which is “corrected” only in the south (the influence of the Indian Ocean and orography) and in the east (a consequence of tectonic activation). In general, within the continent there are

four large physical-geographical parts: North Africa, Central, East and South. Part Central (orEquatorial) Africa includes two physical and geographical areas:

1) Guinea coast, which means broadly
kaya coastal strip of the Gulf of Guinea, as well as North Guinea
the Neian Upland and the Cameroon Massif. Most of the territory
rii of this area is under the influence of the southwestern equa
torial monsoon bringing abundant rainfall. Natural
the specificity of the region is largely related to its transitional nature
from the savannas of Sudan to the equatorial forests of the river basin. Congo;

2) Congo basin and marginal mountains- territory, stretch -
running on both sides of the equator from the Atlantic to East Africa
Kansk Highlands, characterized by an equatorial climate and
covered with dense wet forests. Typical equatorial
the precipitation regime is typical for the flat part of the river basin. Kon
th, however, this area is the least favorable for
the life of people.

East Africa form two physical and geographical areas:

1) abyssinian highlands And Somalia(Abessomal) shared
the vast Afar depression. By the nature of the relief and climate, this
area is more complex than neighboring ones. If the Abyssinian Highlands
and the Harar plateau are an area with fairly humid
cold and cold climate, then it is surrounded by dry and hot
plateaus, which are reflected in the Somali peninsula and
cut of the Red Sea;

2) East African Highlands, located approximately
the same latitudes as the physiographic region of the basin
Congo and outlying mountains. However, local natural features
quite specific, which is associated with mountainous terrain (criss
the tall base of the highlands is broken by huge faults -
grabens, the bottoms of which are occupied by large lakes). If for
interior territories are characterized by a typical equatorial
precipitation regime, then the eastern part of the area adjacent to Ying
the Indian Ocean, is located in the zone of action of the trade winds.

South Africa characterized by the predominance of plateaus in the relief, the relative dryness of the climate, as well as the predominant change in zonal landscapes in the direction from east to west. The following physiographic regions are distinguished here:

1) South African plateau, occupying 3/4 of the entire territory of the region and characterized by a generally hot climate and relatively scarce rainfall. Only closer to the waters of the World Ocean does humid tropical air make “corrections” to the climate regime;

2) cape mountains, representing the "tiniest"
physical-geographical region of the African continent. Her
the selection is due to the position on the coast, washed by the cold
the lofty Benguela current, and the specific subtropical
kim climate with dry summers;

3) island Madagascar, distinguished by well-known isolated
and characterized by a tropical climate, hot on
lowlands and moderate on high plateaus. southeastern
The trade winds bring abundant rainfall to the island. Gentle tempera
island tours favorably distinguishes Madagascar from the sweltering heat
east coast of the continent.

African subsoil contains a large amount minerals(Table 8.1). The region is especially rich in non-ferrous ores (bauxites, copper, manganese), rare and precious metals. Significant reserves of resources for ferrous metallurgy. Of the energy resources, there are large reserves of oil, natural gas, uranium ores and coal deposits.

Mineral resources are unevenly distributed throughout the region. The southeast of the Congo (Kinshasa) and the adjacent regions of Zambia, the eastern half of South Africa are very rich in minerals. There are large reserves of mineral raw materials in South, West and Central Africa. The east of the region is less rich, but as geological exploration expands, the explored reserves of mineral raw materials increase there as well.

The land fund of the region is significant. However, the quality of African soils varies greatly. Many of their types, when reduced to natural vegetation and used in agriculture, quickly lose their natural fertility and are subject to erosion. With artificial irrigation, they are threatened with secondary salinization.

PECULIARITIES. The specificity of African history is the extreme unevenness of development. If in some territories during the end of the 1st-first half of the 2nd millennium, fully formed states, often very extensive, were formed, then in other lands they continued to live in conditions of tribal relations. Statehood, with the exception of the northern, Mediterranean lands (where it has existed since ancient times), in the Middle Ages extended only to the territory north and partly south of the equator, primarily in the so-called Sudan (the zone between the equator and the Northern Tropic).

A characteristic feature of the African economy was that, throughout the continent, land was not alienated from its owner, even with communal organization. Therefore, the conquered tribes almost did not turn into slavery, but were exploited by the collection of taxes or tribute. Perhaps this was due to the peculiarities of land cultivation in a hot climate and the predominance of arid or waterlogged lands, which required careful and lengthy processing of each plot suitable for agriculture. In general, it should be noted that south of the Sahara, very harsh conditions have developed for humans: a mass of wild animals, poisonous insects and reptiles, lush vegetation, ready to stifle every cultural sprout, stupefying heat and drought, excessive abundance of rainfall and floods in other places. Because of the heat, many pathogenic microbes have divorced here. All this predetermined the routine nature of African economic development, which led to a slowdown in social progress.

ECONOMIC DEVELOPMENT OF WESTERN AND CENTRAL SUDAN. Agriculture predominated among the occupations of the population. Nomadic pastoralism as the basis of existence was characteristic of only a few tribes in the region. The fact is that tropical Africa was infected with the tsetse fly, a carrier of sleeping sickness, fatal to cattle. Goats, sheep, pigs and camels were less vulnerable.

Agriculture was mainly slash and shift, which was facilitated by the low population density and, consequently, the availability of free land. Periodic showers (1–2 times a year) followed by a dry season (except for the equatorial zone) required irrigation. The soils of the Sahel 1 and savannas are poor in organic matter, are easily depleted (stormy rains wash out mineral salts), and in the dry season the vegetation burns out and does not accumulate humus. Fertile alluvial soils are located only in islands, in river valleys. The lack of pets limited the ability to fertilize the soil with organic matter. The small number of cattle made it impossible to use draft power. All this made it possible to cultivate the soil only manually - with iron-tipped hoes and to fertilize the earth only with ashes from burning vegetation. They did not know the plow and the wheels.

Based on modern knowledge, we can conclude that the predominance of hoe agriculture and the non-use of draft power in tillage was a forced adaptation to natural conditions and did not necessarily indicate the backwardness of agriculture in Tropical Africa. But, nevertheless, it also slowed down the overall development of the population.

The craft developed in communities in which artisans occupied a privileged position and fully provided their communities with the necessary products. Blacksmiths, potters, weavers stood out first of all. Gradually, with the development of cities, trade and the addition of urban centers, an urban craft appeared, serving the court, the army, and urban residents. In the Х1V-XV centuries. in the most developed regions (Western Sudan), associations of artisans of one or related professions arose - a kind of European workshops. But, as in the East, they were not independent and obeyed the authorities.

In some states of Western Sudan in the XV-XVI centuries. elements of manufactory production began to take shape. But the original development of the African handicraft and its organizational forms was delayed, and in many places interrupted by European colonization and the slave trade.

SOCIO-POLITICAL DEVELOPMENT OF THE STATES OF WESTERN AND CENTRAL SUDAN. The population of the Sahel was characterized by an ancient tradition of exchange with the northern nomads - the Berbers. Traded products of agriculture and cattle breeding, salt and gold. The trade was "mute". The merchants did not see each other. The exchange took place in forest clearings, where one side brought their goods and then hid in the forest. Then the other side came, examined what was brought, left their goods of the appropriate value and left. Then the first ones returned and if they were satisfied with the offer, they took it away and the deal was considered completed. Deception was rare (on the part of northern merchants).

The trans-Saharan trade in gold and salt was most developed. Placers of gold were found in the forests of Western Sudan, Upper Senegal, in Ghana, in the Upper Volta basin. There was almost no salt in the Sahel and to the south. It was mined in Mauritania, the oases of the Sahara, the salt lakes of modern Zambia and in the upper reaches of the Niger. There, even houses were built from salt blocks covered with camel skins. Southern tribes of Western Sudan - hausa who bought Saharan salt knew 50 names of its varieties.

It was here, in the north of Western Sudan in the 7th-8th centuries. large shopping centers were formed, around which political associations were then formed.

The most ancient here was the state Ghana or Aukar, the first information about which refers to the VIII century. Ethnic basis - nationality soninke. In the ninth century Ghana's rulers stubbornly fought with their northern neighbors - the Berbers for control of trade routes to the Maghreb. By the beginning of the tenth century Ghana reached its greatest power, which was based on monopoly control over the trade of the entire Western Sudan with the north, which contributed to economic prosperity. However, in the second half of the eleventh century. Sultan of the Almoravid (Moroccan) state Abu Bekr ibn Omar subjugated Ghana, imposed tribute on it and took control of the country's gold mines. The king of Ghana converted to Islam. After 20 years, during the uprising, Abu Bekr was killed and the Moroccans were expelled. But the importance of Ghana was not restored. New monarchies have grown up on its greatly reduced frontiers.

In the XII century. the kingdom was the most active Soso, which in 1203 conquered Ghana and soon subjugated all trade routes in the region. Mali, located in the center of Western Sudan, becomes a dangerous rival to the kingdom of Soso.

Emergence of the state Mali(Manding) refers to the VIII century. Initially, it was located in the Upper Niger. Tribes made up the majority of the population. raspberry. Active trade with Arab merchants contributed to the penetration of Islam into the environment of the ruling elite by the 11th century. The beginning of the economic and political flourishing of Mali dates back to the second half of the 12th century. By the middle of the thirteenth century with a prominent commander and statesman Sundiata almost the entire territory of Soso with gold mining areas and caravan routes was subordinated. A regular exchange is being established with the Maghreb and Egypt. But the expansion of the state territory led to the growth of separatism on the ground. As a result, from the second half of the fourteenth century. Mali weakens and begins to lose some territories.

An active foreign policy had little effect on rural communities. They were dominated by subsistence farming. The presence of artisans in the main specialties in the communities did not cause the need to trade with neighbors. Therefore, local markets, although they existed, did not play a special role.

Foreign trade was conducted primarily in gold, salt, slaves. Mali has achieved a monopoly in the gold trade with North Africa. Sovereigns, aristocracy, service people participated in this trade. Gold was exchanged for handicrafts of the Arabs and, especially, for salt, so necessary that it was exchanged for gold in a ratio of 1: 2 by weight (there was practically no salt in the Sahel and it was delivered from the Sahara). But a lot of gold was mined, up to 4.5-5 tons per year, which fully provided for the nobility and did not require special pressure on the peasants.

The main unit of society was a large patriarchal family. Several families made up the community. There was no equality in the communities. The dominant layer - the elders of patriarchal families, below were the heads of small families, then - ordinary members of the community - free peasants and artisans, even lower - slaves. But slavery was not permanent. In each subsequent generation, they acquired separate rights, up to becoming freedmen, who even held important government posts. 5 days a week, ordinary community members, slaves and freedmen worked together on the land of the patriarchal family, and 2 days worked on individual allotments allocated to them - vegetable gardens. The plots were distributed by the heads of large families - "lords of the earth." Part of the harvest, products from hunting, etc. went in their favor. In fact, these “lords” were leaders with elements of feudal lords. That is, here - a kind of feudal-patriarchal relations. Communities united into clans, the heads of which had their own military detachments of slaves and other dependent people.

The top of the ruling class consisted of noted heads of patriarchal families that were part of the ruling family. The lower group of the ruling stratum were the leaders of subordinate clans and tribes, who, however, retained internal autonomy. But there appeared a military stratum of overseers, chiefs of the slave guard, and freedmen in government positions. They often received land from the rulers, which allows them to see a semblance of the nobility (at the stage of its inception). But this, as elsewhere, led to the growth of separatism and, in the end, to the disintegration of Mali.

Another reason for the collapse of the state was the noted trade in gold. It covered the needs of the nobility and did not encourage them to increase incomes through the development of other elements of the economy. As a result, the wealth from the possession of gold led to stagnation. Mali began to overtake the neighbors.

With the decline of Mali, a state grew up on its eastern borders Songhai(or Gao - by the name of the capital). In the fifteenth century Songhai achieved independence and created its own state in the Middle Niger, all along the same trade routes. But numerous conquests caused uprisings, especially in the conquered lands of Mali, and by the first half of the 16th century. The Songhai was in decline. In the position of the ruling class, in contrast to Mali, a significant role was played by large estates, on which slaves planted on the land worked. But the position of the descendants of slaves (from prisoners of war) softened in each subsequent generation. Significant in the state was the role of cities. Up to 75 thousand people lived in the capital - Gao, and more than 50 people worked in separate weaving workshops in Timbuktu.

To the west, in the Upper Volta basin among the tribes mosi in the eleventh century several state formations were formed with a significant role of slaveholding in the estates, which is similar to the order in Songhai. Some of the noted states existed until the arrival of the French in the 19th century.

In the extreme west of Africa, in the middle and lower reaches of Senegal in the VIII century. formed a state Tekrur. Created from different ethnic groups, it is marked by constant clashes between different tribes, to which in the 9th century. conflicts between supporters of local religions and emerging Muslims increased. This led to a constant change of dynasties.

A vast territory to the west of Lake Chad, inhabited by tribes hausa , in the VIII-X centuries. covered by a network of separate city-states with a significant slave-owning way of life. Slaves were used in crafts and agriculture. Until the sixteenth century political fragmentation reigned in these lands.

In the 8th century a state arose to the east of Lake Chad Kanem, which in the XI-XII centuries. also subjugates some tribes of the Hausa group.

The ancient center of African culture was the coast of the Gulf of Guinea, inhabited by tribes yoruba . Of the states in this territory, the largest was oyo founded in the 9th-10th centuries. At the head was the monarch, limited to the council of the nobility. The latter was the highest administrative and judicial body, passed death sentences, including the ruler himself. Before us is a kind of constitutional monarchy with a highly developed bureaucracy. Oyo was connected by trade with the northern lands and had significant income from this. A highly developed handicraft has developed in the cities and associations such as workshops are known.

To the south of the considered states of Western and Central Sudan in the XIII-XIV centuries. appeared Cameroon And Congo.

Customs. Most of the peoples of Western Sudan did not create their own written language. Some used elements of the Arabic script. Religion was predominantly pagan. Islam truly began to spread from the 13th-14th centuries, and began to reach the rural population from the 16th century. But even in Muslim times, not to mention the earlier ones, monarchs were treated as pagan priests. It was believed that the king, by virtue of his position, controlled nature. The reproduction of subjects, animals and plants in his state depended on his health, the magical rituals performed by him. The king determined the timing of sowing and other work.

Curious observations on the life of Africans were made by Arab travelers. According to Ibn Battuta (XIV century), they, more than any other people, express devotion and respect to their sovereign. For example, as a sign of respect in front of him, they take off their outer clothing and remain in tatters, crawl on their knees, sprinkle sand on their heads and backs, and it’s amazing how the sand does not get into their eyes. He also noted the almost complete absence of thieves and robbers, which made the roads safe. If a white man died among them, then his property was kept by a special trustee from the locals until the arrival of relatives or others from the homeland of the deceased, which was important for merchants. But, the traveler regretted, in the courtyard of the king, girls and women walk with open faces and naked. Many of them eat carrion - the corpses of dogs and donkeys. There are cases of cannibalism. And preference is given to black. White meat is considered immature. In general, the food of the Malians, among whom Battuta was, did not cause delight in him. Even at the ceremonial dinner, he complained, only millet, honey and sour milk were served. Rice is usually preferred. He also wrote in detail about the "friends" of men and women who were married, that is, about fairly free extramarital affairs, and argued how this correlates with the Muslim religiosity of the inhabitants.

ETHIOPIA. In Eastern Sudan, in the northern part of the Abyssinian plateau, there was a kingdom Aksum. Its roots go back to the middle of the 1st millennium BC, when the newcomers from South Arabia brought the Semitic languages to the Nile Valley. This state at the beginning of its history was associated with the Greco-Roman world. Its heyday falls on the 4th century AD, when the power of the Aksumite kings extended not only to most of the Ethiopian lands, but also to the southern Arabian coast (Yemen and southern Hijaz - in the 5th century). Active ties with Byzantium contributed to the spread of Christianity among the upper strata of society around 333. In 510, the Iranians, led by Khosrow, ousted Aksum from Arabia. In the 8th century the beginning of the Arab expansion caused the gradual decline of Aksum. The population was pushed back from the sea and gradually moved to the barren interior lands of the Abyssinian plateau. In the thirteenth century the Solomon dynasty comes to power, which lasted until the revolution of 1974.

The social system of medieval Ethiopia was characterized by the predominance of the feudal system. The peasants who were part of the community were considered the holders of the land, the supreme owner of which was the king - negus. He, and during the period of fragmentation, the rulers of the regions, had the right to land, along with the peasants who sat on it, on the terms of service. There was no serfdom, but landowners could demand that the peasants work for them every fifth day - a kind of corvée. Slavery also existed, but was of an auxiliary nature.

CONCLUSIONS. In the considered part of Tropical Africa, except for Ethiopia, the formation of state formations began approximately in the 8th century BC. Socio-economic relations were characterized by diversity. Depending on local conditions and stages of social development, slave-owning (earlier stage) or early feudal (later stage) relations prevailed. But the presence throughout the region of a significant layer of communal peasants contributed to the development of feudal elements as a leading trend. The considered type of social relations, in general, is closer to the medieval civilizations of the East. But, unlike them, there were no clearly defined social groups - estates here until the 19th century. There was a kind of ingrowth of the tribal system into the state, which made up the specifics of African civilization.

The peculiarity of this civilization, probably (there are different opinions), was caused by the fact that the ruling strata began to stand out here not due to the appearance of an excess product in routinely developing agriculture, but in the process of fighting for income from transit trade, which was most active in Western Sudan. The agricultural population did not need the objects of this trade and did not participate in it. Therefore, tribal-communal orders were preserved in the countryside for a long time, on which the organized power of the tribal aristocracy was imposed in a certain way from above.

The state here was formed without the allocation of social groups and private property. The ruling stratum is not only at first, but for a long time, before the arrival of the Europeans - big families - clans. Their heads became leaders. The servants with them turned out to be relatives who, due to family ties, were not paid for their service with land. Therefore, there was no private ownership of land. The lowest ruling stratum in the communities is the heads of families, who at the same time become, as it were, administrators. Under such conditions, naturally, the separation of the ruling stratum from the bulk of the population, its transformation into a special estate, and even more so into a class, proceeded very slowly and in many places has not been completed to this day. Stagewise, this is a very protracted early stage in the formation of feudalism, which in Europe, for example, was overcome in 100-150 years.

It should be noted that feudalism in the considered part of Africa is not recognized by those researchers who understand by feudalism only the domination of large feudal landownership. The author of this manual, let me remind you, considers a feudal society to be one that is characterized by the whole complex of socio-political and economic relationships of the Middle Ages (power based on personal domination, existing at the expense of various types of rent from users-peasants sitting on the land). With this understanding, a society can be considered feudal, the life of which is determined by the subjective aspirations of the landowning nobility, who subordinated the objectively existing economic and social laws to their will. The discrepancy between these two factors, the ignorance by the feudal class of these objectively existing laws, ultimately led to the disintegration of the feudal order.

Ethiopia by origin and typologically close to the Middle Eastern model.

The total area of Tropical Africa is more than 20 million km 2, the population is 600 million people. It is also called Black Africa, since the vast majority of the population of the subregion belongs to the equatorial (Negroid) race. But in terms of ethnic composition, individual parts of Tropical Africa differ quite strongly. It is most complex in West and East Africa, where at the junction of different races and linguistic families, the greatest "interlacing" of ethnic and political boundaries arose. The population of Central and South Africa speaks numerous (with dialects up to 600), but closely related languages of the Bantu family (this word means "people"). Swahili is the most widely spoken language. And the population of Madagascar speaks the languages of the Austronesian family. .

There is also much in common in the economy and settlement of the population of the countries of Tropical Africa. Tropical Africa is the most backward part of the developing world, within its borders are 29 least developed countries. Now it is the only major region world, where the main sphere of material production is agriculture.

About half of the rural residents are engaged in natural Agriculture, the rest - low-commodity. Hoe tillage prevails with the almost complete absence of a plow; It is no coincidence that the hoe, as a symbol of agricultural labor, is included in the image of the state emblems of a number of African countries. All major agricultural work is done by women and children. They cultivate root and tuber crops (cassava or cassava, yams, sweet potatoes), from which they make flour, cereals, cereals, flat cakes, as well as millet, copgo, rice, corn, bananas, and vegetables. Animal husbandry is much less developed, including because of the tsetse fly, and if it plays a significant role (Ethiopia, Kenya, Somalia), it is carried out extremely extensively. In the equatorial forests there are tribes and even peoples who still live by hunting, fishing and gathering. In the zone of savannahs and tropical rainforests, the basis of consumer agriculture is the slash-and-burn system of the fallow type.

Against the general background, areas of commercial crop production stand out sharply with a predominance of perennial plantations - cocoa, coffee, peanuts, hevea, oil palm, tea, sisal, spices. Some of these crops are cultivated on plantations, and some - on peasant farms. It is they who primarily determine the monocultural specialization of a number of countries.

According to the main occupation, the majority of the population of Tropical Africa lives in rural areas. The savannahs are dominated by large riverside villages, while the tropical forests are dominated by small villages.

The life of the villagers is closely connected with the subsistence farming they lead. Local traditional beliefs are widespread among them: the cult of ancestors, fetishism, belief in the spirits of nature, magic, witchcraft, and various talismans. Africans believe. that the spirits of the dead remain on earth, that the spirits of the ancestors strictly monitor the deeds of the living and can harm them if any traditional commandment is violated. Christianity and Islam brought from Europe and Asia also became quite widespread in Tropical Africa. .

Tropical Africa is the least industrialized (apart from Oceania) region of the world. Only one fairly large mining area has developed here, the Copper Belt in the Democratic Republic of the Congo and Zambia. This industry also forms several smaller areas, which you already know.

Tropical Africa is the least urbanized region in the world(See Figure 18). Only eight of its countries have millionaire cities, which usually rise like lone giants above numerous provincial towns. Examples of this kind are Dakar in Senegal, Kinshasa in the Democratic Republic of the Congo, Nairobi in Kenya, Luanda in Angola.

Tropical Africa also lags far behind in the development of the transport network. Its pattern is determined by the "penetration lines" isolated from each other, leading from the ports to the hinterland. In many countries there are no railways at all. It is customary to carry small loads on the head, and at a distance of up to 30-40 km.

Finally, in T In tropical Africa, environmental quality is rapidly deteriorating. Desertification, deforestation, depletion of flora and fauna have assumed the most menacing proportions here.

Example. The main area of drought and desertification is the Sahel zone, stretching along the southern borders of the Sahara from Mauritania to Ethiopia across ten countries. In 1968-1974. not a single rain fell here, and the Sahel turned into a scorched earth zone. In the first half and in the middle of the 80s. catastrophic droughts have recurred. They claimed millions of human lives. The number of livestock has been greatly reduced.

What happened in the area came to be called the "Sahelian tragedy". But it is not only nature that is to blame. The onset of the Sahara is facilitated by overgrazing, the destruction of forests, primarily for firewood. .

In some countries of Tropical Africa, measures are being taken to protect flora and fauna, and national parks are being created. First of all, this applies to Kenya, where international tourism in terms of income is second only to coffee exports. . (Creative task 8.)

SUBREGIONS OF AFRICA

The economic zoning of Africa has not yet taken shape. In educational and scientific literature, it is usually divided into two large natural and cultural-historical sub-regions: North Africa and Tropical Africa (or "Sub-Saharan Africa"). As part of Tropical Africa, in turn, it is customary to single out West, Central, East and South Africa.

North Africa. The total area of North Africa is about 10 million km 2, the population is 170 million people. The position of the sub-region is primarily determined by its Mediterranean "facade", thanks to which North Africa actually neighbors with Southern Europe and South-West Asia and gets access to the main sea route from Europe to Asia. The "rear" of the region is formed by the sparsely inhabited spaces of the Sahara.

North Africa is the cradle of ancient Egyptian civilization, whose contribution to world culture you already know. In ancient times, Mediterranean Africa was considered the granary of Rome; traces of underground drainage galleries and other structures can still be found among the lifeless sea of sand and stone. Many coastal towns trace their origins to ancient Roman and Carthaginian settlements. The Arab colonization of the 7th-12th centuries had a huge impact on the ethnic composition of the population, its culture, religion and way of life. North Africa is still called Arab today: almost all of its population speaks Arabic and professes Islam.

The economic life of North Africa is concentrated in the coastal zone. Here are the main centers of the manufacturing industry, the main areas of subtropical agriculture, including those on irrigated lands. Naturally, almost the entire population of the region is concentrated in this zone. The countryside is dominated by adobe houses with flat roofs and earthen floors. Cities also have a very characteristic appearance. Therefore, geographers and ethnographers single out a special, Arabic type of city, which, like other eastern cities, is characterized by a division into two parts - old and new.

The core of the old part of the city is usually a kasbah - a fortification (citadel) located on an elevated place. The Kasbah is surrounded by a close ring of other quarters of the old city, built up with low houses with flat roofs and blank fences of yards. Their main attraction is the colorful oriental bazaars. This whole old city, often surrounded by protective walls, is called medina, which means "city" in Arabic. Already outside the medina is a new, modern part of the city.

All these contrasts are most pronounced in the largest cities, the appearance of which acquires not only national, but also cosmopolitan features. Probably, first of all, this applies to Cairo - the capital and largest city of Egypt, an important political, cultural and religious center of the entire Arab world. Cairo is exceptionally well located at the point where the narrow Nile valley merges into the fertile Delta, the premier cotton-growing region where the world's finest long-staple cotton is grown. This region was called delta by Herodotus, who noticed that in configuration it resembles the ancient Greek letter delta. In 1969, Cairo celebrated its 1000th anniversary.

The southern part of the subregion is very sparsely populated. The agricultural population is concentrated in the oases, where the main consumer and commercial crop is the date palm. On the rest of the territory, and even then not on the whole, only nomadic camel breeders live, and in the Algerian and Libyan parts of the Sahara there are oil and gas fields.

Only along the Nile valley does a narrow "band of life" wedged into the realm of the desert far to the south. Of great importance for the development of the whole of Upper Egypt was the construction, with the economic and technical assistance of the USSR, of the Aswan hydroelectric complex on the Nile.

Tropical Africa. The total area of Tropical Africa is more than 20 million km2, the population is 650 million people. It is also called "black Africa", since the population of the subregion in its overwhelming part belongs to the equatorial (Negroid) race. But in terms of ethnic composition, individual parts of Tropical Africa differ quite strongly. It is most complex in West and East Africa, where at the junction of different races and language families, the greatest "pattern" of ethnic and political boundaries arose. The population of Central and South Africa speaks numerous (with dialects up to 600), but closely related languages of the Bantu family (this word means "people"). Swahili is the most widely spoken language. And the population of Madagascar speaks the languages of the Austronesian family.

There is also much in common in the economy and settlement of the population of the countries of Tropical Africa. Tropical Africa is the most backward part of the entire developing world; it contains 29 least developed countries. Today it is the only major region in the world where agriculture remains the main area of material production.

About half of the rural residents are engaged in subsistence agriculture, the rest - low-commodity. Hoe tillage prevails with the almost complete absence of a plow; It is no coincidence that the hoe, as a symbol of agricultural labor, is included in the image of the state emblems of a number of African countries. All major agricultural work is done by women and children. They cultivate root and tuber crops (cassava or cassava, yame, sweet potato), from which they make flour, cereals, cereals, flat cakes, as well as millet, sorghum, rice, corn, bananas, and vegetables. Animal husbandry is much less developed, including because of the tsetse fly, and if it plays a significant role (Ethiopia, Kenya, Somalia), it is carried out extremely extensively. In the equatorial forests there are tribes, and even peoples, who still live by hunting, fishing and gathering. In the zone of savannahs and tropical rainforests, the basis of consumer agriculture is the slash-and-burn system of the fallow type.

Against the general background, areas of commercial crop production stand out sharply with a predominance of perennial plantations - cocoa, coffee, peanuts, hevea, oil palm, tea, sisal, spices. Some of these crops are cultivated on plantations, and some on peasant farms. It is they who primarily determine the monocultural specialization of a number of countries.

The life of the villagers is closely connected with the subsistence farming they lead. Local traditional beliefs are widespread among them: the cult of ancestors, fetishism, belief in the spirits of nature, magic, witchcraft, and various talismans. Africans believe that the spirits of the dead remain on earth, that the spirits of the ancestors strictly monitor the actions of the living and can harm them if any traditional commandment is violated. Christianity and Islam brought from Europe and Asia also became quite widespread in Tropical Africa.

Tropical Africa is the least industrialized (apart from Oceania) region of the world. Only one fairly large mining area has developed here - the Copper Belt in the Congo (formerly Zaire) and Zambia.

Tropical Africa is the least urbanized region in the world. Only in eight of its countries there are "millionaire" cities, which usually rise like lone giants above numerous provincial towns. Examples of this kind are Dakar in Senegal, Kinshasa in the Democratic Republic of the Congo, Nairobi in Kenya, Luanda in Angola.

Finally, in sub-Saharan Africa, the quality of the environment is rapidly deteriorating. It was here that desertification, deforestation, and depletion of flora and fauna assumed the most menacing proportions. Example. The main area of drought and desertification is the Sahel zone, stretching along the southern borders of the Sahara from Mauritania to Ethiopia across ten countries. In 1968-1974. not a single rain fell here, and the Sahel turned into a scorched earth zone. In the first half and in the middle of the 80s. catastrophic droughts have recurred. They claimed millions of human lives. The number of livestock has been greatly reduced.

What happened in the area came to be called the "Sahelian tragedy". But it is not only nature that is to blame. The offensive of the Sahara is facilitated by overgrazing, the destruction of forests, primarily for firewood.

Tasks and tests on the topic "Subregions of Africa"

States of Africa - Africa Grade 7
Lessons: 3 Assignments: 9 Tests: 1
Tests: 1

Leading ideas: show the diversity of cultural worlds, models of economic and political development, the interconnection and interdependence of the countries of the world; and also to be convinced of the need for a deep understanding of the patterns of social development and the processes that are taking place in the world.

Basic concepts: Western European (North American) type of transport system, port industrial complex, "axis of development", metropolitan region, industrial belt, "false urbanization", latifundia, shipstations, megalopolis, "technopolis", "growth pole", "growth corridors"; colonial type of branch structure, monoculture, apartheid, subregion.

Skills and abilities: be able to assess the impact of the EGP and GWP, the history of settlement and development, the characteristics of the population and labor resources of the region, the country on the sectoral and territorial structure of the economy, the level of economic development, the role in the MGRT of the region, the country; identify problems and predict the prospects for the development of the region, country; highlight the specific, defining features of individual countries and give them an explanation; find similarities and differences in the population and economy of individual countries and give them an explanation, compile and analyze maps and cartograms.

The division of Africa into sub-regions: two main ones.

The economic zoning of Africa has not yet taken shape. In educational and scientific literature, it is usually divided into two large natural and cultural-historical subregions: North Africa and Tropical Africa (or "Sub-Saharan Africa"). As part of Tropical Africa, in turn, it is customary to distinguish Western, Central, Eastern and Southern Africa(but without South Africa).

North Africa: the image of the territory.

The total area of North Africa is about 10 million km 2, the population is about 200 million people. The position of the sub-region is primarily determined by its Mediterranean "facade", thanks to which North Africa actually neighbors with Southern Europe and South-West Asia and gets access to the main sea route from Europe to Asia. The “rear” of the region is formed by the sparsely inhabited spaces of the Sahara.

North Africa is the cradle of ancient Egyptian civilization, whose contribution to world culture you already know. In ancient times, Mediterranean Africa was considered the granary of Rome; traces of underground drainage galleries and other structures can still be found among the lifeless sea of sand and stone. Many coastal towns trace their origins to ancient Roman and Carthaginian settlements. The Arab colonization of the 6th-12th centuries had a huge impact on the ethnic composition of the population, its culture, religion and way of life. Northern Africa is still called Arab today: almost all of its population speaks Arabic and professes Islam.

The economic life of North Africa is concentrated in the coastal zone. Here are the main centers of the manufacturing industry, the main areas of subtropical agriculture, including those on irrigated lands. Naturally, almost the entire population of the region is concentrated in this zone. The countryside is dominated by adobe houses with flat roofs and earthen floors.

Cities also have a very characteristic appearance. Therefore, geographers and ethnographers distinguish a special, arabic city, which, like other eastern cities, is characterized by a division into two parts - the old and the new.

The core of the old part of the city is usually a kasbah - a fortification (citadel) located on an elevated place. Kasbah is surrounded by a close ring of other quarters of the old city, built up with low houses with flat roofs and blank fences of yards. Their main attraction is the colorful oriental bazaars. This whole old city, often surrounded by protective walls, is called medina, which in Arabic means "city" (see figure 78). Already outside the medina is a new, modern part of the city.

All these contrasts are most pronounced in the largest cities, the appearance of which acquires not only national, but also cosmopolitan features. Probably, first of all, this applies to Cairo - the capital and largest city of Egypt, an important political, cultural and religious center of the entire Arab world. Cairo is exceptionally well located at the point where the narrow Nile valley merges into the fertile Delta, the premier cotton-growing region where the world's finest long-staple cotton is grown. This area was called delta by Herodotus, who noticed that in configuration it resembles the ancient Greek letter "delta" (see the map in the atlas). In 1969, Cairo celebrated its 1000th anniversary.

The southern part of the subregion is very sparsely populated. The agricultural population is concentrated in the oases, where the main consumer and commercial crop is the date palm. On the rest of the territory, and even then not on the whole, only nomadic camel breeders live. and in the Algerian and Libyan parts of Saxara there are oil and gas fields.

Only along the Nile Valley does a narrow "band of life" wedged into the kingdom of the desert far to the south. Of great importance for the development of the entire upper Egypt was the construction, with the economic and technical assistance of the USSR, of the Asyyan hydroelectric complex on the Nile. . (Task 7.)

Exercise 1.

Using Table 1 in the "Appendices", plot the countries of Africa that gained political independence after the Second World War on a contour map. Indicate the dates of independence and compare in this respect the countries of North and Tropical Africa.

Using the "visiting card" on the flyleaf of the textbook, select the appropriate "pairs" of countries in Africa and foreign Europe, approximately equal in size to the territory.

Task 2.

Using the maps of the atlas and tables 3-5 of the "Appendices", classify the countries of Africa according to the degree of their wealth in minerals. Make a table in the following form:

Draw conclusions about the provision of these countries with raw materials and fuel for the development of heavy industry

Additional task (difficult).

Using the same sources, determine the main territorial combinations of minerals. Oxapacterize the composition of the fossils in each of them; try to connect it with the tectonic structure of the territory. Plot combinations of minerals on a contour map.

Task 3.

Using figures 7, 8 and 9, tables 6, 7 and 8 in the "Appendices" and maps of the atlas, specify and complete the characteristics of the land, water and agro-climatic resources of Africa contained in the text of the textbook.

Task 4.

Using Table 3, quantify the "urban explosion" in Africa. What conclusions can be drawn from these calculations?

Task 5.

Analyze figure 77. Using the economic map of Africa in the atlas, indicate specifically which ore, non-metallic minerals, food products and types of agricultural raw materials determine the monocultural specialization of each of the countries indicated in the graph.

Task 6.

According to the physical and economic maps of Africa in the atlas, determine: 1) the main areas of the mining industry in Africa and their specialization, 2) the main areas of commercial agriculture and their specialization, 3) trans-African transport routes. Also use the drawings of topic 5 of the textbook.

Additional task (creative!).

Using the atlas maps, make a table in your notebook "Zone specialization of export and consumer crops in Africa" in the following form:

Draw all possible conclusions from the analysis of this table.

Task 7 (creative!).

Using the text of the textbook and the plan of Cairo in the atlas, prepare a message on the topic "Cairo - the Arab city of North Africa." Use additional sources of information as well.

Additional task (for fun).

Imagine that you have taken a journey down the Nile from Aswan to the mouth. Describe your trip in a letter to a friend. Try to create a colorful image of this territory.

Task 8 (creative!).

What do you think should be done to prevent a recurrence of the "Sahel tragedy" in the future? Give a rationale for your "project".

Additional task (for fun).

In his novel Five Weeks in a Balloon, Jules Verne recounted a journey through Africa in a hot air balloon. "Repeat" the route of this trip. In what countries are and what are the areas of Africa described by the writer today?

Task 9 (final).

1. (Work in a notebook.) Compare the countries of North, Tropical Africa and South Africa according to some indicators characterizing their population and economy. Determine the similarities and differences. Arrange the necessary data in the form of a table.
2. Compare the major extractive industries in North Africa and Southwest Asia. What conclusion can be drawn from this comparison?
3. Compare the main export crops of Tropical Africa and South Asia. What conclusion can be drawn from this comparison?
4. For class demonstration, prepare a small album entitled “Geography of Africa on Postage Stamps.”

Block of self-control and mutual control
Answer the questions:
1. Why is the shift of the population to the coasts of the oceans and seas in Africa less pronounced than in overseas Asia?
2. Why is the Congo River not used for the export of industrial products from the Common Belt?
3. Why is Cairo called "the diamond button that fastens the delta"?
4. Why is Senegal called the "Peanut Republic"?

Are the following statements correct:
1. Most African countries achieved independence in the second half of the 20th century.
2. Africa is the region with the highest birth rate and the highest death rate in the world.
3. African countries are characterized by high rates of urbanization.
4. Nigeria's main mineral is bauxite.

Choose the correct answer:
1. The largest country in Africa by population ... (Egypt, Ethiopia, Nigeria, South Africa).
2. The most important types of minerals in North Africa are ... (coal, iron ore, bauxite, oil, natural gas, phosphorites).
3. The least developed countries in Africa include ... (Algeria, Ethiopia, Chad, Niger, Somalia, South Africa).
4. The main export crops of Tropical Africa are ... (wheat, millet, cotton, citrus fruits, peanuts, coffee, cocoa, natural rubber, sisal).

Can you:
1. Put the following countries, mentioned in the text and on text maps, on the contour map of the world from memory: Libya, Algeria, Sudan, Ghana, Congo, Angola, Zimbabwe, Namibia, Mozambique, Madagascar?
2. Show on the map the following cities mentioned in the text and on maps: Cairo, Kinshasa, Addis Ababa, Nairobi, Lagos, Dakar, Luanda, Johannesburg?
3. Explain the meaning of the following concepts and terms: monoculture, subsistence economy, apartheid?
4. Indicate which of the following countries are the main producers and exporters of cocoa: Ivory Coast, Ghana, Nigeria, Tanzania, Angola?

Identify the countries to which the following statements apply:
1. A country located on an island with an area of 600 thousand km 2.
2. Countries located "inside" the territory of South Africa.
3. A country lying on the middle course of the Niger River and not having access to the seas.
4. Country whose capital is the city of Nairobi.
5. A country where 98% of the population is concentrated in a territory that occupies less than 4% of its total area.

Fill in the gaps in the following phrases:
1. The copper belt stretches from Zambia to the southeastern part ....
2. ... - the largest producer and exporter of oil in Africa, a member of OPEC
3. South Africa produces... all of Africa's manufacturing products.

Methodical keys to topic 8

What needs to be remembered
1. The political map and the peoples of Africa. (Geography, grade 7.)

2. Features of the physical and geographical position, relief, minerals, climate, waters, soils and vegetation of Africa, natural zones within it.
(Geography, grade 7.)

3. Ancient Egypt. (History, grade 5.)

4. The main content of the national liberation struggle of the peoples of Africa in the late XIX - early XX century. (History, grade 8.)

5. Material of part 1 of this textbook.

6. Concepts and terms: colony, bantustan, platform, desert, savannah, equatorial forest, kimberlite pipe, national park.

What you need to know
Topic Leading Ideas 8.
The transformation of the socio-economic structure of Africa requires great efforts on the part of both the African peoples and the entire world community.

Main scientific knowledge of topic 8:
1. Characteristic features of the economic and geographical position, geography of natural conditions and resources, population, industry, agriculture, environmental problems of Africa.

2. The concept of monoculture.

3. The image of the territory of North Africa.

4. The image of the territory of Tropical Africa.

5. Brief overview of South Africa.

6. Keywords of the theme: 1) colonial type of sectoral structure of the economy, 2) monoculture, 3) Arab city type.

What you need to know
1. Using a textbook and an atlas, independently obtain the necessary knowledge for characterization.

2. To carry out a comparative description of industries, regions and cities.

3. Prepare a summary of the report on a given topic.

Maksakovskiy V.P., Geography. Economic and social geography of the world 10 cells. : studies. for general education institutions

Sub-regions of North and Tropical Africa. South Africa