Categories of modality and its role in language. The meaning of the word modality in a large modern explanatory dictionary of the Russian language
Modality is a conceptual category. It expresses the relationship of the reported to its actual implementation, established (determined) by the speaker. The relation of an utterance to reality in the Russian language is expressed using various means - lexical, morphological, syntactic.
A special morphological means of expressing the modality of an utterance are the mood forms of the verb, which convey a wide variety of modal meanings and shades (see § 143).
The syntactic means of expressing modality are, first of all, various types of introductory and plug-in words and constructions (phrases and sentences), for example: I believe, believe, as we see, to tell the truth, I assure you, of course, beyond (without) any doubt, as far as I remember , we are all deeply convinced, it is high time to admit, etc.
Various meanings of modality are inherent in narrative (affirmative, negative), interrogative, motivating, exclamatory sentences. Cf .: Birds fly south. It's morning already. It's getting light. Nobody came to me. I do not agree with this. Go away! Who is this? Get up! You should lie down. Sit down. Sits to himself. How I love you! It's time to sleep. Is it possible to trust him? It would be nice to sleep now. I need you!..
Modal meanings are included in the semantic content of many significant words related to various parts of speech. These are, for example: 1) nouns: true, false (not) true,
doubt, assumption, possibility, etc. 2) adjectives: (not) correct, (not) false, (not) possible, (optional, doubtful; sure, should, etc.; 3) adverbs: (not) ) correct, (impossible, (not) necessarily, doubtful, confident, etc. 4) verbs: assert, deny, doubt, assume, assure, etc. Such words express modality lexically. These words of different parts of speech are combined into one lexico-semantic group by a common type of lexical meaning - the designation of modality. At the same time, these words are grammatically heterogeneous, each of them has all the grammatical features of its part of speech.
Against the background of such words, the so-called modal words stand out, separated into an independent part of speech. They are combined on the basis of common lexical meaning and grammatical properties and functions.
More on the topic § 189. Modality and means of its expression in Russian.:
- Means of expressing communicative meanings in Russian
- 22. Modal frame of the statement. Means of expressing subjective modality.
- INTONATION AS A MEANS OF EXPRESSING SUBJECTIVE-MODAL MEANINGS
"SURGUT STATE UNIVERSITY
Khanty-Mansiysk Autonomous Okrug - Ugra"
FACULTY OF LINGUISTICS
Department of Linguistics and Intercultural Communication
COURSE WORK
Topic: "Comparative analysis of modality in Russian and English (based on the works of K. Mansfield and their translation into Russian)"
Surgut 2012
Introduction
Chapter I. Theoretical Aspects of Modality
1 General concept of modality
2 Definition of modality
4 Ways of expressing modality in English
4.1 Mood and modality
4.2 Modal words
4.3 Modal verbs
5 Ways of expressing modality in Russian
5.1 Mood and modality
5.2 Modal words
5.3 Modal particles
Chapter II. Practical aspects of modality
1 Comparative method
2.2 The verb Must and Have to
3 Verbs Can and Could
4 Verbs May and Might
5 The verbs Should and Ought to
2.6 Modal words
Conclusion
List of used literature
Applications
Introduction
This course work is a comparative study of the category of modality in Russian and English. In linguistics, the problem of modality has received extensive coverage. This problem was paid attention to by such scientists as Sh. Balli, V.V. Vinogradov, A.A. Potebnya, I. D. Arutyunova, A. J. Thomson, I. Heinrich, B.F. Matthies, S.S. Vaulina, N.S. Valgin and others.
The relevance of this workis that modality has been at the center of linguistic research since the 1940s. Its properties are still poorly understood, as evidenced by the increased interest in this phenomenon on the part of modern researchers. Object of studymodality in modern English and Russian languages. Subject of studyare modal verbs, words, particles and mood forms of the verb. The purpose of this workis to identify ways to express modality in Russian and English and systematize existing knowledge about it. In the course of our research, we have identified the following tasks:
.Give an interpretation of the concept of modality in general; .Analyze various approaches to the definition of the category of modality that exist in linguistics; .Identify the difference between modality and inclination; .To characterize the means of expressing modality in Russian and English; .Consider the expression of modality on the material of the works of K. Mansfield and their translation into Russian. When writing the course work, the following were used methods: method of analysis, method of observation, method of comparison, method of statistical processing. Practical valueof this work is determined by the possibility of applying the results of the study in linguodidactics when studying a literary text, in teaching elective courses and conducting seminars (on theoretical grammar, functional stylistics and other disciplines), when comparing textbooks and teaching aids. Work structure. The work consists of an introduction, two chapters, a conclusion and a list of references. Chapter I. Theoretical Aspects of Modality 1 General concept of modality Perhaps there is no other category about which so many conflicting points of view would be expressed. Many authors include in the category of modality the most heterogeneous meanings in their essence, functional purpose and belonging to the levels of the language structure. Meanwhile, the problem of modality and the linguistic means of its expression is widely discussed in linguistics and logic, since this category belongs to the area of linguistic phenomena where their connection with the logical structure and thinking is the most direct. Modality is an important characteristic of a sentence, where it acts as a language unit, and on the other hand, it is considered as an essential feature of a judgment as a form of thinking. Therefore, the analysis of the linguistic category of modality can be carried out only in close connection with the analysis of the logical category of modality. 2 Definition of modality Linguistics has come a long and winding path in the study of modality, based on the achievements of logic, semiotics and psychology. However, modality has not yet received a full explanation due to its versatility, specificity of linguistic expression and functional features. Researchers give different definitions of the category "modality". Let's consider some concepts. O.S. Akhmanova considers modality as “a conceptual category with the meaning of the speaker’s attitude to the content of the statement and the relationship of the content of the statement to reality (the relationship of the reported to its actual implementation), expressed by various lexical and grammatical means, for example, mood forms, modal verbs, etc.” Modality can have the meaning of statements, orders, wishes, assumptions, reliability, unreality, etc. In the definition of O.S. Akhmanova says that modality can have several meanings, one of which is reliability. In a sentence, the speaker or writer formulates the thought that he wants to convey to the listener or reader. Sentences differ from each other in terms of the purpose of the statement, in emotional coloring, and also in the degree of truth or falsity of the information contained in them, that is, in the degree of reliability. Unlike declarative and interrogative sentences, which are differentiated by subjective modality, incentive sentences with a verb-predicate in the imperative mood do not differ in the degree of reliability of the transmitted content. In this sentence, the modal word expresses not the degree of certainty, but the intensity of the impulse. Thus, we have three structures of the same type, three levels, each of which has its own truth, its own lies and its own uncertainty. The level of categoricalness of the statement decreases as you move from knowledge to certainty, and then to the area of uncertainty. The Russian dictionary of foreign words gives the following definition: modality [fr. Modalite< лат. Modus способ, наклонение] - грамматическая категория, обозначающая отношение содержания предложения к действительности и выражающаяся формами наклонения глагола, интонацией, вводными словами и так далее . The large encyclopedic dictionary "Linguistics" gives the following wording: modality [from cf. lat. modalis - modal; lat. modus - measure, method] - a functional-semantic category that expresses different types of relation of the statement to reality, as well as different types of subjective qualification of the reported. Modality is a linguistic universal, it belongs to the main categories of natural language. According to M.Ya. Bloch, modality is the semantics of the relations of denotations to reality. Modality is not considered as a specific category of sentence. This is a broader category, which can be identified both in the field of grammatical and structural elements of the language, and in the field of its lexical and nominative elements. In this sense, any word that expresses some assessment of the relationship of the named substance with the surrounding reality must be recognized as modal. This includes significant words of modal-evaluative semantics, semi-functional words of probability and necessity, modal verbs with their numerous variants of evaluative meanings. The results of the study of linguistic modality, obtained in the works of G.A. Zolotova, deserve special attention. It defines modality as the subjective-objective relation of the content of the statement to reality in terms of its reliability, reality, compliance or non-correspondence with reality. “The content of the proposal may or may not correspond to reality. The opposition of these two basic modal meanings - real (direct) modality and unreal (unreal, indirect, hypothetical, presumptive) modality forms the basis of the modal characteristics of the sentence. V.V. Vinogradov in his work “Research on Russian Grammar” adhered to the concept that a sentence, reflecting reality in its practical public awareness, expresses relation (attitude) to reality, therefore, the category of modality is closely connected with the sentence, with the variety of its types. Each sentence includes, as an essential constructive feature, a modal meaning, that is, it contains an indication of the relationship to reality. He believed that the category of modality belongs to the main, central linguistic categories, in various forms, found in languages of different systems. V.V. Vinogradov also noted that the content of the category of modality and the forms of its discovery are historically changeable. The semantic category of modality in languages of different systems has a mixed lexical and grammatical character. In the languages of the European system, it covers the entire fabric of speech. If in Soviet linguistics the founder of the concept of modality was V.V. Vinogradov, then in Western European linguistics this role belongs to S. Bally. According to the Swiss scientist, “modality is the soul of the sentence; like thought, it is formed mainly as a result of the active operation of the speaking subject. Therefore, one cannot attach the meaning of a sentence to an utterance if it does not contain at least some expression of modality. The content of the syntactic category of modality in the light of the theory of S. Bally combines two meanings, which he, following the example of logicians, proposes to call: 1) dictum (objective content of the sentence) and 2) modus (expression of the position of the thinking subject in relation to this content). “The speaker gives his thoughts either an objective, rational form that is as close as possible to reality, or most often puts emotional elements into the expression in various doses; sometimes the latter reflect purely personal motives of the speaker, and sometimes they are modified under the influence of social conditions, that is, depending on the real or imagined presence of some other persons (one or more). If we turn to English-language literature with questions about modality, it turns out that they are covered only in grammar books. British and American grammarians believe that modality is conveyed by auxiliary verbs expressing different types of subjective attitude to an event or action. The meanings of obligation, possibilities, probabilities, doubts, assumptions, requests, permissions, wishes, and others are recognized as modal. The concept of modality first appeared in Aristotle's Metaphysics (he singled out three main modal concepts: necessity, possibility and reality), from where it passed into classical philosophical systems. We find various judgments about modality in Theophrastus and Eudemus of Rhodes, commentators on Aristotle, and later in the medieval scholastics. A.B. Shapiro names two main types of modality with partial selection of some varieties in them: · real, in which the content of the sentence is considered as coinciding with reality (in this case, we are talking about sentences in the affirmative and negative form); · unreal with the following varieties: a) convention; b) motivation; c) desirability; d) obligation and possibilities close to it - impossibility. Analyzing the category of modality from the content side, the scientist comes to the following conclusion: “The linguistic means by which the speaker’s emotions are expressed, as well as the expressive coloring of statements, have nothing to do with the means of expressing modality in a sentence. Emotionality can be accompanied by sentences with a variety of modalities: affirmative and negative modalities can be colored by emotions of joy, sympathy, friendliness and, conversely, by emotions of sadness, annoyance, regret; the same and many other emotions can be accompanied by modalities of motivation, obligation. V.V. Vinogradov in his work “On the category of modality and modal words in the Russian language” classified the means of expressing modality and “outlined their functional hierarchy”. He writes: “Since the sentence, reflecting reality in its practical social consciousness, naturally reflects the relation (relation) of the content of speech to reality, the category of modality is closely connected with the sentence, with the variety of its types.” Thus, this category is included by scientists in the sphere of syntax, where it manifests itself in a modal relation to reality from the position of the speaker. He uses, synonymously, the terms "modal meanings", "modal shades", "expressive-modal shades", which include "everything that is connected with the attitude of the speaker to reality". The following are considered modal: · meanings of desire, intention, desire to perform or perform some action; · expression of will to carry out some action, request, command, order; · emotional attitude, emotional characteristics, moral and ethical assessment, emotional and volitional qualification of an action; · meanings of unreality (hypothetical); · quantitative and qualitative assessment of individual thoughts from the composition of the message. N.S. Valgina in the book "Theory of Text" calls modality "the most important element of text formation and text perception", which holds all units of the text together into a single semantic and structural whole. She also draws attention to the distinction between the subjective modality, which determines the attitude of the speaker to the statement, and the objective one, which expresses the attitude of the statement to reality. The modality of the text as a whole is an expression of the author's attitude to the message, his concept, point of view, position of his value orientations. The modality of the text helps to perceive the text not as the sum of individual units, but as a whole work. To determine the modality of the text, according to Valgina, the image of the author (“personal attitude to the subject of the image embodied in the speech structure of the text”) is very important, which plays a cementing role - it connects all elements of the text into one whole and is the semantic and stylistic center of any work. According to G.F. Musaeva, the category of modality is differentiated into two types: objective and subjective. Objective modality is a mandatory feature of any statement, one of the categories that form a predicative unit - a sentence. This type of modality expresses the relation of what is reported to reality in terms of reality (feasibility or feasibility). Objective modality is organically connected with the category of time and is differentiated on the basis of temporal certainty - uncertainty. The meaning of time and reality - irreality merged together; the complex of these meanings is called objective-modal meanings. Subjective modality is the relation of the speaker to the reported. Unlike objective modality, it is an optional feature of the utterance. The semantic volume of subjective modality is much wider than the semantic volume of objective modality. The semantic basis of the subjective modality is formed by the concept of evaluation in the broad sense of the word, including not only the logical (intellectual, rational) qualification of the reported, but also various types of emotional (irrational) reactions. Evaluative and characterizing values include values that combine the expression of a subjective attitude to the reported with such a characteristic of it, which can be considered non-subjective, arising from the fact itself, the event, from its qualities, properties, from the nature of its flow in time or from its connections. and relationships with other facts and events. The scope of modality includes: · opposition of statements according to the nature of their communicative attitude; · gradations of values in the range "reality - unreality"; · varying degrees of confidence of the speaker in the reliability of his thoughts about reality; · various modifications of the connection between the subject and the predicate. G.A. Zolotova distinguishes three main modal planes: 1) the relation of the utterance to reality from the point of view of the speaker; 2) the attitude of the speaker to the content of the statement; 3) the relation of the subject of action to action. At the same time, she explains: “In the works of recent years devoted to the issues of modality, the terms objective modality and subjective modality are encountered.” Proposing to use precisely these concepts, G.A. Zolotova defines the relation in the first formulation as an objective modality, and in the second - as a subjective one. However, the third modal aspect (the relationship between the subject and the action) does not matter for the modal characteristics of the sentence. Fair, in our opinion, are her conclusions that: a) the main modal meaning, or objective modality is a necessary constructive feature of each sentence, subjective modality is an optional feature; b) subjective modality, without changing the main modal meaning of the sentence, presents this meaning in a special light. According to O.S. Akhmanova gives the following types of modality: · hypothetical (suppositional) modality). Presentation of the content of the statement as hypothetical; · verbal modality. The modality expressed by the verb; · unreal modality. Presentation of the content of the statement as impossible, unrealizable; · negative modality. Presentation of the content of the statement as untrue. The Russian grammar of 1980 notes that, firstly, modality is expressed by means of different levels of language, secondly, it is indicated that the category of objective modality correlates with the category of predicativity, and thirdly, a circle of phenomena related to the phenomena of modality is outlined: .the meaning of reality - irreality: reality is denoted by a syntactic indicative (present, past, future tense); unreality - unreal moods (subjunctive, conditional, desirable, incentive); .subjective-modal meaning - the attitude of the speaker to the reported; .the sphere of modality includes words (verbs, short adjectives, predicatives), which, with their lexical meanings, express the possibility, desire, obligation. So, the linguistic material shows that at the present stage of development of linguistics (mainly Russian), modality is considered as a universal functional-semantic category, that is, "as a system of grammatical meanings that manifests itself at different levels of the language" . “Linguistic modality is a vast and most complex linguistic phenomenon, its features do not fit within the framework of a one-plan operation of division as any specific grammatical category, although it is traditionally called a category. Modality is a whole class, a system of systems of grammatical meanings that manifest themselves at different levels of language and speech. The breadth and multidimensional functional essence of modality rightfully determine its status as a category…” . 4 Ways of expressing modality in English In modern English, there are grammatical and lexical means of expressing modality. Grammatical means are modal verbs and mood forms. Modal verbs convey various shades of modality, ranging from an assumption that borders on certainty to an assumption that the speaker is not sure about. Lexical means are modal words. Some linguists speak of modal words as an independent part of speech. Their syntactic function is the function of the introductory member of the sentence. The question of modal words was first raised by Russian linguists in relation to the Russian language. In foreign linguistics, this type was noted, but was not singled out as a special category. Modality can also be expressed in mood forms. However, these categories should not be identified. Mood is a morphological category of the verb, one of the means of expressing modality. Modality is broader than inclination. 4.1 Mood and modality Over the past 30 years, many works have appeared in which modality and mood are considered as grammatical categories. Among them we can see works by Lyons (1977), Coates (1983), Palmer (1986), Horn (1989), Traugott (1989), Sweetser (1990), Warner (1993), Bybee (1994), etc. The main reason to study modality and mood in terms of grammar, according to Plank (1984), is the ability of this category to reflect language changes in a diachronic process, such as grammaticalization processes. Grammarization occurs when lexical units or even constructions used in specific speech situations, after some period of time, can turn into a special grammatical category or into a more grammatical category, and then become more general and abstract. ) there is no clear definition of the categorical semantics of mood; ) when highlighting moods, various criteria are used (formal, semantic, functional); ) traditional grammars use mood systems similar to Latin, Greek and Old English grammars; ) there are different points of view on homonymy and polysemy of verb forms expressing modal meanings. Despite the apparent simplicity of definition, views on the number of moods, their semantics and means of expression (synthetic and analytical) are, nevertheless, very contradictory. Let's consider the main approaches to determining inclinations. Generally accepted in traditional grammar is the system of three moods: indicative, imperative and subjunctive. This system is borrowed from Latin grammar. The indicative mood presents the action as a fact of reality. The imperative mood expresses the impulse to action. The subjunctive characterizes an action as not a fact, but its semantic range also includes non-modal meanings (an unreal condition, a consequence of an unreal condition, a goal, an unfulfilled desire, etc.). On this basis, the subjunctive mood is subdivided into subjunctive 1 and 2. Subsystems include up to five moods. Moreover, the means of expressing the subjunctive mood are also heterogeneous: they include, in addition to synthetic forms, analytical ones. Thus, the system of three moods has its drawbacks. According to the interpretation of L.S. Barkhudarov, two moods should be distinguished in English: indicative and imperative, and the opposition of these moods takes place within the categorical form of the non-past tense. The form of the imperative mood is semantically intense and expresses a call to action. The form of the indicative mood is semantically extensive: its specific meanings are realized only in specific contextual conditions through a different lexical and syntactic environment. At the same time, it should be noted that the leading modal meaning of this form is the correspondence of the content of the statement to reality established by the speaker. The subjunctive mood in modern English is represented by were and may not be taken into account. L.S. Barkhudarov, proceeding from the understanding of analytical forms substantiated by him, excludes all combinations of "modal verb + infinitive" from mood forms and considers them in syntax as free phrases. Past tense forms are excluded by L.S. Barkhudarov from among the mood forms on the grounds that the features of their meaning are determined by the syntactic conditions of their use, and not by the morphological structure. The value of unreality is considered as a derivative value of the categorical form of the past tense (Appendix 1). The interpretation of the category of mood and combinations of modal verbs with the infinitive, set out in the works of L.S. Barkhudarov, seems to us the most reasonable and realistically reflecting the facts of the language at the present stage of its development. modal verb semantics mood 1.4.2 Modal words Modal words express the subjective attitude of the speaker to the thought expressed in the sentence. Modal words have the meaning of assumption, doubt, probability, confidence of the speaker in the thought expressed in the sentence. Modal words include such words as: perhaps, may be, of course, surely, no doubt, in fact, in truth, etc., as well as words with the -1y suffix, coinciding in form with adverbs: possibly, robably , certainly, naturally, evidently, obviously, happily and others. Modal words stand in a special relation to the sentence. They are not members of the proposal, because, giving an assessment of the whole situation set out in the proposal, they find themselves as outside the proposal. Modal words can function as sentence words, similar to the affirmative and negative sentence words Yes and No. However, as B.A. Ilyish, the sentence words Yes and No never change their status, while modal words can be sentence words (in dialogue) or be introductory words in a sentence. Acting as an introductory member of a sentence, a modal word can take place at the beginning of a sentence, in the middle, and sometimes at the end of a sentence. Most of the modal words come from adverbs and coincide in form with adverbs of mode of action that have the suffix -1y. Modal words differ from adverbs in meaning and syntactic function. The meaning and syntactic function of an adverb is that it gives an objective description of an action, property, sign, or indicates the circumstances under which the action is performed, and refers to one member of the sentence. The modal word usually refers to the entire sentence as a whole and expresses the speaker's subjective attitude to the thought being expressed. 4.3 Modal verbs The group of modal verbs includes a small number of verbs that stand out among all verbs with a number of characteristic features in meaning, usage and grammatical forms. These verbs do not have any proper verbal grammatical category (type, temporal reference of the voice); they can only have forms of mood and time, which are indicators of the predicate. Because of this, and also because they lack non-predicative forms (infinitive, gerund, participles), modal verbs are on the periphery of the English verb system. By their role in the sentence, modal verbs are auxiliary. They denote the possibility, ability, probability, the need to perform an action expressed by a semantic verb. Since they express only a modal relation, and not an action, they are never used as a separate member of a sentence. Modal verbs are always combined only with the infinitive, forming combinations with it, which in the sentence is a complex modal predicate. By their etymology, most modal verbs are preterite-present. Modal verbs are Defective Verbs because they do not have all the forms that other verbs have. Their lack of inflection -s in the 3rd person singular of the present tense of the indicative mood is explained historically: the modern forms of the present were once forms of the past tense, and the 3rd number of the singular of the past tense did not have a personal ending. Modal verbs must, should - ought, will-would, can-could, may-might, need can express various shades of assumption. Scientists suggest that modal verbs express objective reality, while introductory words express subjective reality. It can be assumed that the verbs can and may specialize in the transfer of possible, intended actions, and the verbs must, should, might, in addition to the meaning of obligation, also convey the intended, probable actions, thus closely related to the meaning of introductory words, such as perhaps, possibly, probably, certainly. When modal words and introductory words are used simultaneously, in such cases we are dealing with synonymous constructions. In a sentence, modal verbs are always combined with an infinitive (perfect and non-perfect), forming one combination with it, which is called a compound modal predicate. Modal verbs are not used as separate members of a sentence. 5 Ways of expressing modality in Russian The facts of reality and their connections, being the content of the statement, can be thought of by the speaker as a reality, as a possibility or desirability, as an obligation or a necessity. The speaker's assessment of his statement from the point of view of the relation of the reported to the objective reality is called modality. Modality in Russian is expressed by mood forms, special intonation, as well as lexical means - modal words and particles. Academician A.A. Shakhmatov resolutely declared the presence in the language, in addition to moods, of other means of expressing modality. He wrote that modality, the nature and character of which have as their source solely the will of the speaker, his emotional urges, can receive several different verbal expressions: firstly, in the form of a verbal predicate, by changing its stem and endings; secondly, in special functional words accompanying the predicate or the main member of the sentence; thirdly, in a special order of words in a sentence; fourthly, in a special intonation of the predicate or the main member of a one-part sentence. In this paper, we will consider the opinion of Russian scientists regarding the distinction between modality and mood, as well as modal words and particles. 5.1 Mood and modality In speech, in concrete utterance, the relation of action to reality is established by the speaker. However, a certain type of attitude to reality is already laid down in the grammatical form of mood itself. This type of relationship is fixed in the system of mood forms as cells of the grammatical system of the language. The speaker only chooses one or another form of mood, using its inherent grammatical meaning to express the relationship of this action in this particular statement to reality. The category of mood is the grammatical (morphological) core of a broader functional-semantic category of modality, covering not only morphological, but also syntactic and lexical means of expressing the relationship of an utterance to reality. Shades of modality, similar to the functions of verb moods, are expressed together with other elements of the sentence by the infinitive: Everyone, lower your collars! They are connected with the "indicative" modality in the context of the forms of participles and participles. For example: This ringing - strong, beautiful - flew into the room, making the whole mirror glass of large high windows tremble and creamy curtains, brightly lit by the sun, sway. Modality, but not the grammatical category of inclination, includes forms like say, tie, etc., expressing the unexpected onset of an action with a touch of arbitrariness, lack of motivation, for example: pier to him, what, yes how, but why. These forms cannot be attributed to the imperative mood, with which they outwardly coincide, since they are not semantically related to it in any way. Such forms cannot be attributed to the indicative mood, since they do not have its morphological features (variability in tenses, persons and numbers). V.V. Vinogradov considers these forms as "the embryo of a special, voluntarily mood", noting that it is "close to the indicative, but differs from it in a bright modal coloring." By itself, modal coloring is not a sufficient basis for highlighting a special mood. The considered forms do not have such a semantic feature that would include them in the system of moods as an equal member, which is in certain relations with other members of this system. It is no coincidence that V.V. Vinogradov speaks only of the “embryo” (embryo) of a special mood, i.e. does not put "voluntative" on a par with the three well-known moods. Therefore, it seems appropriate to consider forms of the say type as one of the verbal means of expressing modality (one of the shades of "indicative" modality) outside the grammatical system of moods. 5.2 Modal words In the textbook of the modern Russian language, modal words are unchangeable words that stand out as an independent part of speech, denoting the relationship of the entire statement or its separate part to reality from the point of view of the speaker, grammatically not related to other words in the sentence. In a sentence, modal words act as syntactically isolated units - introductory words or phrases, as well as sentence words that express an assessment of what was said earlier in terms of its reliability-unreliability. According to the lexical meaning, modal words are divided into two large groups: )modal words with the meaning of a statement: of course, undoubtedly, undoubtedly, certainly, without any doubt, etc.; 5.3 Modal particles This category of particles expresses the speaker's point of view on reality, on the message about it. In turn, modal particles are divided into the following subgroups: )Affirmative particles: yes, exactly, definitely, so, yeah, etc .; )Negative particles: no, not, neither, not at all, not at all, etc.; )Interrogative particles: really, really, whether (l), really, or something, really, etc .; )Comparative particles: as, as if, as if; )Particles containing an indication of someone else's speech: they say, they say, supposedly; )Modal-volitional particles: yes, would, let, come on. In modern linguistics, there is no unambiguous opinion regarding the nature and content of the category of modality. The end of the 20th century in linguistics was marked by an increase in interest in language not as a symbolic, but as an anthropocentric system, the purpose of which is the speech-cogitative activity of a person. In this regard, many different areas of science have appeared, such as: cognitive linguistics, linguoculturology, ethnopsycholinguistics, psycholinguistics, intercultural communication and others. Modality is a multidimensional phenomenon, and therefore in the linguistic literature there are a variety of opinions and approaches regarding the essence of this phenomenon. All of the listed linguistic directions pose one task - to identify those mental and psychological processes, the result of which is human speech. These mental processes are inextricably linked to modality. It is important to note that modality is realized either at the grammatical, or at the lexical, or at the intonational level and has different ways of expression. It is expressed by various grammatical and lexical means: modal verbs, words, particles, interjections, moods and other means. Chapter II. Practical aspects of modality 1 Comparative method The comparative method is the study and description of a language through its systematic comparison with another language in order to clarify its specificity. The comparative method is primarily aimed at identifying differences between the two compared languages and therefore is also called contrastive and underlies contrastive linguistics. Comparison as a kind of comparative study of languages differs from other types of linguistic comparison, although in general the comparative method merges with the general principles of typology, being applicable to languages regardless of their genetic relationships. In essence, the comparative method differs from the general typological and characterological approaches not by the specifics of the techniques, but by the objectives of the study. It is especially effective in relation to related languages, since their contrasting features show through most clearly against the background of similar features. In this regard, the comparative method approaches the comparative historical method, being in a certain sense its reverse side: if the comparative historical method is based on establishing correspondences, then the comparative method is based on establishing inconsistencies, and often what is diachronically a correspondence appears synchronously as mismatch. The comparative method is aimed at finding similarities in languages, for which it is necessary to filter out the different. Its goal is the reconstruction of the former through the overcoming of the existing. The comparative method is fundamentally historical and pragmatic. The comparative method must fundamentally de-individualize the languages under study in search of a reconstruction of protorealism. B. A. Serebrennikov rightly wrote about all this, explaining the difference between comparative and contrastive methods: “Comparative grammar has special principles of construction. In them, a comparison of various related languages \u200b\u200bis made in order to study their history, in order to reconstruct the ancient appearance of existing forms and sounds. The comparative method, on the contrary, is based only on synchrony, it tries to establish the different inherent in each language separately, and should be wary of any similarity, since it pushes the individual to leveling and provokes the substitution of someone else's own. Only a consistent definition of contrasts and differences between one's own and another's can and should be a legitimate goal of a comparative study of languages. “When learning a foreign language has not yet reached the degree of automatic, active mastery of it, the mother tongue system exerts strong pressure. A comparison of the facts of one language with the facts of another language is necessary, first of all, to eliminate the possibilities of this pressure of the native language system. "Such grammars are best called comparative rather than comparative grammars." The historicity of the comparative method is limited only by the recognition of the historical statement of linguistic givenness (not language and languages in general, but precisely the given language and given languages as they are historically given in their synchrony). Unlike the comparative method, the comparative method is fundamentally pragmatic, it is aimed at certain applied and practical goals, which by no means removes the theoretical aspect of considering its problems. The comparative method is the property of the synchronous study of language; it establishes a relationship of contrast between the compared languages, which, depending on the level, manifests itself as diaphony (differences in phonological), diamorphy (grammatical divergence), diataxia (syntactic divergence), diasemia (semantic divergence), dialectexia (lexemic divergences registered only in those cases when a lexical match is expected). The idea of a comparative method was theoretically substantiated by I. A. Baudouin de Courtenay. Elements of comparison were also found in the grammars of the 18th-19th centuries, but as a linguistic method with certain principles, it began to take shape in the 30s-40s. XX century. In the USSR, an important contribution to the theory and practice of the comparative method was made during these years by E. D. Polivanov, L. V. Shcherba, and S. I. Bernshtein. Classic. the use of the comparative method was the research in the USSR by Polivanov (1933), III. Balli in Europe (1935). The value of the comparative method is increasing due to the increasing interest in the linguistic foundations of teaching non-native languages. 2 Verb Must and Have to Must has only one present tense form. Very often the modal verb must shows obligation or necessity; actions that must be taken. She seemed to stagger like a child, and the thought came and went through Rosemary s mind that if people wanted to help them mustrespond a little, just a little, otherwise it became very difficult indeed. The girl staggered like a child, still unsteady on her feet, and Rosemary could not help thinking that if people want to be helped, they themselves mustbe active, well, at least the smallest, otherwise everything becomes terribly complicated. This verb is the most categorical of the verbs of duty, therefore, when expressing urgent advice or an invitation, it can be translated into Russian with the words: absolutely must, absolutely must. In the following example, the verb must is used when the speaker decides that something needs to be done. At the same time, his decision was caused by an internal necessity. She loved it; it was a great duck. She must have it.
She really likes him - such a charm! She must buy it.
Thus, Must + Indefinite / Continuous Infinitive expresses an assumption relating to presenttime . Usually with Continuous, he expresses the assumption that the action is happening at the moment of speech or during the present period of time. However, if the verb is not used in Continuous forms, then it is used with Indefinite forms. As happened in the above example. Rosemary saw the chest and certainly wanted to buy it. Also, the verb must expresses advice that must be urgently carried out. "Oh, please" - Rosemary ran forward - "you mustnt be frightened, you mustnt, indeed". Oh please! Rosemary ran up to her. - No need to be afraid, really, no need. The translator, taking into account the fact that the main character of the story, Rosemary, has just met a stranger on the street, renders the verb must as No need, but at the same time adds an introductory construction right. This is done on purpose, as it is not customary in Russian culture to give strict, forceful advice to strangers. The verb Have to expresses the need to perform an action caused by circumstances - must, have to, have to. In terms of meaning, the verb Have to is close to the modal verb must(obligation or necessity from the point of view of the speaker). In this meaning, it can be used in all forms and tenses, in sentences of any type, in combination with a simple, non-perfect infinitive (Indefinite Infinitive) with a particle to. It has the forms of time: have / has- present tense had- past tense, shall / will have- Future tense . The waiting-room laughed so loudly at this that he had tohold both hands up. Everyone burst into such loud laughter that he had toraise both hands up. Now I had a call for twenty-eight ladies today, but they had tobe young and able to hop it a bit-see? Today I had an application for twenty-eight girls, but onlyon young ones who know how to jerk their legs. And I had another call for sixteen-but they had toknow something about sand-dancing. And another application for sixteen girls, but onlyfor acrobats. Again, the translator makes a conversion, replaces the modal verb with a modal word. You shant have to. I ll look after you. take it easy. I will take care of you. Here there is such a translational transformation as logical development. The translator relies on the context, which comes in the form of a dialogue. Negative form of shan t have to expresses the absence of obligation or necessity and is translated into Russian by the words: not necessary, not necessary, not necessary. However, if the previous sentence said that the stranger could no longer live like this, then it would be a gross stylistic and factual mistake to translate the verb have to as not necessary. Namely: I can't take it anymore! Not necessary. I will take care of you. 2.3 Verbs Can and Could In most cases, the verb can expresses the ability of a person to perform an action. "I cantgo on no longer like this. I cantbear it. I cantbear it. I shall do away with myself. I cantbear no more. "I more I can notSo. I can not stand! I can't stand it! I will do something with myself. I can't stand it!" In this expression, the verb can is translated not only as I can notbut also how I can't stand it. After the girl drank tea and forgot about fear, she decided to speak out. It is to convey the internal state of the heroine that the translator uses such verbs. "My darling girl", said Philip, "you re quite mad, you know. It simply cant be done».
"Baby, you're just crazy. It's perfect unthinkable'.things cantgo on like this, Miss Moss, no indeed they cant.
Keep in mind, Miss Moss, that Sogo on can not.
In this example, we see a contraction technique that was used to make the dialogue concise and indignant at the landlady. Moreover, both a modal verb and a modal word were transmitted. In the following example, the verb can is used in the past tense according to the rules of coordinating tenses (could) and expresses a state of possibility close to certainty. She could have said: "Now I ve got you", as she gazed at the little captive she had netted. She looked around at the little captive who had fallen into her net, and she wanted to shout: "Now you can't get away from me!" This type of transformation occurs quite often, so we are dealing with an internal monologue. The sentence uses the method of holistic transformation, that is, not one word, but the whole sentence has undergone transformation. First comes the permutation along with the conversion, and then the construction could have saidreplaced by turnover wanted to shout, which shows the confidence of the action. However, if the verb Could is used together with the Perfect Infinitive, then such a construction shows that some action or fact could have happened, but never did. "You could have letthat room time and time again", she says, "and if people won t look after themselves in times like these, nobody else will”, she says. You could alreadyten times passthis room,” she said. - Not such times now. Design could have letis transmitted into Russian in the form of the subjunctive mood could.
We also use the verbs Can and Could when making a sentence. Could is used in formal situations. « CanI have a cup of tea, Miss? » she asked. - Is it possibleme a cup of tea, miss? she asked, turning to the waitress. Adverb it is forbiddenin Russian it is used to express a request, wish or demand. CanAnd is it possiblecoincide in function, so such a replacement is quite acceptable. 4 Verb May and Might The verb May/Might is used when we ask for permission. Rosemary, MayI come in? » It was Philip. Of course. rosemary, Can? - It was Philip. - Certainly. dareto draw your attention, madam, to these flowers, right here, on the little lady's corsage. We use "May/Might I...?" constructions to ask permission from someone we don't know very well. "Madame, MayI speak to you a moment? » "Madam, Canshould I ask you?" It is important to remember that May is a very formal verb and is not used in everyday speech. Well, I ll just wait a moment, if I May.
Well, I'll wait if allow.
Miss Moss asks to be allowed to wait at Kig and Kejit, so the focus shifts to another person. What was it-if I Mayask? A Canfind out what this place was? The verb May can express consent to a request, that is, permission. It cost twenty-eight guineas. MayI have it? You May, little wasteful one. It costs twenty-eight guineas. Can, will I buy it? - Can, small reel. Also the verb May expresses possibility. The construction May / Might + Present Infinitive indicates a possibility or probability in the present or future tense. I mightjust havea stroke of luck. AND, Maybe be, I'm lucky. If I get there early Kadgit may havesomething by the morning s post… If I come early May be, Mr. Kejit will have something for me, something with the morning mail ... It gave Miss Moss a queer feeling to watch-a sinking-as you mightsay. Looking at her, Miss Moss felt a little strange, likeeverything inside of her shrunk into a ball. The translator makes a holistic transformation, and the verb mightconveys by modal word like.
With the help of May/Might + Perfect Infinitive constructions, we show the possibility or probability that took place in the past. "She may have hada College education and sung in West End concerts", says she, "but if your Lizzie says what s true", she says, "and she s washing her own clothes and drying them on the towel rail, it easy to see where the finger s pointing". « Letthere she graduated from at least twenty music schools and sang at concerts in the West End, but since your Lizzie says that she washes her own clothes and dries them in the room on a towel rack, then everything is already clear. To preserve the form of reproach, the translator uses the word let, which refers to the shaping particles and which serves to command. The shopman, in some dim cave of his mind, Mayhave dared to think so too. Must be, the antiquary, in the darkest recess of his consciousness, also boldly arose this thought. 5 The verbs Should and Ought to The verbs Should and Ought to are used to express advice, desirability, or recommendation. One oughtnt togive way to them. One ought togo home and have an extra-special tea. It is forbiddensuccumb to such moments. Need to hurrygo home and drink some tea. If I m the more fortunate, you ought toexpect... And if my life turned out better than yours, anyway, maybe someday...
In the above sentence, a logical development is made, and the verb ought toconveyed by the introductory word after alland design May be.
After all, why shouldn'ttyou come back with me? After all why wouldwon't you come to me? The verb should is expressed through the formative particle would, which forms the form of the subjunctive mood. As for herself she didn't t eat; she smoked and looked away tactfully so that the other shouldnot be shy. She didn't eat anything herself.