Eastern Europe late 20th early 21st century. The countries of Eastern Europe at the end of the 20th - beginning of the 21st century
Further, the interaction of peoples, as an integral factor, has increased many times over. A new world order based on the unity of rights and duties is being formed. In doing so, attention should be paid to the following.
- The development of science, engineering and technology has reached a new level.
- There has been a transition of production to a new type, the socio-political results of which are the property of not only one country.
- Global economic ties deepened.
- Global ties arose that covered the main spheres of life of peoples and states.
All this led to the renewal of the picture of the Society.
Globalization
The modern world gives the impression of a pluralistic one, which sharply distinguishes it from the world order of the Cold War period. In the modern multipolar world, there are several main centers of international politics: Europe, China, the Asia-Pacific Region (APR), South Asia (India), Latin America (Brazil) and the USA.
Western Europe
After many years of Europe being in the shadow of the United States, its powerful rise began. At the turn of the XX-XXI centuries. EU countries, with a population of approximately 350 million people, produce goods and services worth a little more than $5.5 trillion a year, that is, more than in the United States (a little less than $5.5 trillion, 270 million people). These achievements became the basis for the revival of Europe as a special political and spiritual force, the formation of a new European community. This gave the Europeans a reason to reconsider their positions in relation to the United States: to move from relations of the “younger brother-big brother” type to an equal partnership.
Eastern Europe
Russia
In addition to Europe, the Asia-Pacific region has a huge impact on the fate of the modern world. The dynamically developing Asia-Pacific covers a triangle from the Russian Far East and Korea in the northeast to Australia in the south and Pakistan in the west. Approximately half of humanity lives in this triangle and there are such dynamic countries as Japan, China, Australia, New Zealand, South Korea, Malaysia, Singapore.
If in 1960 the total GNP of the countries of this region reached 7.8% of the world GNP, then by 1982 it had doubled, and by the beginning of the 21st century. amounted to about 20% of the world gross national product (that is, it became approximately equal to the share of the EU or the USA). The Asia-Pacific region has become one of the main centers of world economic power, which raises the question of expanding its political influence. The rise in Southeast Asia was largely associated with the policy of protectionism and the protection of the national economy.
China
In the Asia-Pacific region, the incredibly dynamic growth of China draws attention: in fact, the GNP of the so-called “Greater China”, which includes China itself, Taiwan, and Singapore, exceeds Japan and is practically approaching the GNP of the United States.
The influence of the Chinese is not limited to "Greater China" - it partly extends to the countries of the Chinese diaspora in Asia; in the countries of Southeast Asia, they constitute the most dynamic element. For example, by the end of the 20th century The Chinese made up 1% of the population of the Philippines, but controlled 35% of the sales of local firms. In Indonesia, the Chinese accounted for 2-3% of the total population, but about 70% of local private capital was concentrated in their hands. The entire East Asian economy outside of Japan and Korea is, in fact, the Chinese economy. An agreement between the PRC and the countries of Southeast Asia on the creation of a common economic zone has recently entered into force.
Near East
In Latin America, liberal economic policy in the 1980s-1990s. led to economic growth. At the same time, the use of harsh liberal recipes for modernization in the future, which did not provide for sufficient social guarantees during market reforms, increased social instability, contributed to relative stagnation and an increase in the external debt of Latin American countries.
It is precisely the reaction to this stagnation that explains the fact that in Venezuela in 1999 the “Bolivarians” headed by Colonel Hugo Chavez won the elections. In the same year, a constitution was adopted at a referendum, guaranteeing the population a large number of social rights, including the right to work and rest, free education and medical care. Since January 2000, the country has acquired a new name - the Bolivarian Republic of Venezuela. Along with the traditional branches of power, two more are formed here - electoral and civil. Hugo Chavez, using the support of a significant part of the population, chose a strict anti-American course.
1990 - The German Democratic Republic and the Federal Republic of Germany, separated since 1949, united.
1991 - the world's largest federation, the USSR, collapsed.
1992 - the Socialist Federal Republic of Yugoslavia collapsed; the Federal Republic of Yugoslavia was formed as part of Serbia and Montenegro, Croatia, Slovenia, Macedonia *, Bosnia and Herzegovina).
1993 - independent states were formed: the Czech Republic and the Slovak Republic, formerly part of the federation of Czechoslovakia;
2002 - The Federal Republic of Yugoslavia became known as "Serbia and Montenegro" (the republics were supposed to have a single defense and foreign policy, but separate economies, currency and customs systems).
2006 - Montenegrin independence was proclaimed by referendum.
21. Political and geographical characteristics of Western Europe.
22. Political and geographical characteristics of Europe.
Northern Europe includes the Scandinavian countries, Finland, the Baltic countries. The Scandinavian countries are Sweden and Norway. Considering the general historical and cultural features of development, Denmark and Iceland are also included in the Nordic countries. The Baltic states are Estonia, Lithuania, Latvia. Northern Europe occupies the territory of 1433 thousand km2, which is 16.8% of the area of Europe - the third place among the economic - geographical macro-regions of Europe, after Eastern and Southern Europe. The largest countries in terms of area are Sweden (449.9 thousand km2), Finland (338.1 km2) and Norway (323.9 thousand km2), which occupy more than three quarters of the territory of the macroregion. Small countries include Denmark (43.1 thousand km2), as well as the Baltic countries: Estonia - 45.2, Latvia - 64.6 and Lithuania - 65.3 thousand km2. Iceland is the smallest country in the first group in terms of area and almost twice the area of any single small country. The territory of Northern Europe consists of two sub-regions: Fenoscandia and the Baltic. The first sub-region included such states as Finland, a group of Scandinavian countries - Sweden, Norway, Denmark, Iceland, along with the islands of the North Atlantic and the Arctic Ocean. In particular, Denmark includes the Faroe Islands and the island of Greenland, which enjoys internal autonomy, and Norway owns the Svalbard archipelago. Most of the northern countries are close by the similarity of languages and are characterized by historical features of development and natural and geographical integrity. The second sub-region (the Baltic countries) includes Estonia, Lithuania, Latvia, which, due to their geographical position, have always been northern. However, in reality they could be attributed to the Northern macroregion only in the new geopolitical situation that developed in the early 90s of the XX century, that is, after the collapse of the USSR. The economic and geographical position of Northern Europe is characterized by the following features: firstly, an advantageous position regarding the intersection of important air and sea routes from Europe to North America, as well as the convenience of the countries of the region entering the international waters of the oceans, and secondly, the proximity to highly developed countries Western Europe (Germany, Holland, Belgium, Great Britain, France), thirdly, the neighborhood on the southern borders with the countries of Central and Eastern Europe, in particular Poland, in which market relations are successfully developing, fourthly, the land neighborhood with the Russian Federation, economic whose contacts contribute to the formation of promising markets for products; fifthly, the presence of territories outside the Arctic Circle (35% of the area of Norway, 38% of Sweden, 47% of Finland). Natural conditions and resources. The Scandinavian mountains stand out clearly in the relief of Northern Europe. They were formed as a result of the uplift of Caledonian structures, which in subsequent geological epochs, as a result of weathering and recent tectonic movements, turned into a relatively leveled surface, which in Norway is called Feld. The Scandinavian mountains are characterized by significant modern glaciation, which covers an area of almost 5 thousand km2. The snow limit in the southern part of the mountains is at an altitude of 1200 m, and in the north it can drop to 400 m. In the east, the mountains gradually decrease, turning into the Norland crystalline plateau 400-600 m high. In the Scandinavian mountains, altitudinal zonality is manifested. The upper border of the forest (taiga) in the south runs at an altitude of 800-900 m above sea level, dropping in the north to 400 and even 300 m. Above the forest border there is a transitional belt 200-300 m wide, which is higher (700-900 m. ) turns into a zone of mountain tundra. In the southern part of the Scandinavian peninsula, the crystalline rocks of the Baltic Shield gradually disappear under the strata of marine sediments, forming the Middle Swedish lowland, which, with the rise of the crystalline base, develops into the low Spoland plateau. The Baltic crystalline shield is lowering to the east. On the territory of Finland, it rises somewhat, forming a hilly plain (Lake Plateau), which, north of 64 ° N, gradually rises and in the extreme northwest, where the spurs of the Scandinavian Mountains enter, reaches its highest heights (Mount Hamty, 1328) . The formation of the relief of Finland was influenced by Quaternary glacial deposits, which blocked the ancient crystalline rocks. They form moraine ridges, boulders of various sizes and shapes, which alternate with a large number of lakes, swampy depressions. In terms of climatic conditions, the Northern lands are the strictest part of Europe. Most of its territory is exposed to the oceanic masses of temperate latitudes. The climate of remote territories (islands) is arctic, subarctic, maritime. On the Svalbard archipelago (Norway) there is practically no summer, and the average July temperatures correspond to indicators from ... +3 ° to ... -5 °. Iceland, the furthest away from mainland Europe, has slightly better temperatures. Thanks to one of the branches of the North Atlantic Current, it runs along the southern coast of the island, here in July the temperatures are ... +7 ° ... +12 °, and in January - from ... -3 ° to ... +2 °. It is much colder in the center and in the north of the island. There is a lot of precipitation in Iceland. On average, their number exceeds 1000 mm per year. Most of them fall in autumn. There are practically no forests in Iceland, but tundra vegetation prevails, in particular moss and aspen thickets. Meadow vegetation grows near warm geysers. In general, the natural conditions of Iceland are not very suitable for the development of agriculture, in particular agriculture. Only 1% of its territory, mainly meadows, is used for agricultural purposes. All other countries of Fenoscandia and the Baltic are characterized by the best climatic conditions, especially the western outskirts and the southern part of the Scandinavian Peninsula, which are under the direct influence of the Atlantic air masses, stand out. To the east, the warm oceanic air gradually transforms. Therefore, the climate here is much harsher. For example, the average January temperatures of the northern part of the west coast vary from ... -4 ° to 0 °, and in the south from 0 to ... +2 °. In the interior of Fenoscandia, winters are very long and can last up to seven months, accompanied by a polar night and low temperatures. The average January temperatures here are... -16°. During the penetration of arctic air masses, the temperature can drop to ... - 50 °. Fenoscandia is characterized by cool and short summers in the north. In the northern regions, the average July temperature does not exceed ... +10- ... +120, and in the south (Stockholm, Helsinki) - ... +16- ... + 170. Frosts can pester until June and appear in August . Despite such cool summers, most mid-latitude crops are ripening. This is achieved due to the continuation of the vegetation of plants during the long polar summer. Therefore, the southern regions of the country of Fenoscandia are suitable for the development of agriculture. Precipitation is distributed very unevenly. Most of them fall in the form of rain on the western coast of the Scandinavian Peninsula - in the territory facing the moisture-saturated Atlantic air masses. The central and eastern regions of Fenoscandia receive much less moisture - about 1000 mm., And the northeastern - only 500 mm. The amount of precipitation is also unevenly distributed over the seasons. The southern part of the west coast is mostly wet during the winter months in the form of rain. The maximum precipitation in the eastern regions occurs at the beginning of summer. In winter, precipitation in the form of snow prevails. In the mountainous regions and in the northwest, snow lies for up to seven months, and in the high mountains it remains forever, thus feeding the modern glaciation. Denmark in terms of natural conditions is somewhat different from its northern neighbors. Being located in the middle part of the Central European Plain, it is more reminiscent of the Atlantic countries of Western Europe, where a mild, humid climate prevails. The maximum precipitation in the form of rain occurs in winter. There is almost no frost here. The average January temperature is around 0°. Only occasionally, when the arctic air breaks through, can there be low temperatures and snowfall. The average July temperature is ... + 16 °. The countries of the Baltic subregion are dominated by a maritime climate with a transitional to temperate continental climate. Summers are cool (average July temperature is ... +16 ... +17 °), winters are mild and relatively warm. The climate of Lithuania is the most continental. The amount of precipitation per year varies between 700-800 mm. Most of them fall in the second half of summer, when harvesting and forage are completed. In general, the climate and flat terrain of Estonia, Lithuania and Latvia are conducive to human economic activity. The Nordic countries are not equally endowed with mineral resources. Most of them are in the eastern part of Fenoscandia, the foundation of which is composed of crystalline rocks of igneous origin, a striking manifestation of which is the Baltic Shield. Deposits of iron, titanium-magnesium and copper-pyrite ores are concentrated here. This is confirmed by the iron ore deposits of Northern Sweden - Kirunavare, Lussavare, Gellivare. The rocks of these deposits occur from the surface to a depth of 200m. Apatite is a valuable associated component of these iron ore deposits. Titanomagnetite ores occupy vast territories in Finland, Sweden, Norway, although such deposits are not distinguished by significant reserves of raw materials. Until recently, it was believed that the Northern lands are poor in fuel and energy resources. Only in the early 60s of the XX century, when oil and gas were discovered in the bottom sediments of the North Sea, experts started talking about significant deposits. It was found that the volumes of oil and gas in the basin of this water area significantly exceed all known reserves of this raw material in Europe. By international agreements, the North Sea basin was divided among the states located along its shores. Among the Nordic countries, the Norwegian sector of the sea turned out to be the most promising for oil. It accounted for more than one-fifth of the oil reserves. Denmark has also become one of the oil-producing countries using the oil and gas region of the North Sea. Among other types of fuel in the Nordic countries, Estonian oil shale, Svalbard coal, and Finnish peat are of industrial importance. The northern territories are well provided with water resources. Their greatest concentration is the Scandinavian mountains, in particular their western part. Beyond total river flow resources, Norway (376 km3) and Sweden (194 km3) are ahead, occupying the top two places in Europe. Hydropower resources are of great importance for the Nordic countries. Norway and Sweden are best provided with hydropower resources, where abundant rainfall and mountainous terrain provide the formation of a strong and uniform flow of water, and this creates good prerequisites for the construction of hydroelectric power plants. Land resources, especially in the Scandinavian Peninsula, are negligible. In Sweden and Finland they make up to 10% of agricultural land. In Norway - only 3%. The share of unproductive and inconvenient land for development in Norway is 70% of the total area, in Sweden - 42%, and even in flat Finland - almost one third of the country's territory. The situation is quite different in Denmark and the Baltic countries. Arable land in the first occupies 60% of the total territory. In Estonia - 40%, in Latvia - 60% and in Lithuania - 70%. Soils in the northern macroregion of Europe, especially in Fenoscandia, are podzolic, waterlogged and unproductive. Some lands, especially the tundra landscapes of Norway and Iceland, where moss-lichen vegetation predominates, are used for extensive reindeer grazing. One of the greatest wealth of the Nordic countries is forest resources, that is, "green gold". Sweden and Finland stand out in terms of forest area and gross timber reserves, occupying the first and second places in Europe, respectively. Forest cover in these countries is high. In Finland it is almost 66%, in Sweden it is more than 59% (1995). Among other countries of the Northern macroregion, Latvia stands out with high forest cover (46.8%). Northern Europe has a variety of recreational resources: medium-altitude mountains, glaciers, fjords of Norway, skerries of Finland, picturesque lakes, waterfalls, full-flowing rivers, active volcanoes and geysers of Iceland, architectural ensembles of many cities and other historical and cultural monuments. their high attractiveness contributes to the development of tourism and other forms of recreation. Population. Northern Europe differs from other macro-regions both in terms of population and basic demographic indicators. The northern lands are among the least populated territories. More than 31.6 million people live here, which is 4.8% of the total population of Europe (1999). The population density is low (22.0 people per 1 km2). The smallest number of inhabitants per unit area is found in Iceland (2.9 persons per 1 km2) and Norway (13.6 persons per 1 km2). Finland and Sweden are also poorly populated (with the exception of the southern coastal regions of Sweden, Norway, and Finland). Among the countries of Northern Europe, Denmark is the most densely populated (123 people per 1 km2). The Baltic countries are characterized by an average population density - from 31 to 57 people per 1 km2). The population growth rate in Northern Europe is very low. If in the 70s of the XX century. Since the population grew by 0.4% per year, mainly due to natural increase, then in the early 90s its growth was reduced to zero. Second half of the last decade of the 20th century. characterized by negative population growth (-0.3%). The Baltic countries had a decisive influence on this situation. In fact, Latvia, Estonia, Lithuania entered the stage of depopulation. As a result, the population in the Northern macro-region of Europe is projected to show little growth in the coming decades. The countries of Fenoscandia, except Sweden, are characterized by positive but low natural population growth, with the exception of Iceland, where the natural increase has remained at 9 people per 1,000 inhabitants. Such a tense demographic situation is explained, first of all, by low birth rates. The downward trend in the birth rate in European countries manifested itself in the 60s and in the early 90s of the last century in Europe was only 13 people per 1000 inhabitants, which is half the world average. In the second half of the 1990s, this trend continued, and the gap even grew somewhat. On average, in the Nordic countries, there are 1.7 children per woman, in Lithuania - 1.4, in Estonia - 1.2, and in Latvia - only 1.1 children. Accordingly, the level of child mortality is the highest here: in Latvia - 15%, Estonia - 10% and in Lithuania - 9%, while in the macroregion this figure is 6%, and on average in Europe - 8 deaths per thousand births (1999). The mortality rate of the entire population in the Nordic countries is also quite differentiated. For the Baltic countries, it was 14%, being three points higher than the average European indicator, for the Fenoscandia sub-region - less than 1 ‰, amounting to 10 people per thousand inhabitants. In the world at that time, mortality was 9% s, i.e. 2 ‰ below the average European and 2.5 ‰ below the average macro-regional. The reasons for this phenomenon should be sought not in the standard of living or in the existing social protection that has developed in the countries of Northern Europe, but in the growth of population losses associated with occupational diseases, work injuries, various kinds of accidents, as well as with the aging of the population. Average life expectancy in the Nordic countries is high - for men it is almost 74 years, and for women over 79 years.
Perestroika in the USSR caused similar processes in the countries of Eastern Europe. Meanwhile, the Soviet leadership by the end of the 80s. refused to preserve the regimes that existed in these countries, on the contrary, calling them to democratization. Leadership has changed in most of the ruling parties. But the attempts of the new leadership to carry out reforms, as in the Soviet Union, were unsuccessful. The economic situation worsened, the flight of the population to the West became widespread. Opposition forces formed, there were demonstrations and strikes everywhere. As a result of demonstrations in October-November 1989 in the GDR, the government resigned, and on November 9 the destruction of the Berlin Wall began. In 1990, the GDR and the FRG unified.
In most countries, the communists were removed from power. The ruling parties dissolved themselves or transformed into social democratic ones. Elections were held, in which the former oppositionists won. These events were called "velvet revolutions". However, not everywhere the revolutions were "velvet". In Romania, opponents of the head of state, Nicolae Ceausescu, staged an uprising in December 1989, as a result of which many people died. Ceausescu and his wife were killed. Dramatic events took place in Yugoslavia, where the elections in all the republics except Serbia and Montenegro were won by parties opposed to the communists. In 1991, Slovenia, Croatia and Macedonia declared independence. In Croatia, a war immediately broke out between Serbs and Croats, as the Serbs feared the persecution that took place during World War II by the Croatian Ustaše fascists. Initially, the Serbs created their own republics, but by 1995 they were captured by the Croats with the support of Western countries, and most Serbs were exterminated or expelled.
In 1992, Bosnia and Herzegovina declared independence. Serbia and Montenegro formed the Federal Republic of Yugoslavia (FRY).
In Bosnia and Herzegovina, an interethnic war broke out between Serbs, Croats and Muslims. On the side of the Bosnian Muslims and Croats, the armed forces of the NATO countries intervened. The war continued until the end of 1995, when the Serbs were forced to succumb to the pressure of superior NATO forces.
The state of Bosnia and Herzegovina is now divided into two parts: the Republika Srpska and the Muslim-Croat federation. The Serbs lost part of their lands.
In 1998 open conflict broke out between Albanians and Serbs in Kosovo, which was part of Serbia. The extermination and expulsion of Serbs by Albanian extremists forced the Yugoslav authorities to enter into an armed struggle against them. However, in 1999 NATO began bombing Yugoslavia. The Yugoslav army was forced to leave Kosovo, whose territory was occupied by NATO troops. Most of the Serbian population was destroyed and expelled from the region. On February 17, 2008, Kosovo, with the support of the West, unilaterally illegally declared independence.
After the overthrow of President Slobodan Milosevic in 2000 during the "color revolution", the disintegration of the FRY continued. In 2003, the confederal state of Serbia and Montenegro was formed. In 2006, Montenegro seceded, and two independent states emerged: Serbia and Montenegro.
The collapse of Czechoslovakia took place peacefully. After a referendum, it was divided in 1993 into the Czech Republic and Slovakia.
After political changes in all Eastern European countries, transformations began in the economy and other spheres of society. Everywhere they abandoned the planned economy, moving on to the restoration of market relations. Privatization was carried out, foreign capital received strong positions in the economy. The first transformations went down in history under the name "shock therapy", as they were associated with a fall in production, mass unemployment, inflation, etc. Particularly radical changes in this regard took place in Poland. Social stratification has intensified everywhere, crime and corruption have increased.
By the end of the 90s. the situation in most countries has stabilized somewhat. Inflation was overcome, economic growth began. The Czech Republic, Hungary, and Poland have achieved some success. Foreign investment played a big role in this. Gradually, traditional mutually beneficial ties with Russia and other post-Soviet states were also restored. But the global economic crisis that began in 2008 had devastating consequences for the economies of Eastern European countries.
In foreign policy, all countries of Eastern Europe are guided by the West, most of them at the beginning of the XXI century. joined NATO and the EU. The internal political situation in these countries is characterized by a change in power between right and left parties. However, their policies both within the country and in the international arena largely coincide.
§ 102. Countries of Eastern Europe in the second half of the twentieth century.
The beginning of the construction of socialism.
During the Second World War, the authority of the left forces, primarily the communists, increased significantly in the countries of Eastern Europe. In a number of states they led anti-fascist uprisings (Bulgaria, Romania), in others they led the partisan struggle. In 1945 - 1946 New constitutions were adopted in all countries, monarchies were liquidated, power passed to people's governments, large enterprises were nationalized and agrarian reforms were carried out. In the elections, the communists took a strong position in the parliaments. They called for even more radical changes, which they opposed
bourgeois democratic parties. At the same time, a process of merging of communists and social democrats under the dominance of the former unfolded everywhere.
The communists were strongly supported by the presence of Soviet troops in the countries of Eastern Europe. In the context of the beginning of the Cold War, a bet was made on accelerating the transformations. This largely corresponded to the mood of the majority of the population, among whom the authority of the Soviet Union was great, and in the construction of socialism, many saw a way to quickly overcome post-war difficulties and further create a just society. The USSR provided these states with huge material assistance.
In the 1947 elections, the Communists won the majority of seats in the Sejm of Poland. The Seimas elected a Communist president B. Take. In Czechoslovakia in February 1948, the Communists, in the course of many days of mass meetings of workers, achieved the creation of a new government, in which they played a leading role. Soon the President E. BeNash resigned, and the leader of the Communist Party was elected as the new president K. Gottwald.
By 1949, in all countries of the region, power was in the hands of the communist parties. In October 1949, the GDR was formed. In some countries, a multi-party system has been preserved, but it has largely become a formality.
CMEA and ATS.
With the formation of the countries of "people's democracy" the process of formation of the world socialist system began. Economic relations between the USSR and the countries of people's democracy were carried out at the first stage in the form of a bilateral foreign trade agreement. At the same time, the USSR tightly controlled the activities of the governments of these countries.
Since 1947, this control was exercised by the heir to the Comintern Cominform. Great importance in expanding and strengthening economic ties began to play Council for Mutual Economic Assistance (CMEA), established in 1949. Its members were Bulgaria, Hungary, Poland, Romania, the USSR and Czechoslovakia, later Albania joined. The creation of the CMEA was a definite response to the creation of NATO. The objectives of the CMEA were to unite and coordinate efforts in the development of the economy of the member countries of the Commonwealth.
In the political field, the creation in 1955 of the Warsaw Pact Organization (OVD) was of great importance. Its creation was a response to the admission of Germany to NATO. In accordance with the terms of the treaty, its participants undertook, in the event of an armed attack on any of them, to provide immediate assistance to the attacked states by all means, including the use of armed force. A unified military command was created, joint military exercises were held, armaments and organization of troops were unified.
The development of the countries of "people's democracy" in the 50s - 80s of the XX century.
By the mid 50s. xx c. As a result of accelerated industrialization, significant economic potential has been created in the countries of Central and South-Eastern Europe. But the course towards the predominant development of heavy industry with insignificant investments in agriculture and the production of consumer goods led to a decrease in the standard of living.
Stalin's death (March 1953) raised hopes for political change. The leadership of the GDR in June 1953 proclaimed a "new course", which provided for the strengthening of the rule of law, an increase in the production of consumer goods. But the simultaneous increase in the output standards of workers served as an impetus for the events of June 17, 1953, when demonstrations began in Berlin and other large cities, during which economic and political demands were put forward, including the holding of free elections. With the help of Soviet troops, the GDR police suppressed these demonstrations, which the country's leadership assessed as an attempt at a "fascist putsch." Nevertheless, after these events, a wider production of consumer goods began, and prices fell.
The decisions of the 20th Congress of the CPSU on the need to take into account the national characteristics of each country were formally approved by the leadership of all communist parties, but the new course was not implemented everywhere. In Poland and Hungary, the dogmatic policy of the leadership led to a sharp aggravation of socio-economic contradictions, which led to a crisis in the autumn of 1956.
The actions of the population in Poland led to the rejection of forced collectivization and some democratization of the political system. In Hungary, a reformist wing emerged within the Communist Party. On October 23, 1956, demonstrations began in support of the reformist forces. Their leader I. Nagy led the government. Rallies also took place all over the country, reprisals against the communists began. On November 4, Soviet troops began to restore order in Budapest. 2,700 Hungarians and 663 Soviet soldiers died in street fighting. After the "purge" carried out by the Soviet secret services, power was transferred to I. Kadaru. In the 60-70s. 20th century Kadar pursued a policy aimed at raising the standard of living of the population while preventing political change.
In the mid 60s. the situation in Czechoslovakia worsened. Economic difficulties coincided with the calls of the intelligentsia to improve socialism, to give it a "human face". The party approved in 1968 a program of economic reforms and the democratization of society. The country was headed A.Ducek., supporter of change. The leadership of the CPSU and the Communist Party of the Eastern European countries reacted sharply negatively to these changes.
Five members of the leadership of the Communist Party of Czechoslovakia secretly sent a letter to Moscow with a request to intervene in the course of events and prevent the "threat of counter-revolution." On the night of August 21, 1968, the troops of Bulgaria, Hungary, East Germany, Poland and the USSR entered Czechoslovakia. Relying on the presence of Soviet troops, the opponents of the reforms went on the offensive.
At the turn of the 70-80s. xx c. Crisis phenomena were identified in Poland, which developed quite successfully in the previous period. The deteriorating situation of the population caused strikes. In their course, the Solidarity trade union committee, independent of the authorities, emerged, headed by L. Walesoy. In 1981, the President of Poland, General V. Jaruzelsky introduced martial law, the leaders of "Solidarity" were subjected to house arrest. However, Solidarity structures began to operate underground.
Yugoslavia's special path.
In Yugoslavia, the Communists, who led the anti-fascist struggle in 1945, took power. Their Croatian leader became the President of the country And Broz Tito. Tito's desire for independence led in 1948 to a break in relations between Yugoslavia and the USSR. Tens of thousands of Moscow supporters were repressed. Stalin launched anti-Yugoslav propaganda, but did not go for military intervention.
Soviet-Yugoslav relations were normalized after Stalin's death, but Yugoslavia continued on its own path. At the enterprises, management functions were carried out by labor collectives through elected councils of workers. Planning from the Center was transferred to the field. Orientation to market relations has led to an increase in the production of consumer goods. In agriculture, almost half of the households were individual peasants.
The situation in Yugoslavia was complicated by its multinational composition and the uneven development of the republics that were part of it. The overall leadership was carried out by the Union of Communists of Yugoslavia (SKYU). Since 1952 Tito has been the chairman of the SKJ. He also served as president (for life) and chairman of the Federation Council.
Change in Eastern Europe At the endxxV.
The policy of perestroika in the USSR caused similar processes in the countries of Eastern Europe. At the same time, the Soviet leadership by the end of the 80s of the twentieth century. abandoned the policy of preserving the existing regimes in these countries, on the contrary, called them to "democratization". Leadership has changed in most of the ruling parties there. But the attempts of this leadership to carry out reforms like perestroika, as in the Soviet Union, were not crowned with success. The economic situation worsened. The flight of the population to the West acquired a massive character. Movements opposed to the authorities were formed. There were demonstrations and strikes everywhere. As a result of demonstrations in October - November 1989 in the GDR, the government resigned, on November 8 the destruction of the Berlin Wall began. In 1990, the GDR and the FRG unified.
In most countries, the communists were removed from power during public demonstrations. The ruling parties dissolved themselves or transformed into social democratic ones. Elections were soon held, in which the former oppositionists won. These events are called "velvet revolutions". Only in Romania are opponents of the head of state N. Ceausescu organized an uprising in December 1989, during which many people died. Ceausescu and his wife were killed. In 1991, the regime in Albania changed.
Dramatic events took place in Yugoslavia, where the elections in all the republics except Serbia and Montenegro were won by parties opposed to the communists. Slovenia and Croatia declared independence in 1991. In Croatia, war immediately broke out between Serbs and Croats, as the Serbs feared the persecution that took place during World War II by the Croatian Ustaše fascists. Later, Macedonia and Bosnia and Herzegovina declared their independence. After that, Serbia and Montenegro formed the Federal Republic of Yugoslavia. In Bosnia and Herzegovina, a conflict broke out between Serbs, Croats and Muslims. It continued until 1997.
In a different way, the collapse of Czechoslovakia took place. After a referendum, it was peacefully divided in 1993 into the Czech Republic and Slovakia.
After political changes in all Eastern European countries, transformations began in the economy and other spheres of society. Everywhere they abandoned the planned economy and the command-administrative system of management, the restoration of market relations began. Privatization was carried out, foreign capital received strong positions in the economy. The first transformations are called "shock therapy" because they were associated with a crisis in production, mass unemployment, inflation, etc. Particularly radical changes in this regard took place in Poland. Social stratification has intensified everywhere, crime and corruption have increased. The situation was especially difficult in Albania, where in 1997 there was a popular uprising against the government.
However, by the end of the 90s. 20th century the situation in most countries has stabilized. Inflation was overcome, then economic growth began. The Czech Republic, Hungary, Poland achieved the greatest success. Foreign investment played a big role in this. Gradually, traditional mutually beneficial ties with Russia and other post-Soviet states were also restored. In foreign policy, all Eastern European countries are guided by the West, they have set a course for joining NATO and the EU. FOR
The internal political situation in these countries is characterized by a change in power between right and left parties. However, their policies both within the country and in the international arena largely coincide.
In the history of mankind, Europe has always been of great importance. The peoples of Europe founded powerful states that extended their power to all parts of the world. But the situation in the world was changing rapidly. Already in 1900, the United States, which was at the beginning of the 19th century. backward agrarian country, moved to the 1st place in the world in terms of industrial development. The results of the First World War (1914-1918) contributed to such an accelerated advancement of the United States to the dominant economic position, and the Second World War (1939-1945) finally ensured the primacy of the United States, which, thanks to the rapid development of its economy, became the leading world power. Europe has long been considered the second "center" of the modern world, but this does not suit her. Journalists described the activity of the leaders of the European Union very figuratively: "Europe yearns for independence." We are talking about the creation of a United Europe, which plays a leading role in the world economy and politics. Its emergence, perhaps, will be the most important event of the 21st century.
European Union (European Union)- the largest regional association aimed at creating a political and monetary and economic union of European states in order to remove all obstacles to the free movement of goods, services, capital and people, as well as to form a common foreign and security policy. The European Union consists of 28 states. A single internal market has been created in the European Union, restrictions on the free movement of goods, capital, and labor between countries have been lifted, and a single monetary system has been formed with a single governing monetary institution.
The main institutions of power in the European Union :
1. The European Commission is the executive body of the European Union, consisting of 25 members (including the president) who are appointed for five years by the national governments, but wholly independent in the performance of their duties. The composition of the Commission is approved by the European Parliament. Each member of the Commission is responsible for a specific area of EU policy and heads the respective Directorate General;
2. The European Parliament is an assembly of 732 deputies directly elected by the citizens of the EU member states for a term of five years. The President of the European Parliament is elected for two and a half years. MEPs study bills and approve the budget. They take joint decisions with the Council of Ministers on specific matters and supervise the work of the EU Councils and the European Commission. The European Parliament holds plenary sessions in Strasbourg (France) and Brussels (Belgium);
3. Council of Ministers - the main decision-making body in the EU, which meets at the level of ministers of national governments, and its composition varies depending on the issues discussed: the Council of Foreign Ministers, the Council of Ministers of Economics, etc. Within the framework of the Council, the representatives of the governments of the member states discuss EU legislative acts and adopt or reject them by voting;
4. The European Court of Justice is the highest authority of the EU, regulating disputes between EU Member States, between EU Member States and the European Union itself, between EU institutions, between the EU and individuals or legal entities;
5. The Court of Accounts (Court of Auditors) is a body of the European Union established to conduct an audit of the EU budget and its institutions;
6. European Ombudsman deals with complaints of European individuals and legal entities against EU institutions and institutions.
European Union (European Union, EU) was legally fixed by the Maastricht Treaty in 1993 on the principles of the European Communities and has been continuously expanding ever since. A united Europe must become an instrument of political centralization. The logic of the EU enlargement is a political logic, i.e. the political consequences of the enlargement are important for the EU. Many European leaders today recognize that Europe needs to be turned into a superpower that would be able to defend its interests on the world stage. The objective basis for the unification of European states is the process of globalization - the economic and political internationalization of the world. “The expansion of Europe is a necessity in a globalizing world,” said one of the leaders of the European Union R. Prodi (Prime Minister of Italy ( - , May - January ), between two premiers was President of the European Commission ( - )), - and, of course, it gives us huge political advantages. The only way to counter the US and a booming China, and increase its global influence, is to form a strong united Europe.”
At present, the European Union has already come close to transforming into a deeply integrated association of states with a common supranational system of governance, politics, defense, currency and a single economic and social space. To understand the reasons for the creation of such an association, it is necessary to take into account the changes taking place in world politics, the features of the historical past and modern international relations of European countries. The condition of the natural, demographic and financial resources of these countries is also of decisive importance.
The integration process in the European Union goes in two directions - in breadth and depth. So, already in 1973, Great Britain, Denmark and Ireland entered the European Economic Community, in 1981 - Greece, in 1986 - Spain and Portugal, in 1995 - Finland, Austria and Sweden, in May 2004 - – Lithuania, Latvia, Estonia, Poland, Czech Republic, Hungary, Slovenia, Slovakia, Malta and Cyprus. Today the EU consists of 28 countries.
The development of integration in depth can be traced on the example of changes in the economic interaction of the countries - members of the European Union:
The first stage (1951 - 1952) is a kind of introduction;
The central event of the second stage (late 50s - early 70s of the XX century) was the creation of a free trade zone, then a customs union was created, a major achievement was the decision to pursue a single agricultural policy, which made it possible to establish a unity of the market and a system of agricultural protection allied countries from competitors from other countries;
At the third stage (the first half of the 70s), currency relations became the sphere of regulation;
The fourth stage (from the mid-1970s to the early 1990s) is characterized by the creation of a homogeneous economic space based on the principles of the "four freedoms" (free circulation of goods, capital, services and labor);
At the fifth stage (from the beginning of the 90s of the 20th century to the present), the formation of an economic, monetary and political union began (the introduction of a single EU citizenship along with a national one, a single currency and a banking system, etc.), a draft Constitution of the European Union was prepared, which must be approved by referenda in all EU member states.
The creation of the European Union was due to a number of reasons., primarily by the fact that it was in Western Europe after the end of World War II that the contradiction between the global nature of the modern economy and the narrow national-state boundaries of its functioning manifested itself with the greatest force, which was expressed in the intensive regionalization and transnationalization of this particular region. In addition, until the early 1990s, the desire of Western European countries to unite was explained by the sharp confrontation on the continent of two opposing social systems. An important political reason for integration was the desire of the countries of Western Europe to overcome the negative experience of the two world wars, to exclude the possibility of a military confrontation on the continent in the future. In addition, the countries of Western Europe, to a greater extent and earlier than the countries of other regions, were prepared for close economic cooperation with each other. The high dependence of Western European countries on foreign markets, the similarity of their economic structures, territorial and socio-cultural proximity - all this contributed to the development of integration trends. At the same time, the countries of Western Europe, by strengthening trade ties and other forms of interdependence, tried to compensate for the loss of rich colonial possessions. The convergence of the economies of European countries on the basis of links between their companies and markets also pursued the goal of using the effect of integration to strengthen Europe's position in the competition with other centers of the world economy. At the same time, the most important was the desire of the Western European countries to strengthen their positions in the world market in the face of the most powerful competitor - the United States of America. Strengthening the unity of the countries of the Western European region is also facilitated by some natural factors, primarily the territory. When characterizing the geographical originality of Europe, three main features are usually noted:
1) the relative compactness of the territory, which makes European countries close neighbors;
2) the coastal position of most European countries, which determines the predominance of a mild and humid maritime climate;
3) the presence of land and sea borders between European countries, which is favorable for the development of international cooperation.
Socio-economic characteristics of modern Europe.
Demographic situation in Europe is very difficult. For the period 1913 - 2000. The population of Western Europe increased only 1.7 times, of all developed countries - 2.4 times, and the population of the whole world during this time increased 4.0 times. Low fertility (1.74 children per woman of childbearing age in the UK; 1.66 in France; 1.26 in Germany) is leading to a decline in the population of Western Europe. In some states (for example, in Austria, Germany, Denmark), in some years there was even an absolute reduction in the population (death rate exceeded birth rate). Average annual population growth rates in Western European countries in 1991 - 2000 accounted for 0.4% (including 0.0% in Austria). According to UN calculations, by the middle of the XXI century. the share of Europeans in the world will decrease from 12% (or even 20% in the second half of the 19th century) to 7%. The deterioration of the demographic situation in Europe is usually associated with the abandonment of the traditional way of life of the population. The growth of the spiritual and intellectual potential of various segments of the population, the wide participation of women in social production and socio-economic processes lead to deliberate birth control (this is facilitated by the use of new birth control technologies and the legalization of abortion). Advances in medicine, rising living standards and other factors have led to a reduction in general and infant mortality, which means an increase in life expectancy and an increase in the average age of the population. Over the past 50 years, life expectancy has increased more than in the previous 5,000 years. According to rough estimates, in Great Britain, France and other countries before the industrial revolution of the 17th century. people over 65 years of age accounted for 2-3% of the population, and now in Western European countries they account for 14-15%. The evolution of family relations, which manifested itself in a number of countries already at the end of the 19th and beginning of the 20th centuries, had a great influence on European demographic resources. Europe became a pioneer in the development of the phenomenon that demographers called "European marriage" (late marriage, limiting the number of children, a large proportion of divorces, etc.). In the 80s - 90s of the XX century. in many European countries, the number of marriage unions has decreased, and the average age of those entering into marriage has increased. At the same time, the divorce rate (the number of divorces per 100 marriages in a given year), for example, has tripled in France. To all these changes, which are sometimes called family crisis,
In recent decades, Western European countries have experienced huge changes in financial resources. This process, which is often called the financial revolution, has a great influence on the process of European unification. First of all, it is necessary to note the increasing role of financial activity in the life of the leading European countries. The main reason for this is the industrial and technological progress and the internationalization of the economy. The creation of computers and new means of communication stimulated the development of various financial institutions that formed international securities markets in a short time. Huge fortunes arose from intermediary operations with these securities. Whoever owns them (rentiers, speculators, entrepreneurs), financial interests clearly dominate their production interests. The huge growth in the importance of finance is also associated with the expansion of trading and "financial engineering" of enterprises, in whose activities new tools have appeared that allow them to expand their securities transactions.
Big changes are taking place in the organization of financial markets. Traditionally, Western Europe has had a dual structure, including national markets, where transactions were made between local residents, and foreign markets as part of national markets, where foreign or mixed financial institutions functioned. Their common feature was the regulation of the activities of markets by the states on whose territory they were located, control, often tough, by authorized authorities. The development of financial globalization, the growth of international movements of stock values have led to the emergence of so-called pure international markets, i.e. markets completely free from state regulation. The name of the euromarkets stuck behind them. Eurocurrency is any currency that is deposited in a bank outside the country of origin and thus is outside the jurisdiction and control of the monetary authorities of that country. The most important type of euro papers is Eurobonds. As the Eurobond market grows, international trading in the securities of foreign borrowers takes on a multilateral character, thereby national markets for stock values act as international ones. The second type of securities circulating on the European markets is euroshares. They are issued outside the national stock markets and are purchased with the euro currency, and therefore do not fall under the control of national markets.
Today, a huge role in the unification of Europe belongs to the single European currency - Euro. It is turning into a serious competitor to the dollar in the international arena, becoming the second world currency serving trade relations between countries, international capital flows, world financial markets. In European countries, the euro decisively defeated the dollar. Managed to push the dollar and the markets of developing countries, including Latin America. The leaders of the European Union note that it was only with the introduction of the euro that the Americans began to think seriously about the reality of creating a United Europe. The role of the single European currency is determined by the common economic and financial potential of the EU countries. If the euro appreciates, its international use will also grow.
Of great importance for the further development of unification processes in Europe is the commonality of the economic structures of the Western European countries. The "core" of European integration was Germany, France, Italy and the Benelux countries (Belgium, the Netherlands and Luxembourg, which signed an agreement on economic union in 1958). A certain unity of their socio-economic structure played a significant role in the formation and development of the European Union.. The influence of this unity is still felt today, although with the increase in the number of members of the Union and candidates for the EU, the situation is changing and contradictions are growing.
For the countries of Western Europe, and above all those that make up the "core" of the European Union, it has long been characteristic high degree of economic activity of the state. As a result of a long historical development, a combination of such factors has developed in them, such as a significant development of state property; high share of the state in total investment and R&D financing; a large volume of public procurement, including military ones; public funding of social spending; wide scale of state regulation of the economy; participation of the state in the export of capital and in other forms of international economic relations.
The countries of Western Europe differ in the size of state ownership. France is called the country of classical nationalization. Here the state has always played an important role in the economy, although the share of its participation is constantly changing. In general, the public sector today accounts for up to 20% of the country's national wealth. The French mixed economy system is a metered combination of the market and public sectors.
In Germany, there has historically been a situation where many economic facilities are fully or partially owned by the state. Unlike France, in the FRG nationalization of individual industries has never been carried out. At various periods of its existence, the German state built or bought from a private entrepreneur railways and roads, radio stations, post office, telegraph and telephone, airfields, canals and port facilities, power plants, military installations and a large number of industrial enterprises, mainly in the extractive and heavy industries. industry. Significant lands, funds, gold and foreign exchange reserves, and property abroad also turned out to be the property of the state. State economic facilities are in the hands of the federal government, state governments and local authorities. Of all state property, two industry complexes play the greatest role in the German economy: infrastructure facilities that provide conditions for expanded reproduction, as well as industrial and energy enterprises, most of which are combined into state concerns. In recent decades, in Germany, as in other European countries, the entrepreneurial functions of the state have been decreasing. The transition to new forms of economic regulation is accompanied by a certain reduction in the public sector - through the sale of shares on the stock markets. But even today, the share of the public sector in the German economy is quite high. In addition, the Federal Republic of Germany is characterized by partial privatization of state-owned enterprises, i.e., their transformation into mixed companies. Similar processes are developing in Italy.
Great Britain, many economists refer to the group of countries of "Anglo-Saxon" capitalism, but, like other EU countries, it is characterized by the practice of public-private partnership. In the 90s of the XX century. in the UK, such partnership projects worth 40 billion dollars were implemented (the construction of a tunnel under the English Channel, the laying of branches of the London Underground, etc.).
In Germany, France, Italy and other Western European countries, various forms of state regulation of the economy. Huge proportions have reached, for example, the volume of state budgets, spending on science. The state acts as one of the main customers and consumers of goods and services, participates in foreign trade, provides comprehensive assistance to the export of private capital. At present, a state system of economic programming has already taken shape (and somewhere else is being formed), which combines the current regulation of economic processes with long-term coordination of economic development based on the preparation and implementation of national economic programs.
In Western Europe, socio-economic systems have social orientation. The state here performs the greatest number of social functions. Thus, the “German economic model” made it possible to restore the country completely destroyed as a result of the Second World War, to become one of the world leaders at the end of the 20th century and to provide the highest standard of living for the population of Germany. Germany spends about 30% of its GDP on social needs. In France, the general level of development of the social system is one of the highest in the world. Various social payments make up about a third of the nominal wages of an employee. Among the achievements of France in the social sphere, an important place is given to family benefits (they were first introduced in 1939). Family allowances are paid to all citizens regardless of family income and whether the child is born in marriage or out of wedlock.
Social security systems also operate in other Western European countries. Italy stands out for its high level of pension provision. Belgium, the Netherlands and Sweden have relatively high living standards. According to the human development index, Belgium and the Netherlands in 2002 ranked 7th-8th in the world. In Sweden, social policy is aimed at reducing unemployment (the average annual unemployment rate is 4%) and equalizing the income level of the population. Taxes in the country account for 56.5% of the national GDP. In Denmark, a socially oriented capitalism with a market-state regulated economy has been formed. In Finland, 25% of the country's GDP is spent on social purposes. The government's social policy is primarily aimed at reducing unemployment (8.5% in 2002).
The most important regularity of the economic development of Western Europe in the late XX - early XXI century. - This transformation of the industrial economy into a post-industrial one, or the service economy ("new economy"). This process is objective. It is based on the progressive movement of the productive forces, the results of which are concretized in the constant increase in the productivity of labor and other factors of production. The formation of a modern post-industrial model of the economy occurs due to a structural revolution, i.e. a fundamental redistribution between the primary (agrarian), secondary (industrial) and tertiary (services) sectors of the economy, as well as due to changes within each of these sectors: in all developed countries The service sector has become a leading component of the economy. The contribution of the service sector to economic growth began to exceed the contribution of industry. Today, in the developed countries of the world, more than 60% of the total working population is concentrated in the service sector. Service enterprises provide a significant part of world GDP - about 70%. If in the 70s of the XX century. indicators of the average annual growth rates of the totality of service industries exceeded those of agriculture by about 2 times, and industry - by 1.5 times, then at the end of the 20th century these rates increased by 2.5 and 3.5 times, respectively.
The main element of the post-industrial economic model can also be considered the informative revolution, the essence of which is a huge increase in the informatization of the entire life of society. Information is becoming the most important type of resource used by people, therefore modern society is often called information. Not only a high degree of correlation between indicators of economic growth and the level of development of information and communication technologies (ICT) was revealed, but also a tendency to strengthen the role of ICT as a means of economic growth - even the conditions for this growth. Moreover, they talk about the formation of the information sector of the economy (it is called quaternary). The indicators of this process are the widespread computerization of the economy and everyday life, the globalization of communication systems, and the very fact of the emergence of the information community.
The increase in the role of services in all their diversity is closely connected with the technical and technological revolution. The relationship between them has a two-way character. On the one hand, the development of technology and advanced technologies serves as the material basis for the growth of the tertiary sector of the economy - the service sector. Without a radical increase in the overall productivity of labor, facilitated by the technical and technological revolution, such a situation, when the cost of services exceeds the cost of an industrial product, would simply be impossible. But on the other hand, the very growth of the service sector is a powerful means of further increasing labor productivity and improving the efficiency of the economy. As a result, costs for all elements of production are reduced, the qualification of the labor force is increased, which contributes to improving the quality of products and increasing the volume of its production (for example, as a result of the development of health care, losses associated with illnesses of workers are reduced). The service sector is becoming the leading force in the development of the modern economy. From now on, it is the central sector of the economy. But at the same time, the service sector is closely connected with the industrial sector. Services become an integral part of the production process.
By the end of the XX century. the cumulative effect of these and other causes significantly changed the basic proportions of the economy, which meant the formation of a post-industrial economy. Its main features are:
Radical acceleration of technical progress, reduction of the role of material production, expressed, in particular, in a decrease in its share in the total social product,
Development of the service and information sector,
Changing the motives and nature of human activity,
The emergence of a new type of resources involved in production,
Significant modification of the entire social structure.
The formation of a “service economy” is a universal process that is common to all countries, but it is implemented in each of them as internal prerequisites are realized, which directly depends on the level of economic development of the state. In economically underdeveloped countries, economic activity today is reduced mainly to the production of "thing" products. And the higher the level of development of the economy, labor productivity, the greater the role of labor activity in the structure of the economy, aimed at the production of intangible types of products expressed in the form of services.
The most significant features of European development at the turn of the century include computerization and internetization of the economy, increasing the educational and scientific and technical potential of countries.
Let us dwell on the main areas of development of the post-industrial economy in Europe: the service sector (more than 65% of the working population of European countries are employed in it, service enterprises provide about 70% of the GDP of the EU countries); trade (significant changes are taking place in the nature of modern trade, which in Western Europe are often called even a commercial revolution); communication (a set of industries designed to transmit and distribute various kinds of information has always been an important element in the life of society, but in modern conditions the role of means of communication is significantly enhanced, the degree of development of means of communication is one of the important indicators of the maturity of the economy); transport (the creation of the European Union contributed to the further modernization of a number of transport sectors, strengthening inter-sectoral and international coordination of transport activities, improving the quality indicators of many transport enterprises in Western Europe, more than 8 million people are employed in the EU transport sector and more than 7% of total GDP is produced).
Consequences of European integration.
Assessing the results of European integration at the present stage, it should be noted first of all its achievements. During the existence of the European Union, a developed mechanism of integration has developed, based on the principle of separation of legislative, executive and judicial functions. Among the important lessons of European integration is the development of an integration strategy for the European Union. A number of European countries have chosen to limit their sovereignty and transfer some of their powers to supranational integration structures. The supremacy of the laws of the European Union was clearly manifested in relation to the underdeveloped states of Southern Europe - Greece, Spain and Portugal. Accession to the common European market has become a powerful stimulus for the development of the economies of these countries. And the achievements of Greece, Spain and Portugal stimulated the desire to join the EU among other relatively poor countries in Europe.
The rapid development of integration processes contributed to radical shifts in the structure of the European economy. The EU accounts for over 90% of European GDP. In terms of GDP (21%), United Europe caught up with the United States. Moreover, in some important indicators, the EU countries have surpassed the level of the United States. More American and European labor market. At the beginning of the XXI century. the total number of employees in the EU countries exceeded 160 million people (in the USA - 137 million people). Western European countries have a very developed banking system. At the same time, the EU lags behind the US in terms of post-industrialization. Thus, the clear superiority in the development of the latest technologies belongs to the United States of America. The EU countries are also still significantly behind the US in terms of the degree of computerization of the economy.
But the economic development of the EU countries is very uneven. Comparison of the development of the EU and the USA in the second half of the 20th century. shows, on the one hand, the convergence of their economic indicators, on the other hand, a growing trend towards a certain weakening of the positions of the EU in relation to the United States, which was rapidly developing in the 90s. One of the main obstacles to sustainable economic growth in the EU countries is the decline in labor resources, in particular the aging of the population and the decrease in its size. Now there are 4 people of working age per pensioner in the EU, and in 2050, according to the forecast of the European Commission, there will be only 2 workers. Finally, the growth of the euro against the dollar worsened the position of European companies in the American and other markets. As a result, the scale of the recession in the European economy has increased, and the improvement of the situation is associated with the solution of many complex problems:
- financial crisis (for twenty years at the turn of the 20th - 21st centuries, 5 developed and 88 developing countries experienced a systemic financial crisis);
- stock crisis (decrease in the share price);
- crisis of the insurance system (a serious danger for the entire world economy is the growing difficulties in the insurance system of many countries, which allows us to speak of a crisis in this area as an integral part of the current financial and economic crisis; in 2002 alone, the insurance business in Western Europe decreased by more than 50 %);
- banking crisis (in all countries of the world, an increase in the number of overdue loans was noted in hundreds of banks).
Initially, the "new economy" as a combination of the latest information and telecommunications technologies was declared not subject to crises. However, since the beginning of the XXI century. they began to talk about the crisis of the "new economy", and some analysts called it the main structural crisis of the modern world. Since the end of 2000, the overall growth of the US economy and a number of Western European countries began to slow down sharply. The statistical picture of the changes taking place in recent years indicates a slowdown in industrial production growth in the EU countries and even, in some cases, a reduction in its volume. Attention is drawn to the difference in economic dynamics in the "new" and "old" countries of the European Union. In all "new" countries in 2001-2002. there was an increase in industrial production. But its pace, as well as the relatively small volumes of the economies of these states, could not have a great impact on the general situation in the Western European and, even more so, the world economy. The main "culprit" of the deterioration of the overall economic situation is Germany, which has actually stopped the growth of industrial production. The decline in production began in 1996, but in 2003 a particularly difficult situation developed.
Currently, there are serious contradictions in the development of the European Union. The split in the European Union slows down the process of integration of European countries. And this leads to the projects of political reforms in the EU, which were widely discussed during the development and approval of the European Constitution. The situation is complicated by a number of transatlantic contradictions. The economic power of the United States, their military and political superiority allow the American ruling circles to exert all-round pressure on both the "old" and "new" members of the European Union, trying to pursue their course, which is aimed at weakening European positions.
The unification of Europe is an integral part of the process of comprehensive globalization. The success of European integration has a positive impact on the formation of regional and transcontinental associations around the world.
