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Terrain type, like landscape or area, is one of the most common and important concepts in landscape (complex physical) geography. VP Semenov-Tyan-Shansky wrote as early as 1928 that "...the search for types of localities is the first, most important, essential, inalienable feature of geographical science..." (p. 48). Researchers showed particular interest in this concept in the postwar years, during the period of widespread theoretical and field landscape work. Despite the wide, if not universal, recognition of terrain types as landscape complexes, until recently, different researchers put different content into this concept. In this article, we make an attempt to clarify the concept of "type of locality" and to clarify its place and significance in landscape geography.
A brief review of the views existing in the literature on the scope and content of the concept of "type of locality"
In the special geographical literature, the term "type of locality" or close to it "typical localities", "genera of localities" began to be used from the middle XIX in. Tracing the literature published since that time, it is easy to distinguish three different points of view on the scope and content of the concept of "type of locality". According to the first of them, the type of locality is a regional physical and geographical unit. One of the first to express this point of view was P.P. Semenov-Tyan-Shansky . In Western Siberia, he distinguished between the Tobol-Ishim, Baraba, Tobolsk, Tomsk, Altai, Upper Irtysh and Lower Ob "typical localities" (Semenov, 1884). As N. I. Mikhailov correctly notes, “typical localities” in this case are, in essence, synthetic geographical areas of regional zoning ... ”(Mikhailov, 1955, p. 122). V. P. Semenov-Tyan-Shansky in his well-known work “Types of localities in European Russia and the Caucasus” (1915) meant by “types of localities” regional units that are close to physical and geographical provinces in the modern representation. ; localities," he singled out the Polesie subglacial water accumulation, the Donetsk Ridge, the Volga loose ravine region, the Zhiguli or Samara bow, the Zavolzhskaya lowland and others. B. L. Bernshtein divided the territory of the Yaroslavl province into “physical-geographical areas”, which he considered a synonym for physical-geographical regions.
According to the second point of view, until recently the most common, the type of locality is a general typological concept. Putting a broad typological content into this term, the researchers did not limit its use to any taxonomic framework.
N. A. Severtsov more than 100 years ago singled out “types of localities” on the territory of the former Voronezh province, symmetrically located along the rivers. In particular, he named such types of localities: low sandy spits; sandy-silty drifts with alder, meadows and lakes; steep edge of the valley with marginal forest, yarugas or treeless; a band of villages; strip of cultivated fields with deposits; steppe (Severtsov, 1950).
A. N. Krasnov in 1886 used the term "type of locality" when describing the right bank of the Volga and Oka in the former Nizhny Novgorod province. He named 19 types of terrain, which in terms of their volume are close to the types of tracts in the modern view (outcropped steep clay slopes, bottoms of shady flooded ravines, etc.). In the same period, P.P. Semenov describes the types of localities of the Central Asian deserts, highlighting the loess foothills flooded with ditches; short transverse valleys of Kopet-Dag with their irrigated rivers; bare and waterless slopes and peaks of Kopet-Dag; the coast of the steppe course of a large Central Asian river; a cultural oasis remote from the mountains; sandy desert near Repetek station.
G. N. Vysotsky also uses the term "type of locality" in the general typological sense. Thus, the eastern slopes of the Ergeni, characterized by rugged relief and frequent changes in soil and plant groups, he calls the "variegated type of terrain", while the Caspian semi-desert is an example of a uniform territorial type (Vysotsky, 1904).
In the Soviet period, the term "type of locality" as a general, non-taxonomic, concept was widely used in the works of employees of the Institute of Geography of the USSR Academy of Sciences. In the 1940s, a special group was created to compile complex physical-geographical maps. In addition to the staff of the Institute, representatives of the Soil* and Botanical Institutes took part in its work. Of the three maps compiled by this group, two are of a landscape-typological nature. The main objects of the image on them are the types of terrain of the European part and the eastern regions of the country. These researchers do not give a detailed definition of the type of terrain highlighted on the maps; it is only known that each type of terrain is characterized by “a definite and similar combination of physical and geographical conditions” (Gerasimov and Kes, 1948, p. 352). As special types of terrain, for example, natural complexes such as bald mountains, taiga plateaus, mountain-hill taiga, taiga lowlands, taiga-ridged plains, steppe hills, steppe plains, elevated tundra, low swampy tundra, solonchaks, takyrs, desert sandy hilly and dune plains, etc.
The ideas underlying these maps of terrain types were further developed in the works of V. S. Preobrazhensky, N. V. Fadeeva and L. I. Mukhina (Preobrazhensky and Fadeeva,; 1955; Preobrazhensky, 1957; Preobrazhensky et al. 1959 ; Preobrazhensky, Fadeeva, Mukhina, 1961; Types of terrain and natural zoning of the Chita region, 1961; Fadeeva, 1961). These authors, relying on the statements of G. N. Vysotsky (1904, 1909) on phytotopological maps, or maps of habitat types, did a great deal of work to identify and map the types of terrain in the Buryat ASSR and the Chita region.
V. S. Preobrazhensky proposes to consider as a type of locality “such areas of the territory that have a complex of natural conditions necessary (or unsuitable) for the growth of a certain set of agricultural crops” (Preobrazhensky, Fadeeva, Mukhina, Tomilov, 1959, p. 42). As independent types of terrain, he and his collaborators single out the following natural complexes: in the Buryat ASSR - dry mountain steppe, mountain steppe, forest-steppe and mountain forest-steppe, mountain taiga, pre-bald woodlands, bald mountains, meadow flat riverine plains, meadow slightly sloping plains, dwarf birch, pine forests, mountain tundra (ibid.); in the Chita region - dry steppe, steppe, forest-steppe, taiga, pre-bald woodlands, bald mountains, meadow plains, dwarf birches, mari, pine forests (Types of terrain and natural zoning of the Chita region, 1961).
It is easy to see that V. S. Preobrazhensky and his collaborators single out far from equivalent landscape complexes as types of terrain: steppe, forest-steppe, taiga, i.e. zonal complexes (types of landscape, according to most researchers) are put on a par with meadow flat riverine plains, dwarf birches, mari and pine forests, found in separate fragments in zonal complexes.
In essence, the type of locality as a general typological concept is synonymous with many geographical landscapes of L. S. Berg (1947) (spruce forests of the forest zone of lowlands, ravine landscape of the forest-steppe, sands of the desert zone, river valleys of the desert zone, etc.), landscapes in the works of B. B. Polynova (1926, 1927), types of territory in the works of A. N. Ponomarev (1937) and Z. M. Murzaev (1953), landscape and landscape type in the presentation of N. A. Gvozdetsky other geographers.
According to the third point of view, the type of terrain is the taxonomic unit of typological landscape mapping. In a number of previously published works (Milkov, 1953, 1955, 1956a, 1956b, 1957a, 19576, 1959a, 1959b, etc.), we tried to substantiate the concept of "type of locality" as one of the most important landscape-typological units of a certain taxonomic significance. At the same time, we proceeded from the premise that in nature there are two, although closely interconnected, but independent series of landscape complexes: regional and typological. Regional complexes (district, province, zone, country) are units of landscape zoning, typological - units of landscape mapping. Both those and other complexes have an independent system of taxonomic units, which includes: type of tract, type of terrain, type of landscape.
The type of terrain represents a relatively equivalent, from the point of view of economic use, territory, which has a natural, only inherent in it, combination of tracts. Like other typological units, the area type has a discontinuous range and its distribution does not depend on the boundaries of regional units. For the forest-steppe and steppe zones of the south of the Russian Plain, we described the following types of terrain: floodplain, above-floodplain-terrace, riverine (slope), upland, interfluve undrained, watershed-outland, remnant-watershed, low-mountain.
An interpretation of the type of locality close to the above is found in a large number of recent works devoted to the physical-geographical zoning and landscape-typological mapping of different regions of our country. Of the landscape-typological works, the following can be mentioned: N. I. Akhtyrtseva (1957a and b, 1959, 1961) about the Kalach Upland, S. T. Belozorova (1958) about the Odessa region, 3. P. Berdnikova and N. N. Smirnov (1959) on the ratio of riverine and upland types of terrain in the south of the Central Russian Upland, K.I. Gerenchuk (1956, 1957) on the western regions of the Ukrainian SSR, G.E. Russian Upland, M. M. Koinov (1957) about the Stanislav region, A. I. Lanko, A. M. Marynich and others (1959) about the Ukrainian SSR, and many others.
The type of locality as a taxonomic typological unit is recognized by N. A. Solntsev. He believes that the localities represent “a natural combination of a certain type of tracts (Solntsev, 1961, p. 56) and at the same time are an organic component of the landscape (region).
Thus, from the considered points of view on the concept of "type of terrain", the last two are currently most recognized, according to which the type of terrain is considered as a general typological concept and as one of the main taxonomic units of landscape mapping. Despite the difference between these views, we do not see a sharp, insurmountable line between them. Representatives of both points of view see the type of locality as the most important typological landscape complex, the knowledge of which helps to reveal the inner content of regional units. However, it should be emphasized that the recognition of a locality type as a general typological concept does not eliminate, but, on the contrary, makes it more urgent the need to develop a taxonomic system for locality types.
About the leading factors that form the types of terrain
The terrain types of the forest-steppe and steppe zones of the Russian Plain, which are well known to us from field work, usually show the closest connection with the elements of the erosional relief. This is confirmed by the names of the locality types: by name, above-floodplain-terrace, riverine (slope), remnant-watershed.
In the conditions of the Central Russian forest-steppe, where the valley-gully relief is perfectly expressed, and the subsoil almost everywhere is carbonate loess-like rocks of the same composition, the erosional relief acquires an exceptional, leading role in
formation of terrain types. N. A. Severtsov, G. I. Tanfil’ev, G. F. Morozov, and B. A. Keller repeatedly pointed out this connection between vegetation and soils and the relief of the Central Russian forest-steppe. It is therefore quite natural that the types of terrain - landscape complexes - in the Central Russian forest-steppe in many cases coincide with certain types of locations.
At the same time, it should be noted that there is no complete coincidence of terrain types with location types even in the conditions of the Central Russian forest-steppe. First, different types of terrain are often observed here under similar location conditions. So, on the flat interfluves of the Oka-Don lowland, not one, but three types of terrain are clearly traced: upland, interfluve undrained, and watershed-outland (see profile); secondly, almost every type of terrain is not one, but a complex set of types of locations. For example, the upland type of terrain consists not only of flat, elevated-plain "upland formations", in the concept of G. N. Vysotsky (1904), a number of tracts of various locations are closely intertwined in it: the actual uplands (levels), runoff hollows, peaks beams, steppe depressions, ponds.
Along with the relief, the lithology of parent rocks, which serve as subsoil, also plays a leading role in the formation of terrain types. If in the Central Russian forest-steppe in the isolation of terrain types the first place belongs to the relief, then in the Caspian lowland it very often no longer plays such a decisive role and the lithology of parent rocks is put forward in the first place. True, the estuary type of terrain in the Caspian semi-desert also owes its existence to the relief, however, in the vast expanses of the semi-desert, landscape differences are not caused by relief, but by the change of clay and loamy soils to sandy and sandy loamy ones.
The leading role of lithology in the formation of semi-desert landscape complexes was established by E. A. Eversmann. In the first part of the Natural History of the Orenburg Territory, he wrote about steppes devoid of fat (semi-deserts in the modern view): “the latter can also be divided into clayey and solonetsous steppes (katkil among the kaisaks), actually into solonchaks, salt mud (sur kaisaks) and, finally, to the sandy steppes, sands (among the kaisaks, kum). This division is based on nature itself and is important for determining the distribution of plants and animals. (discharge is ours.- F. Milkov) (Eversmann, 1949, p. 219).
The landscape-forming role of lithology increases even more in dry deserts, where moisture reserves in soils are determined mainly not by meso- and microforms and relief, but by water permeability, capillarity, and other properties of soils. N. A. Gvozdetsky distinguishes the following types of Central Asian deserts: 1) loess-clay ephemeral, 2) clay wormwood (wormwood-saltwort), 3) sandy psammophyte, 4) stony gypsum phyte, 5) solonchak halophyte (Gvozdetsky and Fedina, 1958). These types of deserts, from our point of view, are nothing more than enlarged types of terrain.
A completely different situation than in the Central Russian forest-steppe develops, on the one hand, in semi-deserts and deserts, on the other, in the Baltic states, in the north of Belarus and in areas adjacent to them. Here, a complex glacial relief - from large-hilly and hilly to completely flat in place of lowered lake reservoirs or secondary moraine plains - is combined with an extremely variegated, rapidly changing lithology of Quaternary sediments - subsoils (sands, clayey, loamy and sandy loamy moraines, ribbon clays, mantle loams and etc.). Under these conditions, the identification of terrain types from a methodological point of view is, perhaps, more difficult than the identification of the same typological complexes in the Central Russian forest-steppe or in semi-deserts. There is a need to develop new techniques and approaches to identifying and mapping terrain types that are different from the techniques used in other regions of the country. Interesting experiments on identifying types of terrain in the glacial northwest of the Russian Plain were carried out by 3. V. Borisova (1958), A. B. Basalikas and O. A. Shleinite (1961), 3. V. Dashkevich (Borisova) (1961), V A. Dementiev (1961).
In conclusion, it should be emphasized that the relative importance of the relief and lithology of source rocks as the leading factors in the formation of terrain types varies depending on the degree of their "severity" and, to a certain extent, on the climatic background (an increase in the lithological factor in sharply arid regions).
Distribution area and regional features of terrain types
The type of locality, as a rule, generalizes a large number of specific localities. As before (Mil'kov, 19566), we mean a spatially unified, undivided fragment of a locality type within a single regional unit - a landscape region - by a specific locality.
A particular locality, in its properties, is closest to the regional units of landscape zoning, and in some cases, in large-scale studies, it can and should serve as an object of independent study. More often, however, a specific locality is studied not as an independent object, but as a standard for many other similar specific localities, which together form a type of locality. Spatial disunity and, at the same time, landscape proximity of the type of terrain throughout the entire range is the most important property of this landscape complex, which is difficult to overestimate for theory and practice. In this regard, a completely legitimate question arises: how large is the range of the same type of terrain? There are three possible answers to this question.
First, it can be assumed that the terrain type is a landscape complex with unlimited distribution. This assumption is based on the fact that similar landforms and lithology of source rocks - the leading factors in the formation of terrain types - are repeated in various provinces, zones, and even continents. However, the allocation of terrain types in such a broad interpretation loses its scientific and practical significance. Despite the fact that the remnant hills and ridges of the Volga Upland and the Kyzylkum desert, or sandy plains. Polissya and the Turkmen Karakum, in terms of relief and lithology, are somewhat similar to each other, in terms of landscape they are so far from each other that hardly anyone would dare to combine them into one type of terrain.
Secondly, the type of terrain can be considered a landscape typological complex of local regional significance. The tendency to limit the types of locality to relatively narrow regional boundaries is noticeable in the works of K. I. Gerenchuk (1957). In practice, the excessive regional limitation of terrain types can lead to blurring the lines between the type of terrain and a particular locality. In the end, it can come to the point that for each landscape region it will seem expedient to develop its own special system of localities. Apparently, this is what N.A. Solntsev (1957) means when he proposes to replace the term "type of locality" with another term - "locality". In this case, we are deprived of the opportunity to use in practice the most important quality of typological units - to serve as a criterion for establishing landscape similarity and relative economic equivalence of territorially separated specific areas. From our point of view, in all cases, even in the most large-scale studies, when we are faced with practically specific localities, it is better to speak not just about “localities”, but about “types of locality”, thereby emphasizing that the described locality is not a region, not a unique individuality, but only a fragment of a widespread type.
Finally, the type of terrain as an intrazonal landscape complex. Such an interpretation of it seems to be the most logically justified, since the types of terrain usually do not go beyond the boundaries of the landscape zone; their combination within the landscape zone forms a landscape type - a typological taxonomic unit of a higher rank than the locality type. However, the nature of typological units is such that sometimes they do not take into account the boundaries of regional units and the same type of terrain can occur in different landscape zones, just as the area of a landscape type does not repeat the area of distribution of any particular landscape zone. For example, such types of terrain as upland, floodplain, above-floodplain-terrace, and riverine (slope) are equally widespread in the forest-steppe and steppe zones of the Russian Plain; fragments of upland and riverine types of terrain are also found in the south of the mixed forest zone.
What is the ultimate criterion for establishing the boundaries of the distribution of one or another type of terrain? It lies in the very definition of the type of locality - the boundaries of the mud of the locality are determined by the geography of its constituent characteristic tracts and tracts-dominaites. To clarify what has been said, let us consider the boundaries of the distribution of the upland type of terrain. This type of locality, perfectly expressed on the watersheds of the forest-steppe and steppe zones of the Russian Plain, is a combination of the following types of tracts: flatlands, steppe depressions, runoff hollows, and ravine tops. To the north of the forest-steppe - in the zones of taiga and mixed forests - watersheds are rarely flat, and where they are found, they are characterized by groundwater close to the surface, often swampy and, therefore, are not similar to the level flats of the upland type of terrain in the forest-steppe and steppe zones . However, in some areas of the taiga and mixed forests, mainly along the so-called opols, the upland type of terrain continues to occur. A classic example of an opolye is Yuryevskoye in the Vladimir region. On its territory there are rather well-developed even areas without signs of swamping, there are saucer-shaped depressions and runoff hollows. The belonging of the Yuryevsky opolye to the upland type of terrain is also confirmed by the peculiarities of its economic use: the opolye, covered with fertile dark-colored soils on loess-like loams, is almost completely plowed up, like the uplands of the forest-steppe and steppe zones.
The northern semi-desert serves as the southern boundary of the distribution of the upland type of terrain: here, in the structure of upland areas, the role of solonetz tracts sharply increases, and the significance of runoff hollows disappears. The elevated-plain locations of the southern semi-desert and desert already constitute a different type of terrain, different from upland. The area of upland type of terrain extends very widely from west to east. In addition to the Russian plain, it is found on the plains of Hungary, distributed in the forest-steppe and steppe zones of Western and Central Siberia, very close analogues of it are known in the prairies of North America.
Different types of terrain have unequal areas - sometimes very extensive, sometimes relatively limited. One of the most extensive ranges belongs to the floodplain type. Establishing its boundaries is the task of a special study, but it seems to us that the Dnieper or Dniester floodplains and Central Asian tugai form independent types of terrain, different from the floodplain type of terrain in the middle strip of the Russian Plain.
Here it is appropriate to raise one more question - about the role of the climatic factor in the formation of terrain types. Obviously, relief and lithology are the leading factors in the formation of terrain types only on a certain, albeit fairly wide, climatic background. Such a background is provided by the zones of the region located within the same belt with the moisture balance of the same type or close to it, which is expressed in the ratio of the annual precipitation to the evaporation rate.
Recognizing wide areas for locality types, one should not forget that these typological complexes have certain landscape differences caused by local regional features of nature. So, for example, the weak development or complete absence of fresh ravines is a regional feature of the riverine (slope) type of terrain in the High Trans-Volga region. A regional feature of the interfluve undrained type of terrain in the Central Russian forest-steppe is aspen bushes, which are unusual for the interfluve undrained terrain type of the Dnieper lowland. The almost complete absence of steppe depressions is a regional feature of the upland type of the Kalach Upland.
Given the above, when identifying, characterizing and mapping terrain types, one should always keep in mind not only their common - typological - features, but also the main regional features. This task turns out to be not simple, and some researchers, trying to solve it, follow the path of splitting the types of terrain. Following this path, one can single out an innumerable variety of terrain types and still not solve the problem posed - regional influences on terrain types are so diverse. Its only satisfactory solution is to combine typological units with regional ones in the text and on the landscape map. Typological units should be considered inextricably linked with regional ones, and in both units one should see only different aspects of a single whole - the landscape sphere of the earth. This is the path followed by the team of geographers of the Voronezh University in the monograph "Physical-geographical zoning of the central black earth regions" (1961). In it, in addition to brief information about the types of terrain in general, CCHO, in some detail, with an indication of the areas, the types of terrain in each physical and geographical region are described.
As a generalization of all that has been said above about regional influences on locality types, it seems expedient to introduce the concept of "variant type of locality" (Mil'kov, 1959a and b). Depending on the nature of regional influences, one can speak of zonal, altitudinal-geomorphological and lithological variants of the terrain type. The upland type of terrain in the forest-steppe and steppe zones is two zonal variants of the same type of terrain. The riverine (slope) type of terrain on the Central Russian Upland and the Oka-Don Lowland are not two different types of terrain, but different altitudinal-geomorphological variants of the same riverine (slope) terrain type. Finally, the riverine type of terrain in the north of the Middle Russian Upland, with outcrops of Devonian limestone, and in the south of the Middle Russian Upland, with outcrops of white writing chalk, are not different types of terrain, but only lithological variants of the same riverine (slope) type terrain.
Theoretical and applied significance of the study of terrain types
At present, the vast majority of geographers rightly admit that without preliminary identification and mapping of terrain types it is difficult, if not impossible at all, to objectively distinguish physical-geographical regions. The main significance of locality types lies precisely in the fact that the study of them leads to a deeper knowledge of regional differences in the nature of the country. At the same time, even physical-geographic regions (landscapes, according to other authors), until recently depicted as a kind of "homogeneous whole", represent a complex unity consisting of unequal typological complexes.
The study of terrain types has not only theoretical, but also many-sided applied significance. The relative economic equivalence of locality types makes it possible to carry out a primary qualitative account of land resources using a landscape-typological map. Good results in the economic assessment of the types of terrain in Transbaikalia were obtained by V. S. Preobrazhenskii, L. I. Mukhina, and N. V. Fadeeva (Preobrazhenskii and Fadeeva, 1955; Preobrazhenskii et al., 1959; Fadeeva, 1961; and others). The first experiments in the economic assessment of terrain types were given in the works of Voronezh economic geographers (Velsky and Porosenkov, 1961; Goncharov, 1961). With the help of terrain types, the internal natural and economic differences of limited territories - individual collective farms and state farms (Nature and economy of the Chapaev collective farm, 1956; Velsky, 1957, 1959; Tarasov, 1957) are successfully revealed. A promising problem, standing on the verge of physical and economic geography, is the regional and regional grouping of collective farms according to the prevailing type of terrain, with the identification of the features of the current state of the economy and the prospects for its development for each group of collective farms (Milkov, 1961a).
V. V. Nikolskaya and L. F. Nasulich conducted interesting studies in the Amur region to identify types of terrain that differ in the degree of moisture and soaking of soils, which largely determines the nature of their economic use (Nikolskaya and Nasulich, 1958).
The study of terrain types helps the planning of new cities and towns (Dorfman, 1961), opens up new possibilities in the study of erosion processes, and makes it possible to draw not a generalized, average for the region, but a real picture of the territory's gullyness (Ezhov, 1957, 1958, 1959). There is no doubt that the broad and in-depth study of terrain types, which has unfolded in recent years in our country, will contribute to the further strengthening and development of landscape geography.
Locality (in physical geography) terrain, in physical geography, one of the morphological parts geographical landscape. Represents a group of related tracts associated with individual large landforms (for example, with watersheds, river valleys and terraces, etc.) or with fluctuations in the depth of occurrence of the same bedrock (pre-anthropogenic) rocks (for example, limestones subject to karst under the cover of loess-like loams). Landscape science also considers complex systems of stows of the same type that have merged in the course of their development (for example, systems of upland bog massifs in taiga landscapes) and parts of the landscape that differ from each other in the quantitative ratio of areas occupied by stows of different types (for example, pine forests, swamps in the taiga, etc.) with a homogeneous qualitative composition of the latter. In geographical literature, the term "M." is also used in a general sense (as a landscape, a territory with a peculiar combination of natural conditions). ═ A. G. Isachenko.
Great Soviet Encyclopedia. - M.: Soviet Encyclopedia. 1969-1978 .
See what "Location (in physical geography)" is in other dictionaries:
1) part of the territory, characterized by the commonality of c.l. signs (natural, source or others). 2) In physical. geography large morfol. part of the geographical landscape, a complex of tracts ... Natural science. encyclopedic Dictionary
- - scientist and writer, full member of the Russian Academy of Sciences, professor of chemistry at St. Petersburg University; was born in the village Denisovka, Arkhangelsk province, November 8, 1711, died in St. Petersburg on April 4, 1765. At present… … Big biographical encyclopedia
- [τόπος (ςpos) place, area; γράφω (γrafe) I write] a scientific discipline that studies the earth's surface (i.e., elements of the physical surface of the land and objects of activity located on it ... ... Geological Encyclopedia
I. Definition, composition, space, population. II. Relief. Geological conditions. The soil. Water. III. Climate. IV. Flora and fauna. V. Ethnographic composition, religion, life and occupations of the population. VI. Agriculture and its conditions. ... ... Encyclopedic Dictionary F.A. Brockhaus and I.A. Efron
Terrain types and their constituent tracts are subject to mapping in nature. This important work has not yet begun in essence, and at present it is not possible to present cartographically the geographical distribution of all types of terrain. We confine ourselves to giving a table of the occurrence of locality types in the provinces of the south of the Russian Plain (Table 3).
Despite all the conventionality of the scale of occurrence, the table gives an idea of the internal structure of the provinces. In the future, the conditional scale of occurrence of terrain types should give way to exact percentages. The latter will make it possible to approach the development of practical recommendations for each province separately, since each type of locality needs its own special system of economic measures.
Considering the geography of locality types, it is easy to see that two groups stand out among the provinces, sharply different from each other in their frequency of occurrence.
first group form provinces with low, flat relief. It is characterized by the wide distribution of the upland type of terrain, the weak development of the riverine type of terrain, and the complete absence of low-mountain terrain. It includes: in the forest-steppe zone - the steppe forest-steppe of the Dnieper lowland, the forest-steppe of the Oka-Don lowland, the forest-steppe of the Low Trans-Volga region; in the steppe zone - the province of the Black Sea steppes and the steppe Low Trans-Volga region.
1second group make up provinces with elevated dissected relief. In the provinces of this group, the role of the riverine type of terrain sharply increases due to the reduction of the upland type, a low-mountain type of terrain appears, - in all provinces (with the exception of the Central Russian Upland) there is a remnant-watershed type of terrain. These include: in the forest-steppe zone - the forest-steppe of the Volyn-Podolsk Upland, the forest-steppe of the Central Russian Upland, the forest-steppe of the Volga Upland, the forest-steppe of the high Trans-Volga region; in the steppe zone - the Nizhnedonskaya province, the steppe of the High Trans-Volga region.
The group of lowland and the group of elevated provinces differ from each other not only in external, morphological features - different repetition of terrain types, but also in different history of landscape development. This can be seen especially well in the example of the provinces of the forest-steppe zone. The group of elevated provinces combines areas of ancient, pre-glacial forest-steppe; on the territory of these provinces there are refugia (shelters) of thermophilic pre-glacial and interglacial flora and fauna. Elevations both in the forest-steppe and in the steppes are places of concentration of relics of different ages.
On the contrary, the group of low-lying provinces consists of territories with a relatively young forest-steppe landscape, which was formed in the post-glacial period. The forerunners of the forest-steppe landscape in the lowlands were low-lying swamps and meadows that existed in the late glacial and partly post-glacial times, when the lowlands were still poorly drained. The post-glacial evolution of the landscape of the forest-steppe lowlands is closely related to the progressive erosional dissection of the relief, their drying, the formation of steppes on chernozems on the watersheds, and the penetration of forest groups here.
All this makes it possible to see in the high and low groups of provinces landscapes-analogues of the genetic type.
The study of locality types is acquiring great practical importance in the light of the latest decisions of the party and government on questions of agricultural planning. The new planning procedure involves
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Milkov F.N. Physical geography: the doctrine of the landscape and geographic zoning. - Voronezh: Publishing House of VGU, 1986. - 328 p.
The monograph highlights the most important problematic issues of complex physical geography.
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landscape doctrine
If a geographical complex is a certain form of unity of a long series of natural elements and a person with his economic activity at a certain stage of development enters into it as an equal
Landscape in the understanding of L. S. Berg
In one of his early works, L. S. Berg (1915, p. 9) gives the following definition of a geographical landscape: “A natural landscape is an area in which the nature of the relief, climate, vegetation and soil
On the physical-geographical process
A short but extremely meaningful definition of the geographical landscape is given by A. A. Grigoriev. According to A. A. Grigoriev, the geographical landscape is an external expression of the structure of physical geography
On the limits of fragmentation of the landscape
A significant number of researchers are not limited to the allocation of relatively large territorial gradations, which is the area, and find it possible to distinguish even smaller landscape units.
Lithogenic basis, its significance and role in the differentiation of the landscape sphere
Determination of the lithogenic basis and a general assessment of its significance in the differentiation of the landscape sphere. Under the lithogenic basis of the landscape, it is customary to mean its geological structure and relief. Introduction it
From the history of the issue
Agricultural landscapes have long been the subject of study for geographers, biogeocenologists, climatologists, geobotanists, and zoogeographers. The objectivity of their existence follows from the reality of rural
Two levels of landscape organization of agricultural complexes
In terms of their landscape organization, agricultural complexes are heterogeneous. There are two groups of them: proper agricultural landscapes and agricultural landscapes.
Ecological texture of agricultural landscapes
Compared with their natural predecessors, the agricultural landscapes of some zones, in particular the forest-steppe, are more ecologically homogeneous. Their ecological texture
Regional structures of agricultural landscapes
The regional structure of the "agricultural landscape, like all its other most important properties, is determined by the characteristics of the natural landscape and socio-historical conditions. Under the region
And agricultural landscape science
A. N. Rakitnikov (1970, p. 3) monograph. “Geography of Agriculture” begins with the words: “This book is devoted mainly to the search for more advanced research methods in the field of agricultural
Definition of the geographic triad
The problem of dividing the whole into parts remains a complex and far from solved problem in physical geography. And as a result - subjectivism in matters of typology, inconsistency in the division of geographical
The rule of the triad and the division of natural zones
With regard to the natural zones themselves - their number, content and even names, there are currently no big disagreements. The exception is the forest-tundra zone. Its independent character, as in
Temporary triads
Along with the spatial - vertical and horizontal - triads, there are temporal triads. They are widely used in establishing the stages (stages) of
Triad as a working hypothesis in geographical research
The most important applied value of the triad lies in its wide use as the first working version of the classification of the object under study. The diversity of the studied objects entails and
Zonal-climatic landscape boundaries
The plain relief and large dimensions of the Russian Plain contribute to the manifestation of latitudinal landscape zonality on its territory. Unlike other taxonomic units, landscape zones, in tracts
Orographic boundaries
Orographic boundaries are located on the border of low plains with uplands. Inside. landscape zones, they are the most important, easily perceptible boundaries. Among the researchers of races
Geological boundaries
Changes in the geological structure, which were observed during the transition from large uplands to lowlands, were taken into account when assessing the orographic - provincial - landscape boundaries. But apart from these
Glaciation boundaries as landscape boundaries
Following the works of K. K. Markov, the presence of traces of three ancient glaciations can be considered proven on the Russian Plain - the Likhvinian, the Dnieper with the Moscow stage, and the Valdai. No. as
Geomorphological boundaries
The boundaries of the Quaternary glaciations constitute only one group of widespread geomorphological landscape boundaries. The boundaries of geomorphological regions simultaneously serve as landscape rub
River valleys and landscape boundaries
Analyzing the map of landscape zones and provinces of the Russian Plain, we easily notice the following curious detail: the boundaries of zones and provinces, that is, the most important landscape boundaries, often coincide
From the history of the problem. Her current state
The dynamics of landscape complexes is not a new problem. Already in the 20s. view of the landscape as a dynamic formation was widespread. Feature of the landscape as a phenomenon of dynamic
Horological dynamics
This is the dynamics of the area, the spatial change in the boundaries of landscape complexes. A classic example of chorological dynamics is the displacement of natural areas. In the literature, the problem of zone displacement is discussed in
Structural dynamics
It means a change in the morphological structure of the landscape complex and the relationships between its constituent structural parts. Let us explain the structural dynamics with some examples. Preds
Temporal dynamics and its types
The concept of temporal dynamics unites all changes in the landscape associated with time - the duration and nature of the rhythm of dynamic manifestations. It seems appropriate to distinguish between three
Directed dynamics, or dynamics of development
Directional dynamics, or development, presupposes stable, unilaterally directed changes in the landscape with repeated changes in its states and transformation of structures. Needs to
Genetic types of dynamics of landscape complexes
Visible, more precisely, amenable to your “research, manifestations of landscape dynamics are caused by the sum of many terms, but from among the latter one can always single out the leading factor and already distinguish between
A measure of the dynamism of landscape complexes
The dynamics of different landscape complexes proceeds with unequal intensity and speed. In the literature, such expressions as dynamic complexes, low-dynamic complexes, etc. are common, but with
Physical-geographical landscape as a five-dimensional paradynamic geosystem
In the last two decades, following the speech of V. B. Sochava (1963), the concept of a geosystem has become one of the most common in physical and geographical literature. "This time coincided with a wide
Free fields and the problem of dynamics in physical geography
Definition of a free field. Field is a word with a broad semantic meaning. V. Dahl gives up to 10 interpretations of it. Mathematicians and physicists invest their content in the concept of a field. Geobotany substantiation
Geographic zoning
And since all the named elements, water, earth, fire (heat and light), air, as well as the vegetable and animal worlds, due to the astronomical position, shape and rotation of our planet in
From the history of the issue
Natural zonality is one of the earliest regularities in science, ideas about which were deepened and improved simultaneously with the development of geography. Zoning, the presence of natural
Landscape zoning
Depending on the determining factor, five types of landscape zonality should be distinguished: latitudinal, hydrothermal, orogenetic, paradynamic, and vertical. W i r o t n a z
At various depths of the oceans
[Aizatullin T. A., Lukyanova T. S., Suetova I. A., Khailov K. M., 1980] Depth, m Area
Rhythm of dynamics, development and zoning of landscape complexes
The rhythm of dynamics, development, zoning are different, but equally important properties of landscape complexes, revealing their spatial and temporal features. Despite the dissimilarity of these three funda
Geographic cycles of biostrome development and the periodic system of geographical zones
The geographic (landscape) belt is a concept widely used in the literature, but its volume and content remain still undefined. Of foreign geographers of great importance
In different geographical zones
[Perelman A. I., 1975] The periodic system of geographical zones, first published by us in 1969 [Milkov F. N., 1969a], caused the following critical remark
From the history of the issue
In the author's preface to the 2nd edition of the monograph "Climate and Life" L. S. Berg (19476, p. 4) one- CONCLUSION In two monographs - the present and previously published [
Shchukin I. S. General geomorphology
Shchukin I.S. Four-lingual encyclopedic dictionary of terms in physical geography. M., I "98" O. Ever cm and E. A. Natural history of the Orenburg region. Orenburg, 1Y40, vol. II.
terrain I
Locality
in physical geography, one of the morphological parts of a geographic landscape. It is a group of adjacent tracts (See tract) associated with individual large landforms (for example, with watersheds, river valleys and terraces, etc.) or with fluctuations in the depth of the same bedrock (pre-Anthropogenic) rocks (for example, karst-prone limestones under the cover of loess-like loams). Landscape science also considers complex systems of stows of the same type that have merged in the course of their development (for example, systems of upland bog massifs in taiga landscapes) and parts of the landscape that differ from each other in the quantitative ratio of areas occupied by stows of different types (for example, pine forests, swamps in the taiga, etc.) with a homogeneous qualitative composition of the latter. In geographical literature, the term "M." is also used in a general sense (as a landscape, a territory with a peculiar combination of natural conditions). A. G. Isachenko. part (plot), a region of a territory with all its natural components: topography, soils, waters, vegetation, etc., as well as communication routes, settlements, industry, and agriculture. and socio-cultural objects; one of the most important elements of the situation in which hostilities are conducted. Various properties of M. contribute to military operations or make them difficult, having a great influence on the organization and conduct of a battle or operation. M. is divided into the following main types: according to the relief - into flat, hilly, mountainous; according to the conditions of passability - to slightly crossed (passable), medium crossed, strongly crossed (hard to pass); according to the conditions of observation and camouflage - open, half-closed, closed; about the peculiarities of natural conditions - on the desert (desert-steppe), forest (wooded-swampy) and the terrain of the northern regions (Arctic, Arctic, flat and mountain tundra). The operational significance of large water barriers and mountain ranges is especially great. The properties of M that have an impact on combat operations (conditions for the patency of troops and military equipment, protection, observation, orientation, firing, water supply, etc.) are called its operational-tactical properties. M. conditions are taken into account when planning a battle and an operation, organizing the interaction of troops, a system of fire and camouflage, and it has a great influence on command and control, communications, surveillance, and the work of the rear. Tactical properties of M. change depending on a season and weather. The study and evaluation of M. is organized by the commanders and staffs of all military branches, taking into account the tasks they solve. M. is studied and evaluated according to personal observations, reconnaissance results, topographic and special maps. The conclusions from M.'s assessment are taken into account when deciding on a battle or operation and determining the nature of the actions of the troops. Lit.: Govorukhin A. M and M. In the Officer's Handbook for Military Topography, 3rd ed., M., 1968; Ivankov P. A., Zakharov G. V., The terrain and its influence on the combat operations of the troops, M., 1969; Brief topographic and geodetic dictionary-reference book, 2nd ed., M 1973. I. S. LYAPUNOV
Great Soviet Encyclopedia. - M.: Soviet Encyclopedia. 1969-1978 .
Synonyms:See what "Location" is in other dictionaries:
See the place to identify the area... Dictionary of Russian synonyms and expressions similar in meaning. under. ed. N. Abramova, M.: Russian dictionaries, 1999. locality, place (location), region, side, district, country, territory; region, neighborhood, region, balchug ... Synonym dictionary
- [sn], terrain, pl. locality, locality (localities, etc. wrong), wives. (book). 1. Place, some kind of specific space, area on the earth's surface. Mountainous terrain. Beautiful area. The battery fired at ... ... Explanatory Dictionary of Ushakov
1) some specific place, space, area on the earth's surface (Ozhegov, (1981); 2) part of the territory with all its natural components, means of communication, settlements, industry, agriculture and social ... ... Ecological dictionary
In a broad sense, part of the earth's surface with all its natural components: relief, soils, waters, vegetation, etc.; as well as with communication routes, settlements, industrial and socio-cultural facilities. In English:… … Financial vocabulary
In landscape science, a morphological unit of a landscape, a natural-territorial complex of a higher rank than a natural boundary. It is the largest morphological part of the landscape, characterized by a special combination of the main tracts ... ... Wikipedia
terrain- LOCATION, place... Dictionary-thesaurus of synonyms of Russian speech
1) a part of the territory characterized by a commonality of any signs (natural, historical, etc.). 2) In physical geography, a large morphological part of the geographical landscape, a complex of tracts ... Big Encyclopedic Dictionary
LOCATION, and, pl. and, she, wives. 1. What is it. a certain place, space, area on the earth's surface. Mountainous steppe m. Open m. 2. Territory (usually rural) with several populated areas. Densely populated, ... ... Explanatory dictionary of Ozhegov
terrain- area, pl. locality, genus localities (incorrect localities, localities). Pronounced [locality] ... Dictionary of pronunciation and stress difficulties in modern Russian
terrain- - Telecommunication topics, basic concepts of EN locality ... Technical Translator's Handbook
terrain- Part of the earth's surface with all its natural components (relief, soils, waters, etc.), as well as communication routes, socio-economic and cultural objects ... Geography Dictionary
Books
- Princely area and temple of princes in Smolensk. Historical and archaeological research in connection with the history of Smolensk. , Pisarev S.P. This book will be produced in accordance with your order using Print-on-Demand technology. The book is a reprint edition of 1894. Despite the fact that there was a serious…
Video Lesson 2: Graticule
Lecture: geographic patterns. Geographic map, plan of the area. Their main parameters and elements
Geographic models of the Earth
The surface of the Earth cannot be depicted on paper due to its large size, so it is depicted in the form of models.
Earth or surface models include:
area plan.
The surface of the planet on the globe is most accurately depicted:
firstly, the globe repeats the shape of the Earth;
secondly, the distortion on the globe is less than when transferring the surface to the map (transferring a round surface to a flat one);
thirdly, the globe gives an idea of the position of our planet in outer space (the angle of inclination, the trajectory of rotation).
With the help of a map projection, the earth's surface is depicted on a globe, map or plan. The map and the local plan are displayed on a flat surface, but they differ from each other. The map shows large areas of the Earth, and the plan shows small ones (several kilometers). Maps and plans differ in scale.
Image of the Earth on the map
To depict the surface of the earth on a map, use graticule: these are parallels and meridians located perpendicular to each other.
Parallels are located horizontally (parallel to the equator), meridians stretch vertically from the north pole to the south. For convenience, we determined the zero meridian (Greenwich) from which the meridians go at a distance of 10 ° from each other, i.e. the zero meridian is the beginning of the hemispheres, which extends up to 180° (the 180° meridian is the border of the hemispheres). To the east is considered east longitude, to the west - west. The parallels also run at a distance of 10°. For convenience, the equator is chosen as the zero parallel. North is measured north, south is south. Using the graticule, you can plot objects on the map, as well as find their locations, that is, coordinates. To determine the coordinates, you need to know the longitude and latitude of the area.
Types of cards
Maps differ from each other in several ways:
- Scale
- By content
- By area coverage
1. Scale maps are divided into:
large scale,
medium scale,
small scale.
Scale- the ratio of the real size of the territory to its image on the surface.
The scale can be numerical, linear (used when measuring the distance from point A to point B) and named.
The smaller the scale of the map, the larger the area that can be depicted on it. Maps of hemispheres, continents and oceans, maps of states are small-scale maps. Medium scale maps ranging from 1:200000 to 1:1000000. And large-scale (topographic) maps (1:10,000, 1:25,000 and 1:50,000).
2. According to the content of the card are:
general geographical
thematic
Among the thematic maps there are tectonic, climatic, "peoples of the world" map, and the "Physical map of the hemispheres" is a general geographical map. Thematic, in turn, are divided into physical-geographical and socio-economic. Accordingly, the first depicts natural phenomena, the second economic. For example, "Map of the prevailing winds" refers to the thematic physical-geographical map. Map "Population of the World" refers to thematic socio-economic.
3. By area coverage:
hemispheric map,
continents and oceans,
large regions, states, economic regions.
Maps are also complex, synthetic and analytical. Integrated maps carry a lot of information about the area depicted. Synthetic maps show a holistic image, but do not give an idea of individual terrain objects. The climate map shows the types of climates, but we do not learn from this map either the temperature or the prevailing winds. Analytical maps give an idea of one characteristic of the territory, for example, the plowing of land.
Conventions
In order to be able to read a map and find information on it, you need to know conventions and be able to read them correctly. All cards are depicted with conventional symbols. Each card has its own set of symbols. On the map of minerals, relief is depicted using isolines and coloring. By color, we determine the type of relief, isolines (lines connecting points with the same height) provide more accurate information about the height of the surface above or below sea level. Mineral deposits are indicated by special icons.
