Brain and psyche in psychology. Psyche and brain
Psyche is the subject of study of psychology. The psyche is a product of the activity of the cortex human brain, and more specifically, its cerebral hemispheres. Psyche in psychology is the highest nervous activity. The psyche and the brain are two inseparable concepts. And at the core modern science psychology lies precisely in the principles, as well as the laws of this activity (at one time they were discovered by Pavlov and Sechenov, as we can remember from school textbooks).
But people did not always correctly understand the connection between the human brain and the psyche. The psyche as a subject of psychology has been studied only in the last century. In particular, one day even a current of psychophysical parallelism appeared, associated with the erroneous idea of such a connection. This trend was followed by many scientists representing empirical psychology since the time of Descartes. If we believe this incorrect view, then physiological as well as psychological processes in the human brain flow parallel to each other and the psyche is often considered as an epiphenomenon, that is, a secondary and even side phenomenon that is parallel to brain and physiological phenomena.
Another misunderstanding of the connection between the psyche and the brain may be associated with the identification of psychological and physiological phenomena. Thus, representatives of vulgar materialism in Germany (the same Vocht or Moleschott) believed that human thought is the same cerebral secretion as bile is a liver secretion.
But to correctly understand the relationship between the psyche and the brain, you need to understand the structure and functions of the human nervous system. A nerve cell with its own processes is a morphological unit of the general nervous system and is called a neuron. And the general nervous system can be divided into central and peripheral parts.
central part- This is the spinal cord and brain. The peripheral part is nerve fibers, diverging throughout human body. The peripheral part facilitates the connection of the brain with the organs responsible for the senses, as well as with the executive organs (for example, tissue and muscles). As a result, any living organism is able to respond to physiological and chemical changes in the environment.
Traditionally, all stimuli associated with the external environment (sound, smell, light, and so on) are transformed with the help of special sensitive nerve cells (receptors) into nerve impulses. Impulses are a series of electrical and chemical changes that occur in a nerve fiber. They can be transmitted thanks to sensory fibers directly to the spinal cord and brain. Already on the spot, the corresponding command impulses are generated, transmitted with the help of motor nerve fibers in the area of the executive organs (to the same glands with muscles). Such organs are called effectors. Main function nervous system is the integration of external influences with an adapted response human body.
Do not forget that, mainly, the psyche is the subject of study of psychology, but it also takes a lot from physiology. The general nervous system of the central type includes the spinal cord and brain. The brain is gray matter, which is a collection of cells and white matter, which are bundles of fibers with nerves. In general, the psyche and the brain are inseparable concepts.
Gray matter The spinal cord is located deep inside the brain and has a shape that resembles a butterfly. At the back of the spinal cord are cells that receive impulses from peripheral areas and transmit them to the anterior part of the spinal cord or to the brain. The anterior part consists of motor cells that receive impulses from the posterior part or centers located above and transmit these impulses to the periphery.
Gray matter is surrounded by matter white and the so-called pillars - anterior, lateral and posterior types, which consist of nerve bundles. Excitation passes along the front columns from the center to the periphery, and along the rear columns - from the periphery directly to the center. At times the nerve impulse is unable to rise higher than spinal cord, and nervous activity is carried out by spinal reflexes. So, if you prick a sleeping person’s hand, he will definitely pull it back. As for the course of the nerve impulse in this case, it will occur from the receptor to the spinal cord. The muscle is connected to the spinal cord through efferent and afferent nerve fibers. They transmit a signal about muscle contraction or relaxation. Thus, the simplest feedback is carried out nervous regulation with the activity of the body, the psyche and brain function.
In terms of their structure, the nerve sections of the human brain are similar to the spinal cord and also represent a central apparatus that makes complex and vital important processes. Animals have a slightly different structure with different relationships, so the psyche of animals and humans is different.
To better understand the laws of operation mental activity of a person, the peculiarities of its course and structure, you should familiarize yourself with how the main organ of his mental activity - the human brain - is structured and how they relate to it various manifestations mental life of a person.
Over the course of a long evolution organic world- from the simplest single-celled animals to humans - the physiological mechanisms of behavior have continuously become more complex. Thus, in a unicellular organism, a single cell performs all vital functions. It is a sensory, motor and digestive organ. Naturally, its capabilities are very limited. In more highly organized animals, specialization of organs occurs, expressed in the appearance of cells, the only function of which is the perception of signals (these are receptors). Other cells take over the implementation muscle work or secretion various glands(these are effectors). But specialization separates organs and functions, and the integral functioning of the body requires continuous communication between them, which is achieved thanks to the central nervous system working as a single whole.
In all vertebrates, the general structure of the nervous system is the same. The main element of the nervous system is nerve cells, or neurons. A neuron consists of a cell body and processes called dendrites (receive excitation) and axon (transmit excitation). The contact of an axon with the dendrites or body of another nerve cell is called a synapse. The synapse is given crucial when explaining the mechanism for establishing new connections in the nervous system.
The central nervous system (CNS) consists of the spinal cord and the brain. Its various parts perform different types complex nervous activity. The higher a particular part of the brain is located, the more complex its functions. The spinal cord is located below everything - it regulates the work of individual muscle groups and internal organs. Above it is the medulla oblongata along with the cerebellum, which coordinates more complex functions of the body (they involve large groups of muscles and entire systems of internal organs that perform the functions of respiration, blood circulation, digestion, etc.). Even higher is the part of the central nervous system - midbrain, it is involved in the regulation of complex movements and position of the entire body. The medulla oblongata and midbrain together form the brainstem.
The highest parts of the central nervous system are represented by the cerebral hemispheres. The cerebral hemispheres include deep-lying clusters of nerve cells - the so-called subcortical nodes. At the very surface of the hemispheres there is a layer of nerve cells - the cerebral cortex. It is like a cloak or mantle covering cerebral hemispheres. Its surface (about 2000 cm2) is known to be collected in a number of folds or grooves and convolutions. The subcortical nodes, together with the visual thalamus located nearby, are called the subcortex. The cortex, together with the subcortex, carries out the most complex forms of reflex activity.
All parts of the nervous system work in close cooperation, but the role of each of them is different reactions the body is not the same. The spinal cord and the brainstem that makes it up lower sections- medulla oblongata and midbrain, represent a set of innate reflex centers unconditioned reflexes. The spinal cord contains the centers of the simplest reflexes (for example, the knee reflex). Along with the reflex centers that regulate the work skeletal muscles torso and limbs, the spinal cord contains centers that regulate the functioning of internal organs (for example, protective actions in a headless frog).
The stem part of the brain is the central apparatus that carries out a number of complex and vitally important unconditioned reflex acts. These include the sucking reflex, chewing and swallowing (if irritated oral cavity nutrients). Reflex centers regulating all these reflexes are located in the medulla oblongata. There are also nerve centers regulating some defensive reflexes: sneezing, coughing, lacrimation.
In the midbrain, along with the centers that transmit excitation from the eye and ear to the motor sphere, there is a center for pupil constriction, but this does not exhaust the activity of the brain stem. Of particular importance are the nerve centers located in the medulla oblongata, which regulate the functioning of the respiratory organs, the cardiovascular system, as well as other systems that maintain constancy internal environment body. The cerebellum performs very complex functions: the body can only maintain stable balance when walking, running, jumping, etc., when extremely fine regulation of the state of all muscles of the body is carried out. Setting up all activities musculoskeletal system depends on the cerebellum. The reflex activity of the spinal cord and brainstem covers a relatively narrow range of body responses. The forms of reflex activity of highly organized animals are much more diverse; they are characterized by more complex reflex processes.
The subcortex (visual thalamus and subcortical ganglia of the cerebral hemispheres) provides the most complex by far reflex activity. Let us note right away that the name visual hillocks does not correspond to their true function: in fact, the visual hillocks are a subcortical sensory center. And the subcortical nodes are musculoskeletal system subcortex, regulating, for example, walking.
The organ of human conscious activity is the cerebral cortex, therefore the main question is the relationship between the human psyche and the cerebral cortex, specified in science as the question of functional localization or the localization of mental "functions in the cortex. Questions about how mental processes relate to the brain and what are the principles of the brain as a material substrate of mental activity, in different periods The development of science was decided in different ways. The nature of the solution to these questions largely depended on how human mental processes were understood and how their brain bases were approached.
The first attempt to build a coherent theory of “localization of mental abilities” was made at the beginning of the 19th century. F.A.Gallem. He suggested that the substrate of various mental “abilities” are small areas of nervous tissue of the cerebral cortex, which grow with the development of these abilities. They were allocated great amount such innate abilities. He included, for example, such qualities as honesty, frugality, love, etc. Gall believed that various abilities have a clear localization in the human brain and that they can be determined by the protrusions on the skull, where the corresponding ability supposedly grows nerve tissue and begins to bulge, forming a tubercle on the skull. This assumption formed the basis of a special field of science called “phrenology”, according to which, according to Gall, based on the study of bulges on the skull, it was possible to draw conclusions about a person’s individual abilities. This was the first naive materialistic idea of the localization of functions in the human brain.
In the 40s of the XIX century. Gall's phrenology is opposed by Flourance, who, based on experiments in extermination (removal) of parts of the brain, puts forward the position of equipotentiality (from the Latin aequus - “equal”) of the functions of the cortex. In his opinion, the brain is a homogeneous mass that functions as a single integral organ.
The basis modern teaching The localization of functions in the cortex was laid down by the French scientist P. Broca, who identified the motor center of speech in 1861. Then the German psychiatrist K. Wernicke in 1873 discovered the center of word deafness (impaired speech understanding). Since the 70s of the last century, the study of clinical observations has shown that damage to limited areas cerebral cortex leads to the predominant loss of certain mental functions. This gave rise to the identification of separate areas in the cerebral cortex, which began to be considered as nerve centers responsible for certain mental functions.
Having summarized the observations made on the wounded with brain damage during the First World War, in 1934 the German psychiatrist K. Kleist compiled the so-called localization map, in which even the most complex mental functions were correlated with limited areas of the cerebral cortex. However, the approach of the so-called direct localization of complex mental functions in certain areas of the cerebral cortex very soon showed its inconsistency. An analysis of the facts of clinical observations indicated that disturbances in such complex mental processes as speech, writing, reading, and counting can occur with lesions of the cerebral cortex that are completely different in location. It turned out that damage to limited areas of the cerebral cortex, as a rule, leads to disruption of a whole group of mental processes, which led to a crisis of previous ideas about the direct “localization” of mental processes in limited areas of the cerebral cortex and led researchers to the idea that mental processes are a function the whole brain as a whole. Once again, a new direction in science arose, known as “anti-localizationism,” but very soon it showed its inconsistency.
Subtle histological studies and physiological observations have shown that the cerebral cortex is a highly differentiated apparatus, which various areas the cerebral cortex have a different structure and that the neurons that make up the cerebral cortex are often so specialized that from among them one can single out those that respond only to very special stimuli or to very special signs. Then a series of subsequent studies led to the establishment of a number of cortical and receptor sensory centers. Over time, as a result of numerous studies, a map of the cortex began to emerge.
The entire surface of the cerebral hemispheres can be divided into several large parts that have unequal functional value. These are called regions of the brain. Rear end hemispheres - the occipital region, which in front passes into the parietal and temporal regions. The anterior, largest part of the hemispheres is the frontal region, the most developed in humans. In this case, the analysis and synthesis of visual stimuli occur in the occipital region of the cortex (visual cortex); analysis and synthesis of auditory stimulation - in the upper sections temporal region(auditory cortex); analysis and synthesis of tactile irritations and irritations arising in the muscular-articular apparatus - in the anterior part of the parietal regions; etc.
The more important this or that type of irritation is in the life of an animal or a person, the more big square The cerebral cortex “works” on the sensory organ from where these irritations come. (For example, it is known that the sense of smell plays a very important role in the life of a hedgehog. In the brain cortex of a hedgehog, therefore, the olfactory zone occupies huge place. And, conversely, in the cerebral cortex of a person, in whose life the sense of smell does not play a significant role, the olfactory zone is represented by a relatively small area.) Similarly, in the motor zone of the cortex, organs that play a more important role in the life of the body are represented over a larger territory. Thus, cells associated with the trunk are concentrated in a relatively small area of the motor zone in humans. The cells associated with the finely differentiated movements of the fingers in humans are located over a much larger area. A particularly large area is occupied by cells associated with thumb hands, which play a very important role in human working movements. A significant area in the cerebral cortex is occupied by cells associated with the muscles of the lips and tongue - the organs of speech. Thus, there is an uneven distribution of peripheral representation in the brain.
However, in the case when we're talking about about more complex mental processes, the function is a complex joint activity the whole system organs, i.e. complex functional system (P.Kanokhin). Naturally, such a complex functional system, such as walking or reading, cannot be “localized” in a certain limited area of the nervous system. Even a relatively simple voluntary movement is a complex functional system, including the whole complex both sensory (afferent) and motor (efferent) impulses.
In order to understand the cerebral organization of complex mental processes, it is necessary to have a clear understanding of modern data on the functional organization of the human brain. The principles of such an organization were developed by a prominent domestic psychologist And RLuria. According to modern ideas, the basic principles of the functional organization of the brain apparatus are of particular importance for psychology. They are as follows.
The human brain, which ensures the reception and processing of information, the creation of programs for one’s own actions and control over their successful implementation, always works as a single whole. However, this is a complex and highly differentiated apparatus, consisting of a number of parts, and a violation normal functioning any of them inevitably affects his work. In the human brain there are usually three main blocks, each of which plays its own role special role in ensuring mental activity. The first of them maintains the tone of the cortex, which is necessary for both the processes of receiving and processing information, and the processes of forming programs and monitoring their implementation to proceed successfully. The second block provides the process of receiving, processing and storing information that reaches a person from the outside world (from his devices own body). The third block develops behavioral programs, ensures and regulates their implementation and participates in monitoring their successful implementation. All three blocks are located in separate apparatuses of the brain, and only harmonious work leads to the successful organization of human conscious activity.
So, let’s briefly look at the characteristics of each of the listed blocks. The first block is the block of cortical tone, or the energy block of the brain. For the normal implementation of vital processes and self-regulation of behavior, it is necessary to constantly maintain optimal tone of the cortex. Only such a tone can provide successful choice significant signals, preserving their traces, developing the necessary behavior programs and constantly monitoring their implementation. To carry out these processes, optimal excitability of the cortex is necessary. One of the important discoveries made by physiologists during numerous observations and experiments is that formations play a significant role in this process upper sections the brain stem, in particular the hypothalamus, the thalamus opticus and the system of reticular fibers (“reticular formation”), which have a two-way connection with the cerebral cortex. These formations are included as the main ones in the first block.
The entire complex apparatus included in the unit plays an important role for normal operation cerebral cortex, and it consists in the following. The constant tone of the cortex is maintained mainly due to two sources. On the one hand, to maintain the waking state of the cortex, a constant influx of information from the external world is needed: an animal deprived of such an influx of external stimuli falls asleep; It is also known what effect “information hunger” causes after a person has been alone for a long time in a dark and soundproof chamber (in these cases, the person easily begins to experience hallucinations, which partially compensate for the lack of a constant influx of external stimuli).
Thus, the first source for the waking state of the cortex is a constant influx of stimuli from the periphery, vital role the apparatus of the upper brainstem and the ascending reticular formation play a role in providing this.
Second, no less important source maintaining constant tone cortex are impulses reaching it from internal metabolic processes organism, forming the basis for biological drives. It is known that the state of the body (for example, blood sugar level), which is an indicator of the state of hunger, is regulated by the apparatus of the upper trunk and the hypothalamus. The impulses of these formations, transmitted to the cortex through the ascending reticular formation, constitute the second source for maintaining the tone of the cortex and its wakeful state.
To the devices of the upper trunk of the reticular formation, which maintain the normal tone of the cortex, it is necessary to attach the devices of the ancient (“limbic”) cortex, located in the internal (medial) parts of the cerebral hemispheres and involved in the work of the “energy” block of the brain. The role of the apparatus of the first block in maintaining the tone of the cortex and the state of wakefulness is ensured by its closest connections with the cortex with the help of fibers of the activating reticular formation. The activating reticular formation has both ascending and descending fibers. Through the former (“ascending activating reticular formation”) the cortex is excited by impulses coming from the formations of the upper parts of the brain stem. Through the second (“descending activating reticular formation”) the influences that the higher parts of the brain, and in particular its cortex, have on the lower parts are carried out brain stem. Therefore, the apparatus of the “descending reticular formation” plays a significant role in imparting affective coloring and providing tone for those behavioral programs that arise in the cortex as a result of the information received, and for those higher forms plans and needs that are formed in a person with the participation of speech. This apparatus provides a third source of wakefulness, which has not yet been mentioned, but which is associated with the complex intentions and needs that arise in man as a result of his conscious activity.
Thus, the first block of the brain, which includes the apparatus of the upper trunk, reticular formation and ancient cortex, provides general tone(wakefulness) cortex and possibility long time maintain traces of excitement. The work of this block is not specifically associated with certain sense organs and is “modally nonspecific” in nature, providing the general tone of the cortex.
Any human actions - both mental and motor - are mediated by the activity of his psyche.
The psyche performs three main functions: it reflects reality, maintains the integrity of the body and regulates behavior. These functions are closely related. So, in order to avoid getting into an accident, when crossing the street at an intersection, you are primarily focused on what is happening on the road - your perception is heightened. Memory involuntarily tells you the rules traffic, and thinking allows you to compare the situation at the crossroads with them and make a decision on further actions. Emotions signal or you feel safe in the transition.
Brain areas and mental processes
All the mental processes mentioned above have their representation in the cerebral cortex. Scientists study the connection of its areas with certain mental functions by observing people with various brain injuries, studying its work using electroencephalography, tomography, etc.
Read similar abstracts on the topic:
It is known that for visual sensations and perception correspond to the occipital areas of the cerebral cortex. Auditory sensations arise and are combined into images auditory perception in the temporal cortex. In the parietal region of the cortex, individual tactile sensations arise and integral images of touch are formed. Along with this zone is the motor cortex - these are areas of the brain that provide voluntary movements. Left hemisphere contains areas responsible for the perception of speech sounds and articulation (the movements due to which these sounds are pronounced). Collaboration These centers provide human speech.
Other parts of the brain also take part in the implementation of mental functions. Thus, the hippocampus is responsible for memory, and the hypothalamus, reticular formation and limbic system of the brain are responsible for human motivation, if necessary. However, the role of conductor of the psyche is played by the cerebral cortex, primarily its frontal lobes, which provide thinking, planning and control of our behavior. If specialized areas of the brain are damaged, the corresponding mental processes are disrupted - speech, auditory or visual perception, memory, etc. However, the human brain has an amazing quality called plasticity: the functions of damaged areas of the brain can be partially taken over by other parts of the brain. For example, blind people navigate in space using auditory and tactile sensations - the development of these analyzers allows them to some extent compensate for the loss of vision
Types of mental processes
The human psyche resembles a well-played ensemble in which each mental process plays its own part. There are three groups of mental processes. The first includes cognitive processes, with the help of which a person gains knowledge about the world and himself. Sensation provides us with elementary information, and perception connects it into holistic images of the environment, people, those around us, etc. Thinking allows us to identify connections between objects, analyze them, find ways to solve vital problems, and form appropriate plans of behavior.
The second group is universal processes that always accompany any human activity. Memory retains past experiences, attention helps to focus on the current situation, imagination makes it possible to predict the future. The very fact that you have read more than half of the paragraph is a manifestation of the work of not only your perception, but also your memory and attention.
The third group includes regulatory processes - they cause changes in human behavior. Needs and motivations prompt us to action, emotions reflect the significance of events or phenomena for us. Will organizes our behavior, forces us to concentrate and act, overcoming obstacles if necessary.
Psyche is the ability of the brain to reflect environment and regulate human activities and behavior. More details about what is psyche read .
Brain and psyche. Brain is a mental organ that works reflexively.
Reflex is the response of a living organism to external influences carried out through the nervous system. When the body responds to external influences, it adapts to the outside world.
Human brain is a very complex system that operates as a differentiated whole. Functions various departments brain are associated with microscopic structure. It is worth noting that it is not characteristic of humans.
The brain consists of the left and right hemispheres, they include the cerebral cortex. The cerebral cortex is upper layer hemispheres, which consists of nerve cells - neurons.
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Psychology. Full course Ritterman Tatyana Petrovna
Brain and psyche
Brain and psyche
Back in the first millennium BC, it was noticed that mental phenomena are closely related to the functioning of the human brain.
However, the connection between the psyche and the brain was not always understood correctly. Representatives of “empirical psychology” believed that physiological and psychological processes in the brain occur in parallel, but independently of each other. At the same time, the psyche was considered as side effect, parallel to physiological, brain phenomena (as an epiphenomenon).
There were also erroneous opinions of a different kind. For example, K. Focht, L. Büchner and J. Moleschott, representatives of German vulgar materialism, mistakenly understood the connection between the psyche and the brain, identifying the mental and physiological: thought, in their opinion, is the same secretion of the brain as bile is of the liver.
I. M. Sechenov and I. P. Pavlov discovered principles and laws higher nervous activity, which became the natural scientific basis of modern psychology, according to which the psyche is a product of the activity of the cerebral cortex.
At the beginning of the 20th century, sciences were formed aimed at studying the connections between mental phenomena and organic processes occurring in the human brain, such as physiology of higher nervous activity(studies the organic processes occurring in the brain, directly related to the control of bodily reactions and the body’s acquisition of new experiences) and psychophysiology(explores the anatomical and physiological foundations of the psyche).
A nerve cell with its periphery is a morphological unit of the nervous system - a neuron. The entire nervous system is divided into central and peripheral. central nervous system includes the brain and spinal cord, from which nerve fibers radiate throughout the body, forming peripheral nervous system. The latter, in turn, connects the brain, sensory organs and executive organs (muscles and glands). All living organisms are capable of responding to physical and chemical changes in the environment.
Incentives external environment (sound, light, touch, smell, etc.), interacting with special sensitive cells ( receptors), are converted to nerve impulses– a series of electrical and chemical changes in a nerve fiber.
Integration external influence with the corresponding adaptive reaction of the body is the most important function nervous system.
In the cerebral hemispheres, nerve cells are located not only in central departments, but also on the periphery, in the form of the so-called cerebral cortex.
Generally physiological mechanism the formation of conscious and unconscious sensations appears as the every second impact of various stimuli on numerous intero- and exteroceptors, and only a small part of the stimuli causes reactions in them. Getting on specialized receptors and exciting them, stimuli cause the receptors to convert their energy into nerve impulses, which carry information about the vital parameters of the stimulus in the form of a certain code. The impulses then travel to the central nervous system and different levels spinal, diencephalon, midbrain and forebrain are gradually processed many times.
Processed, filtered and eliminated information in the cerebral cortex reaches the projection zones of the cortex and generates sensations of the corresponding modality. Association fibers connecting individual parts of the cerebral cortex help information presented at the level individual sensations, integrate into images.
Perception as a psychophysiological phenomenon leads to the formation of an image, which presupposes the coordinated activity of several analyzers at once. Depending on the activity, the amount of information processed and the significance of signs about the properties of the perceived object, visual, auditory and tactile perception are distinguished. Each of them is characterized by the dominance of one of the analyzers: visual, auditory, tactile (skin), muscle.
The cells of the cerebral cortex have a feature that is very important for the mental activity of the body. If other cells of the human body multiply and die throughout life, then the cells of the cerebral cortex stop multiplying in early childhood and begin to die only in old age. In case of loss (injury, surgery), these cells are not restored. However, unlike other cells in the human body, cells in the cerebral cortex are interchangeable.
The main structures of the brain are involved in cognitive and emotional-motivational processes.
There are various theories regarding the connectivity of parts of the brain and the functioning of the corresponding groups of mental phenomena. A. R. Luria identified three blocks of brain structures.
However, opponents of this theory introduced the concept of “ functional organ“, which is understood as an intravital system of temporary connections between individual parts of the brain that ensures the functioning of the corresponding property, process or state. The links of such a system are interchangeable, as a result of which the structure of functional organs in different people may be different.
At the same time, there are proven ideas about the connection between the left and right hemispheres in the perception and formation of a visual image. Right hemisphere brain accurately, clearly and with high speed recognizes the image. This is an integral-synthetic, predominantly holistic, structural-semantic method of identification. The left hemisphere analyzes the image being formed, sequentially going through its elements according to a certain program. To perceive an image, both hemispheres of the brain need to work.
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