Default: what is it in simple words. Discovery of the brain's default system
What, in your opinion, is the psychological Scientific research, conducted (published) over the past 10 years (2002–2012), is the most significant and important?
Gennady Knyazev:
Most important to understand inner world human I believe the discovery of the so-called default system of the brain. This concept in its modern form was first formulated in 2001, and the past decade has seen an explosion of interest in this area of research. The doctrine of behaviorism, popular in the first half of the twentieth century, viewed the brain as a black box. The subject of the study was the connection between signals supplied from outside and behavioral reactions. In the decades since then, the main focus of interest has moved inside the black box. Of greatest interest now are the questions in which brain structures certain functions are localized and how the activity of these structures is related to observed behavior or mental processes. Progress in this area is mainly associated with the advent of such methods as positron emission imaging (PET) and functional magnetic resonance imaging (fMRI), as well as with the development of new methods of EEG analysis.
Despite significant progress in understanding the functional organization of the human brain, achieved through the use of these methods, the vast majority of research is still carried out within the framework of the stimulus-response paradigm proposed by behaviorists. The generally accepted approach to studying the functions of the human brain is to record brain activity when stimuli are presented or tasks are performed. This approach allows us to study the structural and functional basis of a wide range of cognitive processes involved in the operational regulation of behavior. However, these processes constitute only the tip of the iceberg of human mental life. Most of it consists of processes that are not accompanied by behavioral manifestations accessible to direct observation, although they are to a large extent determine human behavior in the long term. Until recently, virtually nothing was known about the structural and functional basis this part of a person’s mental life. In 2001, Markus Raechl and his co-authors 1 first formulated the concept of the so-called default mode network (DSM). During the time that has passed since its first publication, the number of works devoted to JSM has increased exponentially, and by now this concept has become a central topic in cognitive neuroscience.
The vast majority of studies on DSM have been carried out using PET and fMRI methods. These methods are known to assess the level of metabolic activity in various parts brain, using glucose consumption or blood oxygenation as indicators. Typical PET and fMRI experiments measure the level of metabolic activity at rest and while performing a task. An increase in activity compared to background is interpreted as an indicator of the participation of the corresponding brain structures in performing the task. It turned out, however, that in some structures, when performing most tasks, the level of metabolic activity does not increase, but decreases. Rachel et al suggested that these structures are involved in mental processes that occur during periods of rest, when the brain is not busy processing information coming from outside. If it is necessary to engage in operational activities, the activity of these structures is reduced, and the degree of reduction is proportional to the complexity of the task. At first glance, this concept seems unlikely. Indeed, according to own experience We know that during quiet periods people can think about very different things. The result of this should be the absence of any standard set of brain structures involved in the processes of spontaneous mental activity. Empirical evidence, however, shows that, despite the inevitable variation in this type of research, the set of structures that exhibit deactivation across a wide range of tasks is remarkably consistent. This set includes the medial prefrontal cortex, posterior cingulate cortex, precuneus cortex, and medial, lateral, and inferior parietal cortices. This consistency suggests that spontaneous mental processes, despite their diversity, have a certain common ground, which is precisely related to the activity of the brain structures included in the DSM. What is this basis? Data on the deactivation of the DSM during the performance of a variety of tasks allow us to identify cognitive processes in which the DSM is not involved, but they do not allow us to determine which thought process was interrupted by these tasks. Fortunately, it turned out that the DSM does not respond to all experimental tasks only by deactivation. If the subject remembers important events his life, or thinks about what awaits him (her) in the future, or reflects on his relationships with other people, activation is observed in the structures of the JSM.
These data allowed Mitchell to hypothesize that one of the functions of JSM is social consciousness. "Left to its own devices, the human brain naturally gets involved in thinking about social relations» 2. This hypothesis has strong foundations in human evolution. Indeed, perhaps like no other biological species, man was formed in evolution as a social being. Human brain developed largely due to social factors such as speech and collective activity. Maintaining relationships with other people, approval, or disapproval from other people are of paramount importance for the personal relationships and professional activities of any person. The DSM is in a reciprocal relationship with the brain systems that process information coming from the outside world. The balance of these reciprocal relationships is necessary for successful orientation in the world, for timely switching from one activity to another, for choosing from the flow of external information what is essential for the individual. Both excessive and insufficient activity of the DSM are accompanied by behavioral disorders. Insufficient activity of the DSM in people with autism leads to the fact that all brain resources are aimed at analyzing information coming from outside in the absence of a guiding thread that allows one to separate essential information from unimportant information. At the same time, productive symptoms in schizophrenia are associated with excessive activity of the DSM, in which the creations of one’s own mind are perceived as really existing phenomena.
When you are standing in a traffic jam or in line with a discharged smartphone, washing the floors in your apartment, resting between sets at the gym, what are you thinking about? Nothing in particular, your mind just wanders, clinging to different events, taking you into the past or looking into the future. You yourself do not know where such thoughts will lead you, and you do not control this thought flow.
One study found that our minds wander 46.9% of the time.
Today, people are talking more and more about meditation and focusing on tasks. So free thinking or wandering the mind without a specific goal seems like a useless activity that only wastes your time. But is it? Let's figure it out.
How the brain works during mind wandering
Using MRI and electroencephalograms, scientists can track which parts of the brain are working during different tasks. This is how a lot of research is done. brain activity and conclusions are drawn about which brain structures are responsible for performing specific tasks.
Studying the functioning of the brain during mind wandering, scientists saw an unusual, even unique picture. The process involved two systems: the brain's default system and the executive system.
Default system of the brain is a set of brain structures in which activity decreases when performing most tasks. The default system is activated when a person remembers important events in his life, thinks about what awaits him in the future, or about relationships with other people.
Executive system of the brain- a set of processes that allow you to plan actions in accordance with the goal and change the reaction depending on the context. Responsible for suppressing learned responses to a stimulus, such as refusing tasty food in accordance with the goal of losing weight. Also works while exploring new stimuli, providing mental flexibility.
Typically, these systems in the brain work in turns: when the default system turns on, the executive system turns off. During mind wandering, both are turned on, which is similar to how the brain works during creative thinking. Before understanding and solving a problem occurs, areas of the brain such as the dorsal cingulate cortex and posterior cingulate cortex are activated.
Green arrows show the structures of the brain's default system. Blue arrows- structures of the executive system. A - dorsal part of the cingulate gyrus, B - ventral part of the cingulate gyrus, C - precuneus of the cerebral hemispheres, D - bilateral temporoparietal ganglion, E - dorsolateral prefrontal cortex
Thus, mind wandering allows for simultaneous activation of executive processes without inhibiting the brain's default system for creativity and mental simulation.
The wandering mind and creativity
Research has shown that people who are prone to mind wandering are better at creative tasks. For example, with a word association task, when you need to say what three people have in common, it would seem. tied friend with a friend in words. This may be caused by two brain systems working simultaneously.
To stimulate your creativity, you can go for a walk or do tasks that allow you to think while you do them. However, to be creative, it's not enough to let go of your thoughts; you also need to learn to notice when your mind is wandering and catch the ideas that come while it does.
A wandering mind is an indicator of good working memory
New research shows that mind wandering interacts with working memory.
Working memory is a type of memory that allows you to remember and retain events despite distractions.
Here is an example of how such memory works. You had dinner with a friend, say goodbye and promise to call him when you get home. Along the way you get into a small accident. Stress, swearing, worries, registration of an accident... And when after all this you finally come home, you still remember that you need to call a friend.
During the experiment, the researchers determined whether there was a relationship between the volume of a person’s working memory and his tendency to think freely. To find out, they first asked participants to complete two very simple tasks that would make them go deep in their thoughts. For example, pressing a button in response to a letter appearing on the screen. During the task, the researchers recorded whether the participants maintained attention or not. They then tested the subjects' working memory by asking them to memorize a series of letters, interspersed with simple mathematical examples.
It turned out that there is a relationship between mind wandering in the first task and good performance memorization in the second. Participants who were more in their thoughts during the first task were better able to remember the series of letters, despite constantly switching to mathematical examples.
When performing simple tasks, people with good working memory may find their minds drifting, thinking about something other than the task at hand. In other words, they have too much to spend on simple tasks.
Researchers suggest that the thought process underlying mind wandering is similar to that of working memory. And it, in turn, is related to the level of intelligence in general.
Relief from stress and information hunger
A wandering mind helps you to abstract yourself from reality to some extent to reduce stress and psychological pressure. For example, studies have found that prisoners in correctional institutions constantly retreat into dreams from the harsh reality. Sometimes they do this consciously, but more often the brain itself chooses this method of protection from unattractive reality.
In addition, a wandering mind helps brighten up boring moments during information hunger. For example, when you have absolutely nothing to do and nothing to see (in the subway, in a traffic jam, in a queue), you simply go into your thoughts, and time passes faster. Try to concentrate on what is happening at such a moment, and every minute will last an eternity for you.
Also, a wandering mind is a way to get some dopamine for free. Every non-existent achievement that you scroll through in your head causes the release of this neurotransmitter. However, this can also work against you: having become accustomed to this way of obtaining dopamine, you can turn into an idle dreamer, all of whose achievements are only in his head.
A wandering mind vs. happiness in reality
Many religious teachings and practices claim that happiness can only be found in the present moment by focusing on reality. Meditation helps to do this.
If you don't control your wandering mind and get used to enjoying dreams and non-existent accomplishments, it will not bring you happiness. On the contrary, the discrepancy between the imaginary world and the real picture will plunge you into unwillingness to change anything. Therefore, as with creativity and new ideas, it is necessary to learn to control the wandering mind: let thoughts float freely, but monitor where they take you, and be able to stop this flow at will.
Evolutionary Jackpot
So the wandering mind is part of the unique human ability that distinguishes our species from all others. Some great discoveries, beautiful creations and profound thoughts are the result of not having a specific topic to think about. Anyone who has ever experienced a moment of insight during a relaxed flow of thoughts, for example, while washing in the shower, can confirm this phenomenon.
Mind wandering is an evolutionary jackpot for our species. It may have even greater benefits than conscious strategic thinking. Free thinking, with a unique neurological picture, opens up possibilities for building random connections and associations that are so necessary for creativity.
So put down your gadgets and let your thoughts flow freely. You may find unexpected solutions or worthwhile ideas.
What, in your opinion, is the most significant and important psychological scientific research conducted (published) over the past 10 years (2002–2012)?
Gennady Knyazev:
I consider the most important thing for understanding the inner world of a person to be the discovery of the so-called default system of the brain. This concept in its modern form was first formulated in 2001, and the past decade has seen an explosion of interest in this area of research. The doctrine of behaviorism, popular in the first half of the twentieth century, viewed the brain as a black box. The subject of the study was the connection between signals supplied from outside and behavioral reactions. In the decades since then, the main focus of interest has moved inside the black box. Of greatest interest now are the questions in which brain structures certain functions are localized and how the activity of these structures is related to observed behavior or mental processes. Progress in this area is mainly associated with the advent of such methods as positron emission imaging (PET) and functional magnetic resonance imaging (fMRI), as well as with the development of new methods of EEG analysis.
Despite significant progress in understanding the functional organization of the human brain, achieved through the use of these methods, the vast majority of research is still carried out within the framework of the stimulus-response paradigm proposed by behaviorists. The generally accepted approach to studying the functions of the human brain is to record brain activity when stimuli are presented or tasks are performed. This approach allows us to study the structural and functional basis of a wide range of cognitive processes involved in the operational regulation of behavior. However, these processes constitute only the tip of the iceberg of human mental life. Most of it consists of processes that are not accompanied by behavioral manifestations accessible to direct observation, although they largely determine human behavior in the long term. Until recently, virtually nothing was known about the structural and functional basis of this part of human mental life. In 2001, Markus Raechl and his co-authors 1 first formulated the concept of the so-called default mode network (DSM). During the time that has passed since its first publication, the number of works devoted to JSM has increased exponentially, and by now this concept has become a central topic in cognitive neuroscience.
The vast majority of studies on DSM have been carried out using PET and fMRI methods. These methods are known to estimate the level of metabolic activity in different parts of the brain using glucose consumption, or blood oxygenation, as indicators. Typical PET and fMRI experiments measure the level of metabolic activity at rest and while performing a task. An increase in activity compared to background is interpreted as an indicator of the participation of the corresponding brain structures in performing the task. It turned out, however, that in some structures, when performing most tasks, the level of metabolic activity does not increase, but decreases. Rachel and co-authors suggested that these structures are involved in mental processes that occur during periods of rest, when the brain is not busy processing information coming from outside. If it is necessary to engage in operational activities, the activity of these structures decreases, and the degree of decrease is proportional to the complexity of the task. At first glance, this concept seems unlikely. Indeed, we know from our own experience that during periods of rest people can think about very different things. The result of this should be the absence of any standard set of brain structures involved in the processes of spontaneous mental activity. Empirical evidence, however, shows that, despite the inevitable variation in this type of research, the set of structures that exhibit deactivation across a wide range of tasks is remarkably consistent. This set includes the medial prefrontal cortex, posterior cingulate cortex, precuneus cortex, and medial, lateral, and inferior parietal cortices. This consistency suggests that spontaneous thought processes, despite their diversity, have a certain common basis, which is precisely related to the activity of the brain structures included in the DSM. What is this basis? Data on the deactivation of the DSM during the performance of a variety of tasks allow us to identify cognitive processes in which the DSM is not involved, but they do not allow us to determine which thought process was interrupted by these tasks. Fortunately, it turned out that the DSM does not respond to all experimental tasks only by deactivation. If the subject remembers important events in his life, or thinks about what awaits him (her) in the future, or reflects on his relationships with other people, activation is observed in the structures of the DSM.
These data allowed Mitchell to hypothesize that one of the functions of JSM is social consciousness. “Left to its own devices, the human brain naturally engages in thinking about social relationships.” 2 This hypothesis has strong foundations in human evolution. Indeed, perhaps like no other biological species, man was formed in evolution as a social being. The human brain has evolved largely due to social factors such as speech and group activity. Maintaining relationships with other people, approval, or disapproval from other people are of paramount importance for the personal relationships and professional activities of any person. The DSM is in a reciprocal relationship with the brain systems that process information coming from the outside world. The balance of these reciprocal relationships is necessary for successful orientation in the world, for timely switching from one activity to another, for choosing from the flow of external information what is essential for the individual. Both excessive and insufficient activity of the DSM are accompanied by behavioral disorders. Insufficient activity of the DSM in people with autism leads to the fact that all brain resources are aimed at analyzing information coming from outside in the absence of a guiding thread that allows one to separate essential information from unimportant information. At the same time, productive symptoms in schizophrenia are associated with excessive activity of the DSM, in which the creations of one’s own mind are perceived as really existing phenomena.
Russian scientists have shown that changes in the neural networks of the brain associated with a tendency to depression can be detected using an electroencephalogram (EEG). The research was supported by a grant from the Russian Science Foundation and published in the journal Behavioral Brain Research.
“In individuals predisposed to depression - even at the preclinical stage - the emotional centers of the brain are more strongly connected to the so-called default system of the brain, which is involved in the processes of self-awareness and social consciousness than with the attention system. This means that these people's emotional reactions are more likely to arise in response to their own intrusive thoughts than to signals from the outside world,” says the head of the RSF grant, head of the laboratory of differential psychophysiology at the Research Institute of Physiology and Fundamental Medicine, Doctor of Biological Sciences Gennady Georgievich Knyazev.
The default mode network of the brain is one of the neural networks (resting state networks), discovered relatively recently. Its activation occurs when our brain is not affected external stimuli. For example, in those moments when, during breaks at work, we think about something of our own, “have our heads in the clouds,” or, conversely, experience some personal problems. The default system turns off when the brain is again forced to solve another problem.
Studying the neural networks of the brain using electroencephalography (EEG) and comparing these data with corresponding data from functional magnetic resonance imaging (fMRI) is the cutting edge of neurophysiology. The fact is that the data obtained using fMRI are only indirectly related to the activity of neurons, since the parameter recorded in fMRI is the oxygen saturation of the blood. Scientists have established for the first time that EEG data can be used to identify the influence of depressive symptoms on the activity of neural networks.
There is a biological predisposition in some people to depression. It depends on the external conditions and personality traits, with a genetic component also present. People with unstable emotionality (high neuroticism), who are characterized by frequent changes mood and negative prevails emotional background, in the presence of stress factors are more prone to depression.
“Our data show that even at the preclinical stage, the tendency to depression is associated with significant restructuring of the organization functional connections in the brain, which should significantly affect the state and behavior of a person,” comments Gennady Knyazev. This does not mean, however, that EEG can be used to individually diagnose susceptibility to depression. Our results come from statistical analysis group data, while individual diagnosis is the task of psychiatrists. Over the three years since receiving the RSF grant, we have collected a huge amount of data and published it in foreign journals. There are still many interesting results that require processing and publication. The grant pushed us to assemble a strong team involving researchers from related fields to solve the problem.”
AFK Sistema assures that the technical default announced by it is a pure formality that will not in any way affect the activities of the companies under its control. And among these companies, for example, is the largest mobile operator MTS. What is the reason for the default and what consequences will it actually have for all parties?
AFK Sistema assures that it will service its loan obligations in full, and the announced technical default on a number of loans worth 3.9 billion rubles is of a formal nature. The corporation blames the technical default on the seizure of the company's assets on shares of MTS, Medsi (a network of medical clinics) and BPGC (Bashkir Energy Sales Company). The arrest was imposed by the Arbitration Court of the Republic of Bashkortostan as part of a dispute with Rosneft over Bashneft. MTS (where AFK is the largest shareholder) also stated that the corporation’s technical default will not affect the company’s operating activities.
“The verbal statements of both Sistema and Rosneft should be taken critically; this is quite normal for a corporate war”
AFK Sistema representative Sergei Kopylov explained that the corporation was forced to declare a technical default because the seizure of its shares was not lifted on time, which violates loan covenants. Conditions to seize assets worth more than $25 million will be violated as of July 17, he said. At the same time, he believes that creditors will not demand early repayment of loans, so default is a formality. “AFK services and plans to service all its obligations in a timely manner and in full,” Interfax quotes Kopylov.
So-called covenants have long become an integral part of loan agreements. This means including in the loan agreement any obligations of the borrower to reduce the level of credit risks. Apparently, AFK Sistema stipulated in a number of loan agreements that if the seizure of assets is not lifted by July 17, a default will occur.
However, Rosneft regarded the default on a number of assets of AFK Sistema as an attempt to deceive creditors. “All actions of Sistema JSFC are unpredictable based on economic and legal logic. From the point of view of a psychiatrist, perhaps they are predictable, but we do not have such competencies,” said Vice President and Press Secretary of Rosneft Mikhail Leontyev in an interview with the radio station “Moscow Speaks”. – If AFK Sistema wants to use such an absolutely formal procedure as security arrest in order to cheat its creditors, then this says a lot about the business style of this company. Maybe they decided that if it was so bad, then they could throw everyone away.”
However, experts do not yet see anything wrong with a technical default. Konstantin Belov from the financial corporation Uralsib agrees that the technical default of AFK is a formality that will not lead to demands for early repayment of loans and does not mean problems with servicing loans by the company, so the market reaction will be restrained.
The director of the analytical department of Alpari, Alexander Razuvaev, believes that the verbal statements of both Sistema and Rosneft should be taken critically. “With administrative resources, it’s clear that AFK Sistema has problems in its dispute with Rosneft. Sistema at one time had good political connections - first of all, the then mayor Luzhkov and the then president Medvedev. However, now the AFC can hardly count on their support,” he believes.However, Razuvaev also believes that AFK Sistema will not deliberately deceive its creditors. “Nothing threatens the business and shareholders of the subsidiaries at all. During a periodic panic, I would speculatively buy MTS shares. A rebound, as always, will not be far off,” says the expert.
However, it is extremely difficult to predict the consequences of this story. Therefore, theoretically, it cannot be ruled out that AFK Sistema may become bankrupt not formally and technically, but for real. “If such a risk really arises, then AFK shares will become a powerful toy for speculators; it will be possible to earn tens of percent per day. In 2004, fluctuations in Yukos shares reached +/- 40% per day. They say that news insiders then made a fortune in a couple of weeks,” says an interlocutor from Alpari.
Following AFK Sistema's statements about a technical default, the holding's shares on the Moscow Exchange fell by almost 2% by 12 Moscow time, to 11.7 rubles per share. MTS share quotes decreased by 0.5%, to 235 rubles per share.
The essence of the dispute
Rosneft and Bashneft are trying to recover 170.6 billion rubles from AFK Sistema and CJSC Sistema-invest through the courts. The oil company believes that when AFK Sistema owned Bashneft (until December 2014 it had 70% of the shares), it carried out a not entirely legal reorganization of Bashneft. As a result, Bashneft suffered losses of 170.6 billion rubles (at first, the amount of claims was just over 100 billion rubles).
Then, as part of the claim, 31.76% of MTS shares, 100% of Medsi shares and 90.47% of BPGC shares owned by AFK Sistema were seized as security for Rosneft’s claim.
AFK Sistema considered the seizure of its assets to be unfounded and has already filed an appeal. And the reorganization of Bashneft was carried out in full compliance with corporate procedures and current legislation, the corporation believes.
Independent members of the board of directors of AFK Sistema sent a letter to Vladimir Putin on June 15, asking him to “assist in resolving the dispute.” AFK defenders wrote that the corporation tried to introduce high standards into Bashneft corporate governance and the reorganization was approved by the absolute majority of shareholders. Moreover, its conditions and circumstances were analyzed by reputable investment banks, including Sberbank CIB and Merrill Lynch. And during AFK’s ownership of a controlling stake in Bashneft, the oil company’s tax payments to budgets of all levels tripled, to 1 trillion rubles, and capitalization increased 7.8 times, Kommersant reported, citing a letter from the directors.
Major redistribution of property
The Kremlin refused to take sides, since the court should decide. The confrontation between the two giants of domestic business will last a long time, says Alexander Razuvaev from Alpari. For comparison, the story with YUKOS lasted for five years (from 2003 to 2007).
Many say that the conflict between Rosneft and AFK Sistema is damaging the investment climate. “Perhaps this would have been true before. However, now for Russian market shares main policy, geopolitical discount in valuation. Everything else is secondary,” says Razuvaev.
The most interesting thing, in his opinion, is the change of owner of the controlling stake in MTS. “There is a redistribution of large property. Foreigners are unlikely to current situation will show interest in this block of shares. Probable buyers are Megafon and Rostelecom,” says the source. At the same time, in his opinion, Rostelecom does not have much chance of purchasing MTS. “The state’s share in the economy is already 70%. And its further increase will definitely not please the Kremlin. But the merger of MTS and Megafon is quite possible,” says Razuvaev.
At the same time, he doubts that in the framework of this conflict, MTS minority shareholders or subscribers are in any danger. Although it does not rule out that if MTS merges with Megafon, competition in the market will decrease, which may cause an increase in tariffs. “Everything here will depend on the Russian antimonopoly service. The stability of communication tariffs will likely become the main condition for the approval of the deal to take over MTS by Megafon. But it’s definitely too early to talk about the deal itself,” concludes Alexander Razuvaev.
