What century was World War 1 in? Important dates and events of the First World War

World War I is one of the greatest tragedy in the history of the world. Millions of victims who died as a result of the geopolitical games of the powerful. This war has no clear winners. The political map has completely changed, four empires have collapsed, in addition, the center of influence has shifted to the American continent.

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Political situation before the conflict

There were five empires on the world map: the Russian Empire, the British Empire, the German Empire, the Austro-Hungarian and Ottoman Empires, as well as such superpowers as France, Italy, Japan, tried to take their place in world geopolitics.

To strengthen their positions, the states tried to form unions.

The most powerful were the Triple Alliance, which included the central powers - the German, Austro-Hungarian Empire, Italy, and the Entente: Russia, Great Britain, France.

Background and objectives of the First World War

Main background and goals:

1. Alliances. According to the treaties, if one of the countries of the union declared war, then others should take their side. Behind this stretches a chain of involvement of states in the war. This is exactly what happened when the First World War began.
2. Colonies. Powers that did not have colonies or did not have enough of them sought to fill this gap, and the colonies sought to free themselves.
3. Nationalism. Each power considered itself unique and the most powerful. many empires claimed world domination.
4. Arms race. Their power had to be backed up by military power, so the economies of the major powers worked for the defense industry.
5. Imperialism. Every empire, if not expanding, is collapsing. There were five then. Each sought to expand its borders at the expense of weaker states, satellites and colonies. Especially the young German Empire, which was formed after the Franco-Prussian war, aspired to this.
6. Terrorist attack. This event was the reason for the global conflict. The Austro-Hungarian Empire annexed Bosnia and Herzegovina. The heir to the throne, Prince Franz Ferdinand and his wife Sofia arrived in the acquired territory - Sarajevo. There was a fatal assassination attempt by a Bosnian Serb, Gavrilo Princip. Because of the assassination of the prince, Austria-Hungary declared war on Serbia, which led to a chain of conflicts.

Speaking briefly about the First World War, US President Thomas Woodrow Wilson believed that it did not start for any reason, but cumulatively for all at once.

Important! Gavrilo Princip was arrested, but the death penalty could not be applied to him, because he was not 20 years old. The terrorist was sentenced to twenty years in prison, but he died of tuberculosis four years later.

When did World War I start

Austria-Hungary delivered an ultimatum to Serbia to purge all authorities and the army, eliminate persons with anti-Austrian convictions, arrest members of terrorist organizations, and also allow Austrian police to enter Serbia for investigation.

Two days were given to fulfill the ultimatum. Serbia agreed with everything except the admission of the Austrian police.

July 28th, under the pretext of not complying with the ultimatum, Austro-Hungarian Empire declares war on Serbia. From this date officially count down the time when the First World War began.

The Russian Empire has always supported Serbia, therefore it began to mobilize. On July 31, Germany delivered an ultimatum to stop mobilization, and gave 12 hours to complete. The response announced that the mobilization was taking place exclusively against Austria-Hungary. Despite the fact that Wilhelm ruled the German Empire, a relative of Nicholas the Emperor of the Russian Empire, August 1, 1914 Germany declares war on the Russian Empire. Then Germany concludes an alliance with the Ottoman Empire.

After the German invasion of neutral Belgium, Britain did not remain neutral, declaring war on the Germans. August 6 Russia declares war on Austria-Hungary. Italy is neutral. August 12 Austria-Hungary begins to fight with Britain and France. Japan opposes Germany on August 23. Further along the chain, more and more new states are involved in the war, one after another, all over the world. The United States of America enters only on December 7, 1917.

Important! England first used tracked fighting vehicles, now known as tanks, during the First World War. The word "tank" means tank. So British intelligence tried to disguise the transfer of equipment under the guise of tanks with fuel and lubricants. Subsequently, this name was assigned to combat vehicles.

The main events of the First World War and the role of Russia in the conflict

The main battles are unfolding on the western front, in the direction of Belgium and France, as well as the East - from Russia. With the accession of the Ottoman Empire began a new round of operations in the eastern direction.

Chronology of Russia's participation in the First World War:

• East Prussian operation. The Russian army crossed the border of East Prussia towards Königsberg. 1st Army from the east, 2nd - from the west of the Masurian Lakes. The Russians won the first battles, but misjudged the situation, which led to a further defeat. A large number of soldiers became prisoners, many died, so had to fight back.
• Galician operation. Huge scale battle. Five armies were involved here. The front line was oriented towards Lvov, it was 500 km. Later, the front broke up into separate positional battles. Then began the rapid offensive of the Russian army against Austria-Hungary, its troops were pushed back.
• Warsaw show. After a series of successful operations from different sides, the front line became crooked. There were many forces thrown to her alignment. The city of Lodz was alternately occupied by one or the other side. Germany launched an attack on Warsaw, but it was unsuccessful. Although the Germans failed to capture Warsaw and Lodz, the Russian offensive was thwarted. Russia's actions forced Germany to fight on two fronts, thanks to which a large-scale offensive against France was thwarted.
• The entry of Japan to the side of the Entente. Japan demanded that Germany withdraw its troops from China, after the refusal it announced the start of hostilities, taking the side of the Entente countries. This is an important event for Russia, because now there was no need to worry about the threat from Asia, besides, the Japanese helped with provisions.
• The accession of the Ottoman Empire to the side of the Triple Alliance. The Ottoman Empire hesitated for a long time, but nevertheless took the side of the Triple Alliance. The first act of her aggression was the attacks on Odessa, Sevastopol, Feodosia. After that, on November 15, Russia declared war on Turkey.
• August operation. It took place in the winter of 1915, and received its name from the city of Augustow. Here the Russians could not resist, they had to retreat to new positions.
• Carpathian operation. There were attempts on both sides to cross the Carpathian mountains, but the Russians failed to do so.
• Gorlitsky breakthrough. The army of Germans and Austrians concentrated their forces near Gorlitsa, in the direction of Lvov. On May 2, an offensive was carried out, as a result of which Germany was able to occupy Gorlitsa, Kielce and Radom provinces, Brody, Ternopil, Bukovina. The second wave of the Germans managed to recapture Warsaw, Grodno, Brest-Litovsk. In addition, it was possible to occupy Mitava and Courland. But off the coast of Riga, the Germans were defeated. To the south, the offensive of the Austro-German troops continued, Lutsk, Vladimir-Volynsky, Kovel, Pinsk were occupied there. By the end of 1915 the front line has stabilized. Germany threw the main forces in the direction of Serbia and Italy. As a result of great failures at the front, the heads of the army commanders "flew". Emperor Nicholas II, took over not only the management of Russia, but also the direct command of the army.
• Brusilovsky breakthrough. The operation is named after the commander A.A. Brusilov, who won this fight. As a result of a breakthrough (May 22, 1916) the Germans were defeated they had to retreat with huge losses, leaving Bukovina and Galicia.
• Internal conflict. The Central Powers began to become significantly exhausted from waging war. The Entente with the allies looked more profitable. Russia at that time was on the winning side. She invested a lot of effort and human lives for this, but she could not become a winner because of an internal conflict. It happened in the country, because of which Emperor Nicholas II abdicated the throne. The Provisional Government came to power, then the Bolsheviks. To stay in power, they took Russia out of the theater of operations by making peace with the central states. This act is known as Brest Treaty.
• Internal conflict of the German Empire. On November 9, 1918, a revolution took place, which resulted in the abdication of the throne by Kaiser Wilhelm II. The Weimar Republic was also formed.
• Treaty of Versailles. Between the winning countries and Germany On January 10, 1920, the Treaty of Versailles was signed. Officially the first world war ended.
• The League of nations. The first assembly of the League of Nations was held on November 15, 1919.

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Consequences and results of the First World War for Russia

The results of the war for Russia:

• For a step away from victory, the country made peace, stripped of all privileges like a winner.
• The Russian Empire ceased to exist.
• The country voluntarily gave up large territories.
• Undertook to pay an indemnity in gold and products.
• It was not possible to establish a state machine for a long time due to an internal conflict.

Global consequences of the conflict

Irreversible consequences occurred on the world stage, the cause of which was the First World War:

1. Territory. 34 out of 59 states were involved in the theater of operations. This is more than 90% of the Earth's territory.
2. human sacrifice. Every minute 4 soldiers were killed and 9 were injured. In total, about 10 million soldiers; 5 million civilians, 6 million died from epidemics that flared up after the conflict. Russia in World War I lost 1.7 million soldiers.
3. Destruction. A significant part of the territories where hostilities were fought were destroyed.
4. Cardinal changes in the political situation.
5. Economy. Europe lost a third of its gold and foreign exchange reserves, which led to a difficult economic situation in almost all countries except Japan and the United States.

The results of the armed conflict:

• The Russian, Austro-Hungarian, Ottoman and German empires ceased to exist.
• The European powers lost their colonies.
• Such states as Yugoslavia, Poland, Czechoslovakia, Estonia, Lithuania, Latvia, Finland, Austria, Hungary appeared on the world map.
• The United States of America became the leader of the world economy.
• Communism has spread in many countries.

The role of Russia in the 1st world war

Results of the First World War for Russia

Conclusion

Russia in the First World War 1914-1918 had victories and defeats. When the First World War ended, she received the main defeat not from an external enemy, from herself, an internal conflict that put an end to the empire. Who won the conflict is unclear. Although the Entente with its allies is considered the winner, but their economic condition was deplorable. They did not have time to recover, even before the start of the next conflict.

To maintain peace and consensus among all states, the League of Nations was organized. She played the role of an international parliament. Interestingly, the United States initiated its creation, but they themselves refused membership in the organization. As history has shown, it became a continuation of the first, as well as a revenge of the powers offended by the results of the Versailles Treaty. The League of Nations here proved to be an absolutely ineffective and useless body.

Who fought with whom? Now this question will surely baffle many ordinary people. But the Great War, as it was called in the world until 1939, claimed more than 20 million lives and forever changed the course of history. For 4 bloody years, empires collapsed, peoples disappeared, alliances were concluded. Therefore, it is necessary to know about it at least for the purposes of general development.

Reasons for the start of the war

By the beginning of the 19th century, the crisis in Europe was obvious to all major powers. Many historians and analysts cite various populist reasons why who fought with whom before, which peoples were fraternal to each other, and so on - all this had practically no meaning for most countries. The goals of the warring powers in World War I were different, but the main reason was the desire of big business to spread its influence and gain new markets.

First of all, it is worth considering the desire of Germany, since it was she who became the aggressor and actually unleashed the war. But at the same time, one should not assume that it only wanted war, and the rest of the countries did not prepare attack plans and only defended themselves.

German goals

By the beginning of the 20th century, Germany continued to develop rapidly. The empire had a good army, modern types of weapons, a powerful economy. The main problem was that it was possible to unite the German lands under a single flag only in the middle of the 19th century. It was then that the Germans became an important player on the world stage. But by the time Germany emerged as a great power, the period of active colonization had already been missed. England, France, Russia and other countries had many colonies. They opened up a good market for the capital of these countries, made it possible to have cheap labor, an abundance of food and specific goods. Germany did not have this. Commodity overproduction led to stagnation. The growth of the population and the limited territories of their settlement formed a food shortage. Then the German leadership decided to move away from the idea of ​​being a member of the commonwealth of countries, having a secondary voice. Sometime towards the end of the 19th century, political doctrines were directed towards building the German Empire as the world's leading power. And the only way to do this is war.

Year 1914. The First World War: who fought?

Other countries thought similarly. The capitalists pushed the governments of all major states towards expansion. First of all, Russia wanted to unite as many Slavic lands as possible under its banners, especially in the Balkans, especially since the local population was loyal to such patronage.

Turkey played an important role. The world's leading players closely watched the collapse of the Ottoman Empire and waited for the moment to bite off a piece from this giant. Crisis and anticipation were felt throughout Europe. There were a number of bloody wars in the territory of modern Yugoslavia, after which the First World War followed. Who fought with whom in the Balkans, sometimes the locals of the South Slavic countries themselves did not remember. The capitalists drove the soldiers forward, changing allies depending on the benefits. It was already clear that, most likely, something larger than a local conflict would happen in the Balkans. And so it happened. At the end of June, Gavrila Princip assassinated Archduke Ferdinand. used this event as a pretext for declaring war.

Parties' expectations

The warring countries of the First World War did not think what the conflict would result in. If you study in detail the plans of the parties, it is clearly seen that each was going to win due to the rapid offensive. No more than a few months were allotted for hostilities. This was due, among other things, to the fact that before that there were no such precedents in history, when almost all powers participate in the war.

World War I: who fought whom?

On the eve of 1914, two alliances were concluded: the Entente and the Triple. The first included Russia, Britain, France. In the second - Germany, Austria-Hungary, Italy. Smaller countries united around one of these alliances. With whom was Russia at war? With Bulgaria, Turkey, Germany, Austria-Hungary, Albania. As well as a number of armed formations of other countries.

After the Balkan crisis in Europe, two main theaters of military operations were formed - Western and Eastern. Also, hostilities were fought in the Transcaucasus and in various colonies in the Middle East and Africa. It is difficult to list all the conflicts that the First World War gave rise to. Who fought with whom depended on belonging to a particular alliance and territorial claims. For example, France has long dreamed of regaining the lost Alsace and Lorraine. And Turkey is land in Armenia.

For the Russian Empire, the war turned out to be the most costly. And not only in economic terms. On the fronts, Russian troops suffered the greatest losses.

This was one of the reasons for the start of the October Revolution, as a result of which a socialist state was formed. The people simply did not understand why those who were mobilized by the thousands went to the West, and only a few returned.
Intensive was basically only the first year of the war. The subsequent ones were characterized by positional struggle. Many kilometers of trenches were dug, countless defensive structures were erected.

The atmosphere of a positional permanent war is very well described in Remarque's book All Quiet on the Western Front. It was in the trenches that the lives of soldiers were grinded, and the economies of countries worked exclusively for the war, reducing costs for all other institutions. 11 million civilian lives were claimed by the First World War. Who fought with whom? There can be only one answer to this question: capitalists with capitalists.

The last century brought to mankind two of the most terrible conflicts - the First and Second World Wars, which captured the whole world. And if the echoes of the Patriotic War are still heard, then the clashes of 1914-1918 have already been forgotten, despite their cruelty. Who fought with whom, what were the reasons for the confrontation, and in what year did the First World War begin?

A military conflict does not start suddenly, there are a number of prerequisites that directly or indirectly eventually become the causes of an open clash of armies. Differences between the main participants in the conflict, the powerful powers, began to grow long before the start of open battles.

The German Empire began its existence, which was the natural end of the Franco-Prussian battles of 1870-1871. At the same time, the government of the empire argued that the state had no aspirations regarding the seizure of power and domination on the territory of Europe.

After the devastating internal conflicts of the German monarchy, it took time to recuperate and build military power, this requires peaceful times. In addition, European states are willing to cooperate with it and refrain from creating an opposing coalition.

Developing peacefully, by the mid-1880s, the Germans were getting stronger enough in the military and economic spheres and changing their foreign policy priorities, starting to fight for dominance in Europe. At the same time, a course was taken for the expansion of the southern lands, since the country did not have overseas colonies.

The colonial division of the world allowed the two strongest states - Great Britain and France to seize economically attractive lands around the world. In order to get overseas markets, the Germans needed to defeat these states and seize their colonies.

But in addition to the neighbors, the Germans also had to defeat the Russian state, since in 1891 it entered into a defensive alliance, which was called "Cardial Accord", or Entente, with France and England (joined in 1907).

Austria-Hungary, in turn, tried to hold on to the annexed territories (Herzegovina and Bosnia) and at the same time tried to resist Russia, which set itself the goal of protecting and uniting the Slavic peoples in Europe and could start a confrontation. Russia's ally, Serbia, also posed a danger to Austria-Hungary.

The same tense situation was in the Middle East: it was there that the foreign policy interests of European states that wanted to gain new territories and greater benefits from the collapse of the Ottoman Empire clashed.

Here Russia claimed its rights, claiming the shores of two straits: the Bosphorus and the Dardanelles. In addition, Emperor Nicholas II wanted to gain control over Anatolia, since this territory allowed access to the Middle East by land.

The Russians did not want to allow the withdrawal of these territories of Greece and Bulgaria. Therefore, European clashes were beneficial to them, since they made it possible to seize the desired lands in the East.

So, two alliances were created, the interests and opposition of which became the fundamental basis of the First World War:

1. Entente - it included Russia, France and Great Britain.
2. The Triple Alliance - it included the empires of the Germans and Austro-Hungarians, as well as the Italians.

It's important to know! Later, the Ottomans and Bulgarians joined the Triple Alliance, and the name was changed to the Quadruple Alliance.

The main reasons for the start of the war were:

1. The desire of the Germans to own large territories and occupy a dominant position in the world.
2. France's desire to take a leading position in Europe.
3. The desire of Great Britain to weaken the European countries that posed a danger.
4. Russia's attempt to seize new territories and protect the Slavic peoples from aggression.
5. Confrontations between European and Asian states for spheres of influence.

The crisis of the economy and the discrepancy between the interests of the leading powers of Europe, and after that of other states, led to the beginning of an open military conflict, which lasted from 1914 to 1918.

German goals

Who started the battles? Germany is considered the main aggressor and the country that actually started the First World War. But at the same time, it is a mistake to believe that she alone wanted a conflict, despite the active preparation of the Germans and the provocation, which became the official cause of open clashes.

All European countries had their own interests, the achievement of which required victory over their neighbors.

By the beginning of the 20th century, the empire was developing rapidly and was well prepared from a military point of view: it had a good army, modern weapons and a powerful economy. Due to the constant strife between the German lands, until the middle of the 19th century, Europe did not consider the Germans as a serious adversary and competitor. But after the unification of the lands of the empire and the restoration of the domestic economy, the Germans not only became an important character in the European arena, but also began to think about seizing colonial lands.

The division of the world into colonies brought England and France not only an expanded market and cheap hired labor, but also an abundance of food. The German economy began to move from intensive development to stagnation due to market glut, and population growth and limited territories led to food shortages.

The country's leadership came to the decision to completely change foreign policy, and instead of peaceful participation in European unions, they chose illusory domination through the military seizure of territories. The First World War began immediately after the assassination of the Austrian Franz Ferdinand, which was rigged by the Germans.

Participants in the conflict

Who fought with whom throughout the battles? The main participants concentrate in two camps:

• Triple and then Quadruple Union;
• Entente.

The first camp included Germans, Austro-Hungarians and Italians. This alliance was created back in the 1880s, its main goal was to oppose France.

At the beginning of the First World War, the Italians took up neutrality, thereby violating the plans of the allies, and later completely betrayed them, in 1915 going over to the side of England and France and taking an opposing position. Instead, the Germans had new allies: the Turks and Bulgarians, who had their own clashes with members of the Entente.

In the First World War, briefly listing, in addition to the Germans, Russians, French and British participated, who acted within the framework of one military bloc "Consent" (as the word Entente is translated). It was created in 1893-1907 in order to protect the Allied countries from the ever-growing military power of the Germans and to strengthen the Triple Alliance. The allies were also supported by other states that did not want to strengthen the Germans, among them Belgium, Greece, Portugal and Serbia.

It's important to know! Russia's allies in the conflict were also outside Europe, among them China, Japan, and the United States.

Russia in the First World War fought not only with Germany, but with a number of smaller states, for example, Albania. Only two main fronts unfolded: in the West and in the East. In addition to them, battles took place in the Transcaucasus and in the Middle Eastern and African colonies.

Interests of the parties

The main interest of all battles was the land, due to various circumstances, each side sought to conquer additional territories. All states had their own interest:

1. The Russian Empire wanted to get an open access to the seas.
2. Great Britain sought to weaken Turkey and Germany.
3. France - to return their lands.
4. Germany - expand the territory by capturing neighboring European states, as well as get a number of colonies.
5. Austria-Hungary - control the sea routes and hold the annexed territories.
6. Italy - to gain dominance in southern Europe and the Mediterranean.

The approaching collapse of the Ottoman Empire made the states also think about seizing its lands. The map of hostilities shows the main fronts and advances of the opponents.

It's important to know! In addition to maritime interests, Russia wanted to unite all the Slavic lands under itself, while the Balkans were especially interested in the government.

Each country had clear plans to seize territories and was determined to win. Most of the countries of Europe participated in the conflict, while their military capabilities were approximately the same, which led to a protracted and passive war.

Results

When did World War I end? Its end came in November 1918 - it was then that Germany capitulated, concluding an agreement in Versailles in June of the following year, thereby showing who won the First World War - the French and the British.

The Russians were the losers on the winning side as they withdrew from the battles as early as March 1918 due to serious internal political divisions. In addition to Versailles, 4 more peace treaties were signed with the main warring parties.

For four empires, the First World War ended with their collapse: the Bolsheviks came to power in Russia, the Ottomans were overthrown in Turkey, the Germans and Austro-Hungarians also became republicans.

There were also changes in the territories, in particular the capture of Western Thrace by Greece, Tanzania by England, Romania took possession of Transylvania, Bukovina and Bessarabia, and the French - Alsace-Lorraine and Lebanon. The Russian Empire lost a number of territories that declared independence, among them: Belarus, Armenia, Georgia and Azerbaijan, Ukraine and the Baltic states.

The French occupied the German region of Saar, and Serbia annexed a number of lands (including Slovenia and Croatia) and subsequently created the state of Yugoslavia. Russia's battles in the First World War were costly: in addition to heavy losses on the fronts, the already difficult situation in the economy worsened.

The internal situation was tense long before the start of the campaign, and when, after an intense first year of fighting, the country switched to positional struggle, the suffering people actively supported the revolution and overthrew the objectionable tsar.

This confrontation showed that from now on all armed conflicts will be total in nature, and the entire population and all available resources of the state will be involved.

It's important to know! For the first time in history, adversaries used chemical weapons.

Both military blocs, entering into a confrontation, had approximately the same firepower, which led to protracted battles. Equal forces at the beginning of the campaign led to the fact that after its end, each country was actively engaged in building up firepower and actively developing modern and powerful weapons.

The scale and passive nature of the battles led to a complete restructuring of the economy and production of countries in the direction of militarization, which in turn significantly influenced the development of the European economy in 1915-1939. Characteristic for this period were:

• strengthening state influence and control in the economic sphere;
• creation of military complexes;
• rapid development of energy systems;
• the growth of defense products.

Wikipedia says that in that historical period the First World War was the bloodiest - it claimed only about 32 million lives, including the military and civilians who died from hunger and disease or from bombing. But even those soldiers who survived were psychologically traumatized by the war and could not lead a normal life. In addition, many of them were poisoned by chemical weapons used at the front.

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Summing up

Germany, which was sure of its victory in 1914, ceased to be a monarchy in 1918, lost a number of its lands and was severely weakened economically not only by military losses, but also by the obligatory payments of reparations. The difficult conditions and general humiliation of the nation that the Germans endured after being defeated by the Allies engendered and fueled nationalist sentiments that subsequently led to the conflict of 1939-1945.

This unprecedented war must be brought to complete victory.
Whoever thinks about peace now, who desires it, is a traitor to the Fatherland, his traitor.

August 1, 1914 Germany declared war on Russia. The First World War (1914-1918) began, which became the second Patriotic War for our Motherland.

How did it happen that the Russian Empire was drawn into the First World War? Was our country ready for it?

Doctor of Historical Sciences, Professor, Chief Researcher at the Institute of World History of the Russian Academy of Sciences (IVI RAS), President of the Russian Association of Historians of the First World War (RAIPMV) Evgeny Yuryevich Sergeev told Foma about the history of this war, about what it was for Russia.

Visit to Russia of French President R. Poincaré. July 1914

What the masses don't know about

Evgeny Yurievich, World War I (WWI) is one of the main areas of your scientific activity. What influenced the choice of this topic?

This is an interesting question. On the one hand, the significance of this event for world history leaves no doubt. This alone can inspire a historian to engage in WWI. On the other hand, this war still remains, to a certain extent, “terra incognita” of Russian history. The Civil War and the Great Patriotic War (1941-1945) overshadowed it, relegated it to the background in our minds.

No less important are the extremely interesting and little-known events of that war. Including those whose direct continuation we find during World War II.

For example, there was such an episode in the history of WWI: On August 23, 1914, Japan declared war on Germany., being in alliance with Russia and with other countries of the Entente, supplied weapons and military equipment to Russia. These deliveries went through the Chinese Eastern Railway (CER). The Germans organized an entire expedition (sabotage team) there in order to blow up the tunnels and bridges of the CER and interrupt this communication. Russian counterintelligence officers intercepted this expedition, that is, they managed to prevent the elimination of the tunnels, which would have caused significant damage to Russia, because an important supply artery would have been interrupted.

- Marvelous. How is it, Japan, with which we fought in 1904-1905 ...

By the time the WWI began, relations with Japan were different. Relevant agreements have already been signed. And in 1916, an agreement on a military alliance was even signed. We had a very close collaboration.

Suffice it to say that Japan gave us, although not free of charge, three ships that Russia lost during the Russo-Japanese War. "Varangian", which the Japanese raised and restored, was among them. As far as I know, the Varyag cruiser (the Japanese called it Soya) and two other ships raised by the Japanese were bought by Russia from Japan in 1916. On April 5 (18), 1916, the Russian flag was raised over the Varyag in Vladivostok.

At the same time, after the victory of the Bolsheviks, Japan participated in the intervention. But this is not surprising: after all, the Bolsheviks were considered accomplices of the Germans, the German government. You yourself understand that the conclusion of a separate peace on March 3, 1918 (Brest peace) was essentially a stab in the back of the allies, including Japan.

Along with this, of course, there were quite specific political and economic interests of Japan in the Far East and Siberia.

- But were there other interesting episodes in WWI?

Of course. It can also be said (few people know about this) that the military convoys known from the Great Patriotic War of 1941-1945 were also in the WWII, and also went to Murmansk, which in 1916 was specially built for this. A railroad connecting Murmansk with the European part of Russia was opened. The deliveries were quite significant.

Together with the Russian troops, a French squadron operated on the Romanian front. Here is the prototype of the squadron "Normandie - Neman". British submarines fought in the Baltic Sea alongside the Russian Baltic Fleet.

Cooperation on the Caucasian front between the corps of General N. N. Baratov (who, as part of the Caucasian army, fought there against the troops of the Ottoman Empire) and British forces is also a very interesting episode of WWI, one might say, a prototype of the so-called “meeting on the Elbe” during the Second World War . Baratov made a march and met with British troops near Baghdad, in what is now Iraq. Then it was the Ottoman possessions, of course. As a result, the Turks were squeezed into pincers.

Visit to Russia of French President R. Poincaré. Photo 1914

Great plans

- Evgeny Yurievich, but who is still to blame forunleashing the First World War?

The blame clearly lies with the so-called Central Powers, that is, with Austria-Hungary and Germany. And even more in Germany. Although WWI began as a local war between Austria-Hungary and Serbia, but without the firm support that was promised to Austria-Hungary from Berlin, it would not have acquired first a European, and then a global scale.

Germany needed this war very much. Its main goals were formulated as follows: to eliminate the hegemony of Great Britain on the seas, to seize its colonial possessions and to acquire "living space in the East" (that is, in Eastern Europe) for the rapidly growing German population. There was a geopolitical concept of "Middle Europe", according to which the main task of Germany was to unite European countries around itself into a kind of modern European Union, but, of course, under the auspices of Berlin.

For the ideological support of this war in Germany, a myth was created about the "encirclement of the Second Reich by a ring of hostile states": from the West - France, from the East - Russia, on the seas - Great Britain. Hence the task: to break through this ring and create a prosperous world empire with its center in Berlin.

- In the event of its victory, what role did Germany assign to Russia and the Russian people?

In case of victory, Germany hoped to return the Russian kingdom to the borders of about the 17th century (that is, before Peter I). Russia, in the German plans of that time, was to become a vassal of the Second Reich. The Romanov dynasty was supposed to be preserved, but, of course, Nicholas II (and his son Alexei) would have been removed from power.

- How did the Germans behave in the occupied territories during WWI?

In 1914-1917, the Germans managed to occupy only the extreme western provinces of Russia. They behaved quite reservedly there, although, of course, they carried out requisitions of the property of the civilian population. But there was no mass deportation of people to Germany or atrocities directed against civilians.

Another thing is 1918, when German and Austro-Hungarian troops occupied vast territories in the conditions of the actual collapse of the tsarist army (I remind you that they reached Rostov, the Crimea and the North Caucasus). Mass requisitions for the needs of the Reich had already begun here, and resistance detachments appeared, created in Ukraine by nationalists (Petlyura) and Socialist-Revolutionaries, who came out sharply against the Brest peace. But even in 1918, the Germans could not particularly turn around, since the war was already coming to an end, and they threw their main forces on the Western Front against the French and British. However, the partisan movement against the Germans in 1917-1918 in the occupied territories was nevertheless noted.

World War I. Political poster. 1915

Session of the III State Duma. 1915

Why did Russia get involved in the war

- What did Russia do to prevent war?

Nicholas II hesitated to the end - whether to start a war or not, offering to resolve all controversial issues at a peace conference in The Hague through international arbitration. Such offers from Nicholas were made to Wilhelm II, the German emperor, but he rejected them. And therefore, to say that the blame for the outbreak of the war lies with Russia is absolute nonsense.

Unfortunately, Germany ignored Russian initiatives. The fact is that German intelligence and the ruling circles were well aware that Russia was not ready for war. And Russia's allies (France and Great Britain) were not quite ready for it, especially Great Britain in terms of ground forces.

Russia in 1912 began to carry out a large program of rearmament of the army, and it should have ended only by 1918-1919. And Germany actually completed preparations for the summer of 1914.

In other words, the "window of opportunity" was quite narrow for Berlin, and if you start a war, then it should have started in 1914.

- How justified were the arguments of the opponents of the war?

The arguments of the opponents of the war were quite strong and clearly formulated. There were such forces among the ruling circles. There was a fairly strong and active party that opposed the war.

A note is known from one of the major statesmen of that time - P. N. Durnovo, which was filed at the beginning of 1914. Durnovo warned Tsar Nicholas II about the perniciousness of the war, which, in his opinion, meant the death of the dynasty and the death of imperial Russia.

There were such forces, but the fact is that by 1914 Russia was in allied relations not with Germany and Austria-Hungary, but with France, and then with Great Britain, and the very logic of the development of the crisis associated with the assassination of Franz Ferdinand, the heir to Austria -Hungarian throne, brought Russia to this war.

Speaking about the possible fall of the monarchy, Durnovo believed that Russia would not be able to withstand a large-scale war, that a supply crisis and a crisis of power would arise, and this would ultimately lead not only to the disorganization of the political and economic life of the country, but also to the collapse of the empire. , loss of control. Unfortunately, his prediction came true in many respects.

- Why did the anti-war arguments, for all their validity, clarity and clarity, not have the proper impact? Russia could not help but enter the war, even despite such clearly expressed arguments of its opponents?

Allied debt on the one hand, on the other hand, the fear of losing prestige and influence in the Balkan countries. After all, if we did not support Serbia, it would be disastrous for Russia's prestige.

Of course, the pressure of certain forces set up for war also had an effect, including those associated with some Serbian circles at the court, with Montenegrin circles. The well-known "Montenegrins", that is, the spouses of the Grand Dukes at court, also influenced the decision-making process.

It can also be said that Russia owed significant amounts of money received as loans from French, Belgian and English sources. The money was received specifically for the rearmament program.

But the question of prestige (which was very important for Nicholas II) I would still put in the foreground. We must give him his due - he always advocated maintaining the prestige of Russia, although, perhaps, he did not always understand this correctly.

- Is it true that the motive for helping the Orthodox (Orthodox Serbia) was one of the decisive factors that determined Russia's entry into the war?

One of the most important factors. Maybe not decisive, because - I emphasize again - Russia needed to maintain the prestige of a great power and not turn out to be an unreliable ally at the very beginning of the war. This is probably the main motive.

The sister of mercy writes down the last will of the dying. Western front, 1917

Myths old and new

WWI became the Patriotic War for our Motherland, the Second Patriotic War, as it is sometimes called. In Soviet textbooks, the WWI was called "imperialist". What is behind these words?

Giving WWI an exclusively imperialist status is a serious mistake, although this moment is also present. But first of all, we must look at it as the Second Patriotic War, bearing in mind that the First Patriotic War was the war against Napoleon in 1812, and we had the Great Patriotic War back in the 20th century.

Taking part in WWI, Russia defended itself. After all, it was Germany that declared war on Russia on August 1, 1914. The First World War became the Second Patriotic War for Russia. In support of the thesis about the main role of Germany in unleashing WWI, one can also say that at the Paris Peace Conference (which was held from 01/18/1919 to 01/21/1920), the Allied Powers, among other requirements, set the condition for Germany to agree with the article on "war crime and acknowledge their responsibility for starting the war.

The whole people then rose up to fight against the foreign invaders. War, I emphasize again, was declared to us. We didn't start it. And not only active armies took part in the war, where, by the way, several million Russians were called up, but the whole people. The rear and the front acted together. And many of the trends that we later observed during the Great Patriotic War originate precisely in the period of WWI. Suffice it to say that partisan detachments were active, that the population of the rear provinces actively showed themselves when they helped not only the wounded, but also refugees from the western provinces fleeing the war. The sisters of mercy were active, the clergy who were at the forefront and often raised troops to attack showed themselves very well.

It can be said that the designation of our great defensive wars by the terms: “First Patriotic War”, “Second Patriotic War” and “Third Patriotic War” is the restoration of that historical continuity that was broken in the period after WWI.

In other words, whatever the official goals of the war, there were ordinary people who perceived this war as a war for their Fatherland, and died and suffered precisely for this.

- And what, from your point of view, are the most common myths about WWI now?

We have already named the first myth. It is a myth that the WWI was unequivocally imperialistic and was conducted solely in the interests of the ruling circles. This is probably the most common myth that has not yet been eliminated even on the pages of school textbooks. But historians are trying to overcome this negative ideological legacy. We are trying to take a different look at the history of WWI and explain to our students the true essence of that war.

Another myth is the idea that the Russian army only retreated and suffered defeat. Nothing like this. By the way, this myth is widespread in the West, where, in addition to the Brusilov breakthrough, that is, the offensive of the troops of the Southwestern Front in 1916 (spring-summer), even Western experts, not to mention the general public, no major victories of Russian weapons in WWI they cannot name.

In fact, excellent examples of Russian military art were demonstrated in WWI. Say, on the Southwestern Front, on the Western Front. This is the Battle of Galicia, and the Lodz operation. One defense of Osovets is worth something. Osowiec is a fortress located on the territory of modern Poland, where the Russians defended themselves from superior German forces for more than six months (the siege of the fortress began in January 1915 and lasted 190 days). And this defense is quite comparable with the defense of the Brest Fortress.

You can give examples with Russian pilots-heroes. One can recall the sisters of mercy who saved the wounded. There are many such examples.

There is also a myth that Russia fought this war in isolation from its allies. Nothing like this. The examples I gave earlier debunk this myth.

The war was coalition. And we received significant assistance from France, Great Britain, and then the United States, which entered the war later, in 1917.

- Is the figure of Nicholas II mythologized?

In many ways, of course, mythologized. Under the influence of revolutionary agitation, he was branded almost as an accomplice of the Germans. There was a myth according to which Nicholas II allegedly wanted to conclude a separate peace with Germany.

Actually, it wasn't. He was a sincere supporter of waging war to a victorious end and did everything in his power for this. Already in exile, he extremely painfully and with great indignation took the news that the Bolsheviks had concluded a separate Brest peace.

Another thing is that the scale of his personality as a statesman was not quite adequate for Russia to be able to go through this war to the end.

None I emphasize , none documentary evidence of the desire of the emperor and empress to conclude a separate peace not found. He didn't even think about it. These documents do not exist and could not exist. This is another myth.

As a very vivid illustration of this thesis, one can cite Nicholas II’s own words from the Act of Abdication (March 2 (15), 1917 at 15:00): "In the days of the greatstruggle with an external enemy who has been striving to enslave our homeland for almost three years, the Lord God was pleased to send Russia a new ordeal. The outbreak of internal popular unrest threatens to have a disastrous effect on the further conduct of the stubborn war.The fate of Russia, the honor of our heroic army, the good of the people, the whole future of our dear Fatherland demand that the war be brought to a victorious end at all costs. <...>».

Nicholas II, V. B. Frederiks and Grand Duke Nikolai Nikolaevich at Headquarters. 1914

Russian troops on the march. Photo 1915

Defeat a year before victory

The First World War - is, as some believe, a shameful defeat of the tsarist regime, a catastrophe or something else? After all, as long as the last Russian tsar remained in power, the enemy could not enter the Russian Empire? Unlike the Great Patriotic War.

You are not quite right that the enemy could not enter our borders. He nevertheless entered the Russian Empire as a result of the offensive of 1915, when the Russian army was forced to retreat, when our opponents transferred virtually all their forces to the Eastern Front, to the Russian front, and our troops had to retreat. Although, of course, the enemy did not enter the deep regions of Central Russia.

But I would not call what happened in 1917-1918 a defeat, a shameful defeat of the Russian Empire. It would be more correct to say that Russia was forced to sign this separate peace with the Central Powers, that is, with Austria-Hungary and Germany and with other members of this coalition.

This is a consequence of the political crisis in which Russia found itself. That is, the reasons for this are internal, and by no means military. And we must not forget that the Russians actively fought on the Caucasian front, and the successes were very significant. In fact, the Ottoman Empire was dealt a very serious blow by Russia, which later led to its defeat.

Although Russia has not fully fulfilled its allied duty, it must be admitted, it certainly made its significant contribution to the victory of the Entente.

Russia lacked literally a year of some kind. Maybe a year and a half in order to adequately end this war as part of the Entente, as part of a coalition

And how was the war generally perceived in Russian society? The Bolsheviks, representing an overwhelming minority of the population, dreamed of the defeat of Russia. But what was the attitude of ordinary people?

The general mood was quite patriotic. For example, women of the Russian Empire were most actively involved in charitable assistance. A lot of people signed up as sisters of mercy, even without being professionally trained. They took special short courses. A lot of girls and young women from different classes participated in this movement - from members of the imperial family to the most ordinary people. There were special delegations of the Russian Red Cross Society who visited POW camps and observed their content. And not only in Russia, but also abroad. Traveled to Germany, Austria-Hungary. Even in war conditions, this was feasible through the mediation of the international Red Cross. We traveled through third countries, mainly through Sweden and Denmark. During the Great Patriotic War, such work, unfortunately, was impossible.

By 1916, medical and social assistance to the wounded was systematized and took on a purposeful character, although initially, of course, much was done on a private initiative. This movement to help the army, to help those who were in the rear, the wounded, had a nationwide character.

Members of the royal family also took an active part in this. They collected parcels for prisoners of war, donations in favor of the wounded. A hospital was opened in the Winter Palace.

By the way, one cannot but mention the role of the Church. She provided great assistance both to the army in the field and in the rear. The activities of regimental priests at the front were very versatile.
In addition to their immediate duties, they were also involved in compiling and sending "funerals" (death notices) to relatives and friends of the fallen soldiers. Many cases have been recorded when priests walked at the head or in the forefront of the advancing troops.

The priests had to do the work, as they would say now, of psychotherapists: they conducted conversations, calmed them down, tried to remove the feeling of fear that is natural for a person in the trenches. It's at the front.

In the rear, the Church provided assistance to the wounded and refugees. Many monasteries set up free hospitals, collected parcels for the front, and organized the dispatch of charitable aid.

Russian infantry. 1914

Remember everyone!

Is it possible, given the current ideological chaos in society, including in the perception of WWI, to present a sufficiently clear and precise position on WWI that would reconcile everyone in relation to this historical phenomenon?

We, professional historians, are just now working on this, striving to create such a concept. But this is not easy to do.

In fact, we are now making up for what Western historians did back in the 50s-60s of the 20th century - we are doing work that, due to the peculiarities of our history, we did not do. The whole emphasis was on the October Socialist Revolution. The history of WWI was hushed up and mythologized.

Is it true that the construction of a temple in memory of the soldiers who died in WWI is already planned, just as the Cathedral of Christ the Savior was built at the time with public money?

Yes. This idea is being worked on. And there is even a unique place in Moscow - a fraternal cemetery near the Sokol metro station, where not only Russian soldiers who died here in the rear hospitals, but also prisoners of war of the enemy armies were buried. That is why it is fraternal. Soldiers and officers of different nationalities are buried there.

At one time, this cemetery occupied a fairly large space. Now, of course, the situation is completely different. Much has been lost there, but the memorial park has been recreated, there is already a chapel, and restoring the church there would probably be a very correct decision. Just like opening a museum (with a museum, the situation is more complicated).

You can announce a fundraiser for this temple. The role of the Church is very important here.

In fact, we can put an Orthodox church at the crossroads of these historical roads, just as we used to put chapels at the crossroads, where people could come, pray, and remember their dead relatives.

Yes, absolutely right. Moreover, almost every family in Russia is associated with WWI, that is, with the Second Patriotic War, as well as with the Great Patriotic War.

Many fought, many ancestors somehow took part in this war - either in the rear, or in the army. Therefore, it is our sacred duty to restore the historical truth.

CHAPTER SEVEN

FIRST WAR WITH GERMANY

July 1914 - February 1917

Illustrations can be viewed in a separate window in PDF:

1914- the beginning of the First World War, during which, and largely thanks to it, there was a change in the political system and the collapse of the Empire. The war did not stop with the fall of the monarchy; on the contrary, it spread from the outskirts into the interior of the country and stretched out until 1920. Thus, the war, in total, was six years.

As a result of this war, the political map of Europe ceased to exist THREE EMPIRES at once: Austro-Hungarian, German and Russian (see map). At the same time, a new state was created on the ruins of the Russian Empire - the Union of Soviet Socialist Republics.

By the time the World War began, Europe had not known large-scale military conflicts for almost a hundred years, since the end of the Napoleonic Wars. All European wars of the period 1815 - 1914 were predominantly local. At the turn of the XIX - XX centuries. the illusory thought hovered in the air that war would be irrevocably banished from the life of civilized countries. One of the manifestations of this was the Hague Peace Conference of 1897. It is noteworthy that the opening of the Peace Palace.

On the other hand, at the same time, the contradictions between the European powers grew and deepened. Since the 1870s, military blocs have been forming in Europe, which in 1914 will oppose each other on the battlefields.

In 1879, Germany entered into a military alliance with Austria-Hungary against Russia and France. In 1882, Italy joined this union, and the military-political Central Bloc was formed, also called Trinity alliance.

In contrast to him in 1891 - 1893. a Russo-French alliance was concluded. Great Britain concluded an agreement with France in 1904, and in 1907 with Russia. The bloc of Great Britain, France and Russia was named Hearty consent, or Entente.

The immediate cause for the start of the war was the assassination by Serbian nationalists June 15 (28), 1914 in Sarajevo, heir to the Austro-Hungarian throne, Archduke Franz Ferdinand. Austria-Hungary, supported by Germany, issued an ultimatum to Serbia. Serbia accepted most of the terms of the ultimatum.

Austria-Hungary was dissatisfied with this, and began military operations against Serbia.

Russia supported Serbia and announced first partial and then general mobilization. Germany presented Russia with an ultimatum demanding to cancel the mobilization. Russia refused.

July 19 (August 1), 1914 Germany declared war on her.

This day is considered the date of the beginning of the First World War.

The main participants in the war from the side of the Entente were: Russia, France, Great Britain, Serbia, Montenegro, Italy, Romania, USA, Greece.

They were opposed by the countries of the Triple Alliance: Germany, Austria-Hungary, Turkey, Bulgaria.

Military operations were going on in Western and Eastern Europe, in the Balkans and Thessaloniki, in Italy, in the Caucasus, in the Middle and Far East, in Africa.

The First World War was on a scale never seen before. At its final stage, it involved 33 states (out of 59 existing then independent states) population, accounting for 87% the population of the entire planet. The armies of both coalitions in January 1917 numbered 37 million people. In total, during the war, 27.5 million people were mobilized in the Entente countries, and 23 million people in the countries of the German coalition.

Unlike previous wars, World War I was all-out. Most of the population of the states participating in it was involved in it in one form or another. It forced the enterprises of the main branches of industry to be transferred to military production, and the entire economy of the belligerent countries to serve it. The war, as always, gave a powerful impetus to the development of science and technology. Previously non-existent types of weapons appeared and began to be widely used: aviation, tanks, chemical weapons, etc.

The war lasted 51 months and 2 weeks. The total losses amounted to 9.5 million people killed and died from wounds and 20 million people were wounded.

The First World War was of particular importance in the history of the Russian state. It became a difficult test for the country, which lost several million people on the fronts. Its tragic consequences were revolution, devastation, civil war and the death of old Russia.

PROGRESS OF BATTLE OPERATIONS

Emperor Nikolai appointed his uncle, Grand Duke Nikolai Nikolaevich Jr., as commander-in-chief on the Western Front. (1856 - 1929). From the very beginning of the war, Russia suffered two major defeats in Poland.

East Prussian operation lasted from August 3 to September 2, 1914. It ended with the encirclement of the Russian army near Tannenberg and the death of General of Infantry A.V. Samsonov. Then there was a defeat on the Masurian lakes.

The first successful operation was the offensive in Galicia September 5-9, 1914, as a result of which Lvov and Przemysl were taken, and the Austro-Hungarian troops were pushed back across the San River. However, already on April 19, 1915, on this sector of the front the retreat began Russian army, after which Lithuania, Galicia and Poland came under the control of the German-Austrian bloc. By mid-August 1915, Lvov, Warsaw, Brest-Litovsk and Vilna were abandoned, and thus the front moved to Russian territory.

August 23, 1915 of the year, Emperor Nicholas II deposed the leader. book. Nikolai Nikolaevich from the post of commander in chief and assumed authority. Many military leaders considered this event fatal for the course of the war.

October 20, 1914 Nicholas II declared war on Turkey, and hostilities began in the Caucasus. General of Infantry N.N. was appointed Commander-in-Chief of the Caucasian Front. Yudenich (1862 − 1933, Cannes). Here, in December 1915, the Sarakamysh operation began. On February 18, 1916, the Turkish fortress of Erzurum was taken, and on April 5, Trebizond was taken.

May 22, 1916 year, the offensive of Russian troops began on the South-Western Front under the command of cavalry general A.A. Brusilov. It was the famous "Brusilov breakthrough", but the neighboring commanders of neighboring fronts, Generals Evert and Kuropatkin, did not support Brusilov, and on July 31, 1916, he was forced to stop the offensive, fearing the encirclement of his army from the flanks.

This chapter uses documents and photographs from state archives and from publications (Diary of Nicholas II, Memoirs of A. Brusilov, Verbatim records of State Duma meetings, poems by V. Mayakovsky). Based on materials from the home archive (letters, postcards, photographs), one can get an idea of ​​how this war affected the lives of ordinary people. Some fought at the front, those who lived in the rear participated in helping the wounded and refugees in the institutions of such public organizations as the Russian Red Cross Society, the All-Russian Zemstvo Union, the All-Russian Union of Cities.

It's a shame, but just during this most interesting period in our Family Archives, no one's diaries, although, perhaps, at that time no one led them. It's good that grandma saved letters those years that her parents wrote from Chisinau and sister Xenia from Moscow, as well as several postcards by Yu.A. Korobina from the Caucasian front, which he wrote to his daughter Tanya. Unfortunately, the letters written by her herself have not been preserved - from the front in Galicia, from Moscow during the Revolution, from Tambov provinces during the Civil War.

In order to somehow make up for the lack of daily records from my relatives, I decided to look for published diaries of other participants in the events. It turned out that the diaries were regularly kept by Emperor Nicholas II, and they are "posted" on the Internet. It is boring to read his Diaries, because day after day the same small everyday details are repeated in the records (as got up, "walked" received reports, had breakfast, walked again, bathed, played with children, dined and drank tea, and in the evening "dealt with documents" in the evening playing dominoes or dice). The emperor describes in detail the reviews of troops, ceremonial marches and ceremonial dinners given in his honor, but speaks very sparingly about the situation on the fronts.

I want to remind you that the authors of diaries and letters, unlike memoirists, don't know the future, and for those who read them now, their "future" has become our "past", and we know what awaits them. This knowledge leaves a special imprint on our perception, especially because their "future" turned out to be so tragic. We see that the participants and witnesses of social catastrophes do not think about the consequences and therefore do not know what awaits them. Their children and grandchildren forget about the experience of their ancestors, which is easy to see when reading the diaries and letters of contemporaries of the following wars and "perestroika". In the world of politics, too, everything repeats itself with amazing monotony: after 100 years, the newspapers again write about Serbia and Albania, someone again bombing Belgrade and fighting in Mesopotamia, again caucasian wars are going on, and in the new Duma, as in the old one, members are engaged in verbiage ... As if you are watching remakes of old movies.

PREPARATION FOR WAR

The diary of Nicholas II serves as a background for the publication of letters from the Family Archive. The letters are printed in the places where they coincide chronologically with the entries from his Diary. The text of the entries is given with abbreviations. Italic highlighted daily used verbs and phrases. Subtitles and notes provided by the compiler.

Since April 1914, the royal family lived in Livadia. Ambassadors, ministers and Rasputin, whom Nicholas II calls in his diary, came to the tsar there Gregory. It is noticeable that Nicholas II attached special importance to meetings with him. Unlike world events, he certainly noted them in his diary. Here are some typical entries in May 1914.

DIARY OF NICHOLASII

May 15th.Walked in the morning. had breakfast Georgy Mikhailovich and several lancers, on the occasion of the regimental holiday . Happy played tennis. Was reading[documents] before lunch. Evening spent with Gregory, who yesterday arrived in Yalta.

May 16th. Went for a walk quite late; it was hot. Before breakfast accepted Bulgarian military agent Sirmanov. Had a good game of tennis during the day. We drank tea in the garden. Completed all papers. After dinner there were regular games.

May 18th. In the morning I went with Voeikov and examined the area of ​​​​the future large carriageway. After lunch was Sunday breakfast. Played during the day. At 6 1/2 took a walk with Alexei on a horizontal path. After lunch ride in the motor in Yalta. seen Gregory.

Tsar's visit to Romania

May 31, 1914 Nicholas II left Livadia, moved to his yacht Shtandart and, accompanied by a convoy of 6 warships, went on a visit to Ferdinand von Hohenzollern(b. in 1866), who became in 1914 Romanian king. Nicholas and the Queen were relatives along the line Saxe-Coburg-Gotha At home, the very one to which she belonged, both the ruling dynasty in the British Empire, and the Russian Empress (Nicholas's wife) on her mother's side.

Therefore he writes: "In the pavilion of the Queen family breakfast». In the morning 2 June Nicholas arrived in Odessa, and in the evening got on the train and went to Chisinau.

VISIT CHISINAU

June 3rd. We arrived in Chisinau at 9 1/2 on a hot morning. They traveled around the city in carriages. The order was exemplary. From the cathedral with a procession they went to the square, where the solemn consecration of the monument to Emperor Alexander I took place in memory of the centenary of the annexation of Bessarabia to Russia. The sun was hot. accepted right there all the volost foremen of the province. Then let's go to the appointment to the nobility; from the balcony watched the gymnastics of boys and girls. On the way to the station we visited the zemstvo museum. At 20 min. left Chisinau. had breakfast in great spirits. Stopped at 3 o'clock in Tiraspol, where made a review [hereinafter, the listing of parts is omitted]. Received two deputations and got on the train when the refreshing rain started. Until the evening read papers .

Note N.M. Father of Nina Evgenievna, E.A. Belyavsky, a nobleman and a real state councilor, served in the Excise Administration of the Bessarabian province. Together with other officials, he probably participated in "the celebrations of the consecration of the monument and in the reception of the nobility", but my grandmother never told me about this. But at that time she lived with Tanya in Chisinau.

June 15 (28), 1914 in Serbia, and in the city of Sarajevo, the heir to the Austro-Hungarian throne was killed by a terrorist Archduke Franz Ferdinand.

Note N.M. From 7 (20) to 10 (23) July the visit of the President of the French Republic Poincaré to the Russian Empire took place. The President had to persuade the Emperor to go to war with Germany and its allies, and for this he promised the help of the allies (England and France), to whom the Emperor had been indebted since 1905, when bankers from the USA and Europe gave him a loan of 6 billion rubles under 6% per annum. In his Diary, Nicholas II, of course, does not write about such unpleasant things.

Strange, but Nicholas II did not mention the murder of the Archduke in Serbia in his Diary, therefore, when reading his diary, it is not clear why Austria issued an ultimatum to this country. On the other hand, he describes Poincaré's visit in detail and with obvious pleasure. Writes , how “a French squadron entered the small roadstead of Kronstadt”, with what honor the president was greeted, how a ceremonial dinner with speeches took place, after which he names his guest "kind president." The next day they go with Poincaré "to review the troops."

10 (23) July, Thursday, Nicholas escorts Poincare to Kronstadt, and in the evening of the same day.

THE BEGINNING OF THE WAR

1914. DIARY OF NICHOLASII.

July 12th. On Thursday evening Austria issues ultimatum to Serbia with requirements, of which 8 are unacceptable for an independent state. Obviously, we talk everywhere only about this. From 11 am to 12 pm I had a meeting with 6 ministers on the same subject and on the precautions we should take. After talking, I went with my three older daughters to [Mariinsky] theatre.

July 15 (28), 1914. Austria declared war on Serbia

July 15th.accepted representatives of the congress of the naval clergy with his father Shavelsky in charge of. Played tennis. At 5 o'clock. go with daughters to Strelnitsa to Aunt Olga and drank tea with her and Mitya. At 8 1/2 accepted Sazonov, who reported that This afternoon Austria declared war on Serbia.

July 16th. In the morning accepted Goremykina [Chairman of the Council of Ministers]. Happy played tennis. But the day was unusually restless. I was constantly called to the telephone by Sazonov, or Sukhomlinov, or Yanushkevich. In addition, he was in urgent telegraphic correspondence with Wilhelm. In the evening was reading[documents] and more accepted Tatishchev, whom I am sending tomorrow to Berlin.

July 18th. The day stood gray, the same was the inner mood. At 11 o'clock. A meeting of the Council of Ministers was held at the Farm. After breakfast I took the German ambassador. took a walk with daughters. Before lunch and in the evening was doing.

July 19 (Aug. 1), 1914. Germany declared war on Russia.

July 19th. Called after breakfast Nicholas and announced to him his appointment as supreme commander until my arrival in the army. Ride with Alix to the Diveevo monastery. Walked with the children. Upon returning from there learned, what Germany declared war on us. had dinner… arrived in the evening English ambassador Buchanan with a telegram from George. Long made up together with him answer.

Note N.M. Nikolasha - uncle of the king, led. book. Nikolai Nikolaevich. George - Cousin of the Empress, King George of England. Starting a war with a cousin "Willy" caused Nicholas II to "lift the spirit", and, judging by the entries in the diary, he maintained such a mood to the end, despite the constant setbacks at the front. Did he remember what the war he started and lost with Japan led to? After all, after that war, the first Revolution happened.

July 20th. Sunday. A good day, especially in the sense uplifting spirit. At 11 went to dinner. had breakfast alone. Signed a manifesto declaring war. From Malahitovaya we went out to the Nikolaevskaya hall, in the middle of which the manifesto was read and then a prayer service was served. The whole hall sang “Save, Lord” and “Many Years”. Said a few words. On their return, the ladies rushed to kiss their hands and battered Alix and me. Then we went out onto the balcony on Alexander Square and bowed to the huge mass of people. We returned to Peterhof at 7 1/4. The evening was spent quietly.

July 22nd. Yesterday Mom a came to Copenhagen from England via Berlin. 9 1/2 to one continuously took. The first to arrive was Alek [Grand Duke], who returned from Hamburg with great difficulties and barely reached the border. Germany declared war on France and directs the main onslaught on it.

July 23rd. Learned in the morning good[??? – comp.] message: England announced to the warrior of Germany because the latter attacked France and violated the neutrality of Luxembourg and Belgium in the most unceremonious manner. The best way from the outside for us the campaign could not start. Took all morning and after breakfast until 4 o'clock. The last one I had French Ambassador Palaiologos, who came to officially announce the break between France and Germany. Walked with the children. The evening was free[Department - comp.].

July 24 (Aug. 6), 1914. Austria declared war on Russia.

July 24th. Today, Austria finally, declared war on us. Now the situation is completely determined. Since 11 1/2 I have had meeting of the Council of Ministers. Alix went into town in the morning and returned with Victoria and Ella. Walked.

Historic meeting of the State Duma July 26, 1914 With. 227 - 261

VERNOGRAPHIC REPORT

Greeting Emperor NicholasII

State Council and State Duma,

Interim's word Chairman of the State Council Golubev:

“Your Imperial Majesty! The Council of State casts before you, Great Sovereign, loyal feelings imbued with boundless love and all-submissive gratitude... The unity of the beloved Sovereign and the population of His Empire aggravates its power... (etc.)”

Word of the Chairman of the State Duma M.V. Rodzianko: "Your Imperial Majesty! With a deep sense of delight and pride, all of Russia listens to the words of the Russian Tsar, calling His people to complete unity .... Without a difference of opinions, views and convictions, the State Duma, on behalf of the Russian land, calmly and firmly says to its Tsar: hold on, my lord the Russian people are with you ... (etc.) "

At 3 hours 37 minutes. the meeting of the State Duma began.

M.V. Rodzianko exclaims: "Long live the Sovereign Emperor!" (Long-lasting clicks: cheers) and invites gentlemen Members of the State Duma standing to listen to the Supreme Manifesto of 20 July 1914(Everybody get up).

Supreme Manifesto

by the Grace of God,

WE ARE NICHOLAS THE SECOND,

Emperor and Autocrat of All Russia,

Tsar of Poland, Grand Duke of Finland and others, and others, and others.

“We declare to all Our faithful subjects:

<…>Austria hurriedly went over to an armed attack, opening the bombardment of defenseless Belgrade... Forced, due to the circumstances, to take the necessary precautions, We ordered to bring army and navy on martial law. <…>Allied to Austria, Germany, contrary to Our hopes for a century of good neighborliness and not heeding Our assurance that the measures taken have no hostile aims, began to seek their immediate cancellation and, meeting with a refusal, suddenly declared war on Russia.<…>In the terrible hour of trial, may internal strife be forgotten. Let it get stronger unity of the king with his people…

Chairman M.V. Rodzianko: Sovereign Emperor hurray! (Long-lasting clicks: Hurrah).

Ministerial explanations on the measures taken in connection with the war follow. Speakers: Chairman of the Council of Ministers Goremykin, Foreign Secretary Sazonov, Minister of Finance Barque. Their speeches were often interrupted stormy and prolonged applause, voices and clicks: "bravo!"

After a break, M.V. Rodzianko invites the State Duma to listen standing second manifesto of 26 July 1914

Supreme Manifesto

“We declare to all Our faithful subjects:<…>Now Austria-Hungary has declared war on Russia, which saved it more than once. In the coming war of nations, We [that is, Nicholas II] are not alone: ​​together with Us [with Nicholas II], Our [Nicholas II] valiant allies stood up, also forced to resort to force of arms in order to finally eliminate the eternal threat of the German powers to the common world and calmness.

<…>May the Lord Almighty Our [Nicholas II] and our allied weapons, and may all of Russia rise to the feat of arms with iron in hand, with a cross in the heart…»

Chairman M.V. Rodzianko:Long live the Sovereign Emperor!

(Long-lasting clicks: Hurrah; voice: Hymn! Members of the State Duma sing national anthem).

[AFTER 100 YEARS MEMBERS OF THE DUMA OF THE RUSSIAN FEDERATION ALSO GLORIFY THE "SOVER" AND SING THE ANTHEM!!! ]

Discussions on government clarifications begin. The Social Democrats are the first to speak: from the Labor Group A.F. Kerensky(1881, Simbirsk -1970, New York) and on behalf of the RSDLP Khaustov. After them, various “Russians” (Germans, Poles, Little Russians) spoke with assurances of their loyal feelings and intentions to “sacrifice life and property for the unity and greatness of Russia”: Baron Fölkersam and Goldman from Courland province., Yaronsky from Kletskaya, Ichas and Feldman from Kovno, Lutz from Kherson. Speeches were also made: Milyukov from St. Petersburg, Count Musin-Pushkin from the Moscow province., Markov 2nd from the Kursk province., Protopopov from the Simbirsk province. and others.

Against the background of loyal verbiage, which gentlemen Members of the State Duma were engaged in that day, the speeches of the socialists look like the exploits of the Gracchi brothers.

A.F. Kerensky (Saratov province): The Labor Group instructed me to issue the following statement:<…>The responsibility of the governments of all European states, in the name of the interests of the ruling classes, who pushed their peoples into a fratricidal war, is inexcusable.<…>Russian citizens! Remember that you have no enemies among the working classes of the warring countries.<…>Defending to the end everything native from attempts to seize the hostile governments of Germany and Austria, remember that this terrible war would not have happened if the great ideals of democracy - freedom, equality and fraternity - guided the activities of governments all countries».

―――――――

Poems:“Already all of you are freezing, / Far from ours.

Sausage cannot be compared // With Russian black porridge.

Notes of a Petrograd man in the street during the Russian-German war. P.V. With. 364 - 384

August 1914.“The Germans are waging this war like the Huns, Vandals and desperate super-villains. They take out their failures on the defenseless population of the areas they occupy. The Germans ruthlessly plunder the population, impose monstrous indemnities, shoot men and women, rape women and children, destroy monuments of art and architecture, and burn precious book depositories. To confirm this, we present a number of excerpts from correspondence and telegrams for this month.

<…>The news from the Western Front is confirmed that the German troops set fire to the town of Badenville, shooting women and children in it. One of the sons of Emperor Wilhelm, arriving in Badenville, delivered a speech to the soldiers in which he said that the French were savages. "Exterminate them as much as you can!" the prince said.

Belgian envoy cites irrefutable evidence that the Germans mutilate and burn alive the villagers, kidnap young girls, and rape children. Near the village of Lencino there was a battle between the Germans and the Belgian infantry. Not a single civilian took part in this battle. Nevertheless, the German units that invaded the village destroyed two farms, six houses, gathered the entire male population, put them in a ditch and shot them.

London newspapers full of details about the terrible atrocities of the German troops in Louvain. The pogrom of the civilian population continued without interruption. Moving from house to house, German soldiers indulged in robbery, violence and murder, sparing neither women, nor children, nor the elderly. The surviving members of the city council were herded into the cathedral and stabbed there with bayonets. The famous local library, which contained 70,000 volumes, was burned."

It's done. Rock with a harsh hand

He lifted the veil of time.

Before us are the faces of a new life

They worry like a wild dream.

covering capitals and villages,

Soared, raging, banners.

Through the pastures of ancient Europe

The last war is underway.

And everything about what with a fruitless fervor

Ages have been arguing.

Ready to kick

Her iron hand.

But listen! In the hearts of the oppressed

Summon the tribes of the enslaved

Breaks into a war cry.

Under the clatter of armies, the thunder of guns,

Under the Newports, a buzzing flight,

Everything we talk about is like a miracle

Dreaming, maybe getting up.

So! too long we've languished

And they continued Belshazzar's feast!

Let, let from the fiery font

The world will be transformed!

Let it fall into a bloody hole

The structure is shaky for centuries, -

In the false illumination of glory

The world to come will be new!

Let the old vaults crumble

Let the poles fall with a roar;

The beginning of peace and freedom

Let there be a terrible year of struggle!

V. MAYAKOVSKY. 1917.TO ANSWER!

The war drum rumbles and rumbles.

He calls for iron to be stuck alive.

From every country for a slave to a slave

they throw a bayonet on the steel.

For what? The earth is trembling, hungry, undressed.

Evaporated humanity in a bloodbath

just to someone somewhere

got hold of Albania.

The anger of human packs grappled,

falls on the world for blow blow

only in order to free the Bosphorus

there were some trials.

Soon the world won't have an unbroken rib.

And take out the soul. And trample on a m of it

just for that so that someone

took over Mesopotamia.

In the name of what does the boot trample the earth, creaking and rude?

Who is above the sky of fighting - freedom? God? Ruble!

When you stand up to your full height,

you who give your life Yu them?

When you throw a question in their face:

what are we fighting for?