Sources of phraseological units. The use of phraseological units in speech

Along with phrases that arise in speech according to the grammatical rules of compatibility that have developed in the language and consist of words dictated by the logic of thought, there are phrases that are integral units of designation of something and are not created, but reproduced in speech entirely. So, for example, an insufficiently strong young man (by the way, "not strong enough young man" is a free phrase made up of words that were "selected" one after another to express this content) is often said: ate little porridge!; about very tasty food they will say: real jam!; about the strong fear experienced by someone - hamstrings are shaking etc. Such holistic reproducible combinations of words are referred to as phraseology, and the combinations themselves are called phraseological units (phraseological units, phraseological turns, etc.).

Among linguists, there is no consensus on the scope of the concept of "phraseologism", and in essence, on what exactly is considered phraseology. Some believe that a phraseological unit should not be grammatically larger than a phrase (the traditional point of view, coming from V.V. Vinogradov), others do not set such restrictions. Some associate the concept of "phraseologism" only with a rethought combination of words (such, for example, is the belief of one of the compilers of the "Phraseological Dictionary of the Russian Language" A.I. Molotkov).

Noting this diversity of opinions regarding the nature of phraseological units, the criteria for their selection, the heterogeneity of types of non-free combinations of words, "Linguistic Encyclopedic Dictionary" (M., 1990) gives the following definition of phraseology (the author of the dictionary entry is V.N. Telia): " Phraseologism- the general name of semantically related combinations of words and sentences, which, unlike syntactic structures similar to them in form, are not produced in accordance with the general patterns of choice and combination of words when organizing an utterance, but are reproduced in speech in a fixed ratio of the semantic structure and a certain lexicon -grammatical composition.

1. Phraseologisms, their use in speech

To designate, name objects, actions, qualities, states, along with words, word combinations are also used.

Let's compare, for example, the conversation options of college students:

1.- What did you do yesterday? - Nothing, gossip, gossip. - And we spent the whole day lounging around.

Was Vasily with you? - Was. He told how his father scolded. He yawns in class and does not work at home.

2.- What did you do yesterday? - Nothing. They scratched their tongues, washed the bones for everyone. - And we were buckwheat all day long, poured from empty to empty. Was Vasily with you? - Was. He told how his father lathered his neck. He counts the raven in the lessons, and drives the loafer at home.

The meaning of the replicas is the same, but the means for conveying the content are different. Correlative in meaning are words and phraseological units:

gossip, gossip - scratch with tongues, wash the bones;

sit back - beat the buckets, pour from empty to empty;

reprimand - lather the neck;

to yawn(be inattentive) - raven count;

not work - drive a loafer.

What is the peculiarity of phraseological units? What makes them specific?

1. Phraseologisms, like words, are not created by the speaker, but are reproduced in finished form. They require memorization and are stored in our memory.

2. Words in a phraseological unit lose their semantic independence. The meaning is conveyed by the entire set of words-components of the phraseological unit. Such a value is called integral. We may not know what thumbs are and why they need to be beaten. However, the value of the combination beat the buckets we understand.

3. In a phraseological unit, you cannot replace words at will. If instead catch crows in class to tell catch cockroaches in class then a free phrase appears in the place of a phraseological unit and the meaning will be different.

Phraseologisms have great stylistic possibilities, make speech colorful, figurative.

They help to say a lot with a few words, since they determine not only the subject, but also its sign, not only the action, but also its circumstances. Yes, a solid combination. wide leg means not just “rich”, but “rich, luxurious, not embarrassed in means”. Phraseologism cover their tracks means not just "destroy, eliminate something", but "eliminate, destroy what can serve as evidence in something."

Phraseology attracts with its expressiveness, the potential ability to evaluate phenomena positively or negatively, express approval or condemnation, ironic, mocking or other attitude. This is especially evident in the so-called phraseologisms-characteristics: a man with a capital letter, milk on his lips has not dried up, a telegraph pole, a jack of all trades, an absolute zero, a wind in his head, a bright personality, a mind chamber, a white crow, not a timid ten.

Phraseological units are of particular interest, the figurativeness of which acts as a reflection of visibility, “pictureness”, enclosed in the freest phrase, on the basis of which a phraseological unit is formed. For example, when preparing for work, we roll up our sleeves to make it easier to do the job; meeting dear guests, we spread our arms wide, showing that we are ready to wrap them in our arms; when counting, if it is small, for convenience, we bend our fingers. Free phrases naming such actions of people have visibility, "pictures", which "by inheritance" is transmitted to phraseological units: roll up your sleeves- "diligently, diligently, vigorously to do something"; with open arms- “friendly, cordial (to receive, meet someone)”; count on fingers- "very little, little."

2. Types of phraseological units from the point of view of semantic solidarity and phraseological connectedness

Among the phraseological units, first of all, such stable turns are distinguished, which have a continuous, undivided meaning, i.e. a value that is not a simple sum of the meanings of the turnover words. This fusion is especially pronounced in cases where the turnover is equivalent in meaning to one word. For example: hare soul - coward, beat the buckets - sit back, hand on heart - frankly, put a spoke in wheel - interfere, white flies - snow, etc. Such phraseological units are called idioms. It is idioms that are first of all unconditionally recognized as phraseological units by all researchers. Idioms- phraseological units that are not translated verbatim into another language. Idioms are represented in the language by two types - phraseological unions and phraseological units. Phraseological fusion- this is a turnover of a figurative or ugly nature, the meaning of which is not at all motivated by the meanings of its constituent components. For example: lead by the nose("to deceive by promising something and not fulfilling the promise"), seventh water on jelly("distant relationship"), black cat ran("there was a quarrel, a quarrel between someone"), the company does not knit brooms("no one cares about trifles"), distribution of elephants("about criticism of each of those present"), wherever it went("so be it" or "nothing, okay"), at every step("always" or "everywhere"), no matter what("mandatory") the whole support("very fast") by all honorers(“with everything that is due” or “with all the details”), etc. Among the phraseological fusions there are many units characterized by the absence of a living syntactic connection between its components, for example: no matter what, how much in vain, so-so, every now and then, on your mind, a joke to say etc., they may contain archaic grammatical forms, for example: dark water in the clouds(in the clouds - "in the clouds"; about something incomprehensible), no hesitation -("no doubt") I can barely("in a state of extreme intoxication"), etc. Semantic lack of motivation may be due to the fact that the fusion contains lexical, semantic archaism or historicism, for example: beat the buckets (baklusha - "chock for dressing products "), like the apple of an eye (apple -"pupil"), dare belly (decide -"lose" belly -"life"), goof (prosak -"rope weaving machine"), etc.

Phraseological unity- this is a figurative turnover, the meaning of which is to one degree or another motivated by the meanings of the words that form it. For example: White crow("about a person who stands out sharply from others"), it is not worth it("the money or effort spent is not justified"), to go with the flow(to act, act, passively obeying the circumstances"), put the goat in the garden("to give someone access to what the admitted person was just striving to use for his own purposes"), build bridges("establish connections - friendly, business"), ate little porridge, lick your fingers, make an elephant out of a fly("Give importance to the insignificant") dance to someone else's tune("do what pleases someone"), Kindergarten("about the manifestation of naivety, immaturity in behavior, in assessing something"), stop only tanks("about a firm, adamant intention to do something"), etc.

Vyatkina Victoria

This work is a study that determines the level of theoretical knowledge about phraseological units, the degree and purpose of their use in speech by different age groups.

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4 municipal scientific and practical conference

Senior students "The Future of Science"

Humanities Section

The use of phraseological units in speech by different age groups

Research work

MAOU Barybinskaya secondary school

Vyatkina Victoria

Scientific adviser:

Zubkova Tatyana Anatolyevna,

teacher of Russian language and literature

Domodedovo, microdistrict Barybino 2011

1. Table of contents……………………………………………………………………2
2. Introduction………………………………………………………………………3
3. Chapter 1
4. Chapter 2.Practical part ……………………………………………… 8
5. Conclusion……………………………………………………………………9
6. Appendix 1……………………………………………………………..11
7. Appendix 2……………………………………………………………..14
8. Bibliography……………………………………………………………..16

Introduction

Phraseologisms are amazing and complex phenomena of the language. Phraseology, which studies stable turns of speech, has not yet been fully explored. There is no single view of phraseology among scientists either. Phraseological units of a language can be classified in different ways. Phraseologisms are interesting subjects of research, and that is why this project was written.

Project theme: "The use of phraseological units in speech by different age groups".

Target : Determine how often and for what purpose people use phraseological units in speech.

Tasks:

1. To study the theoretical material on the topic "Phraseology" (the meaning of the term, origin, classification, features of use in speech).

2. Conduct a sociological survey of different age groups.

3. Analyze the results.

Object of study:oral speech of schoolchildren (grades 6-11), adults (from 30 to 54) and teachers.

Hypothesis: it is assumed that the meaning of the term "phraseologism", knowledge about the origin of phraseological units is not familiar to a larger number of respondents; despite this, phraseological units are used quite often in speech.

Research methods and techniques:analysis of scientific and methodological literature, questioning, sociological survey, observation, mathematical calculations.

Chapter 1.

What is a phraseological unit?

The term "phraseologism" has several definitions. Here are some of them:

A phraseological unit or phraseological unit is a phrase or sentence that is stable in composition and structure, lexically indivisible and integral in meaning, performing the function of a separate lexeme (vocabulary unit).

A stable combination of words, the meaning of which as a whole differs from the simple sum of the meanings of its parts (to make money, stay with the nose, ate the dog).

A stable combination of words, constant in composition and meaning, reproduced in speech as a finished unit. For example, play box (die).

Classification

According to the classification of VV Vinogradov, there are three main types of phraseological units: phraseological fusions (idioms), phraseological units and phraseological combinations.

N. M. Shansky also identifies an additional type - phraseological expressions.

Phraseological fusions (idioms)

Phraseological fusion, or idiom (from the Greek ????? - own, peculiar) is a semantically indivisible turnover, the meaning of which is not at all deducible from the meanings of its constituent components. For example, "Sodom and Gomorrah" - an extreme degree of debauchery, debauchery; "railroad" - a special type of communication with train rails, sleepers, etc., and not just a road paved with iron.

Phraseological units

Phraseological unity is a stable turnover, in which, nevertheless, the signs of the semantic separation of the components are clearly preserved. Phraseological unity is characterized by figurativeness; each word of such a phrase has its own meaning, but in the aggregate they acquire a figurative meaning. Usually phraseological units of this type are tropes with a metaphorical meaning (for example, "granite of science", "go with the flow", "throw a bait").

Phraseological combinations

A phraseological combination is a stable turnover, which includes words, both with a free meaning, and with phraseologically related, non-free (used only in this combination). Phraseological combinations are stable turns, but their holistic meaning follows from the meanings of their individual words.

Phraseological expressions

Phraseological expressions are phraseological phrases that are stable in their composition and use, which are not only semantically articulated,

But they also consist entirely of words with a free nominative meaning. Their only feature is reproducibility: they are used as ready-made speech units with a constant lexical composition and certain semantics.

Examples of such phraseological expressions are proverbs and aphorisms. Another source of phraseological expressions is professional speech.

stable formulas like "all the best", "see you again", etc.

The origin of phraseological units

Phraseologisms - exist throughout the history of the language. Already from the end of the 18th century, they were explained in special collections and explanatory dictionaries under various names (winged expressions, aphorisms, idioms, proverbs and sayings).

By origin, some phraseological units areactually Russian, other - borrowed.

"Originally Russian" phraseological units are opposed to "foreign" ones. They were born thanks to:

1.History and culture of Russia: ate a dog, a shot sparrow;

2. Artistic works: trishkin caftan, a disservice, like a squirrel in a wheel, to the village of grandfather;

3. Customs;

4. Traditions;

5. Creativity of the Russian people, Russian writers;

6. Old Slavonic language: carry your cross, salt of the earth, manna from heaven, unbelieving Thomas;

7. Myths of different nations: Augean stables.

The second are the creations of other peoples, other literatures. Many phraseological units came from ancient Greek and Roman mythology: Achilles' heel, Procrustean bed.

Many quotes, winged words from foreign classical literature have become phraseological units, for example: to be or not to be (from the tragedy of W. Shakespeare "Hamlet").

Sometimes a third group of set expressions is distinguished, calling them"international". These are popular expressions that arose on the basis of biblical legends and ancient literatures and entered the fund of many languages ​​​​of the world, while maintaining a stable meaning and image in any language. They are the property of all mankind: such, for example, is the expression like a dog in the manger, meaning “it does not use itself and does not give to others”, which arose on the basis of the fable of the ancient Greek fabulist Aesop. Everyone knows borrowed phraseological units from the Bible, for example: the prodigal son, Valaam's donkey. It is interesting and important to know, a genius, what people created this or that bright, figurative, apt speech, because sometimes the completeness of understanding the expression depends on it.

The main source of Russian phraseology is free phrases, which, when used in a figurative sense, become phraseological units: The boat goes with the flow.

Some phraseological units are associated with professional speech: in an hour, a teaspoonful from medical vocabulary; get off the stage - from the speech of the artists.

Many phraseological units turn out to be difficult to understand due to their grammatical design, the unclear meaning of the words that make them up. For example, the voice of one crying in the wilderness is a call for something that remains unanswered.

To understand the meaning of phraseological units, it is advisable to refer to the phraseological dictionary.

Features of phraseological units and their use in speech.

1) Phraseologism can be replaced with one word, for example: hack on the nose - remember; how to look into the water - to foresee.

2) Synonymy of phraseological units.

Phraseologisms act as synonyms if they express the same idea, for example: smeared with one world, two boots of steam or: darkness, darkness, even a dime a dozen.

Phraseologisms that repeat individual components are also considered synonyms (cf .: the game is not worth the candle - the game is not worth the candle). Phraseologisms, partially coinciding in composition, but having different images at the base, are synonymous (cf .: hang your head - hang your nose).

3) Antonymy of phraseological units.

The antonymy of phraseological units is supported by the antonymic relations of their lexical synonyms (cf .: smart - stupid, seven spans in his forehead - he won’t invent gunpowder).

Antonymous phraseological units are distinguished into a special group, partially coinciding in composition, but having components that are opposed in meaning (cf .: time to scatter stones - time to collect stones).

4) Homonymy of phraseological units.

Homonymous phraseological units appear as a result of a figurative rethinking of the same concept, when its different features are taken as the basis, for example, “just right” - it is quite suitable, corresponds to someone, something; "just right" - when you need it, at the right moment.

5) In a sentence, a phraseological unit is one member: subject, predicate,

An addition or a circumstance - depending on what part of speech it can be replaced with, for example, in the sentence: The guys work, rolling up their sleeves - the phraseological unit “rolling up their sleeves” can be replaced by an adverb - good (diligently). Therefore, this phraseological unit will play the role of the circumstance of the mode of action.

6) Reproducibility - phraseological units are not created in the process of speech (like phrases), but are used as they are fixed in the language.

7) Complicated in composition - they consist of several components (get into a mess, upside down). These components cannot be used on their own (“prosak”, “upside down”) or may change their usual meaning.

8) The constancy of the composition - a phraseological unit cannot replace words in its composition, but it may have options (“wear a stone in your bosom” and “keep a stone in your bosom”).

9) The impenetrability of the structure - it is not permissible to include new words in the phraseological unit (it's time for you to take up your mind).

10) The stability of the grammatical structure - the grammatical forms of words do not change, for example, you cannot say “beat the bucket”, replacing the plural form with the singular form.

11) Strictly fixed word order. The rearrangement of components is usually allowed in phraseological units consisting of a verb and nominal forms that depend on it.

The use of phraseological units in speech. Stylistic coloring of phraseological units.

1. All phraseological units can be attributed to a specific functional style. Colloquial phraseology is used mainly in the oral form of communication and in artistic speech (in all Ivanovo, you can’t spill it with water).

Colloquial phraseology is more reduced compared to colloquial (set the brain, turn up the nose).

Book phraseology is mainly used in written speech. It can be distinguished into: scientific (center of gravity); journalistic (live broadcast); official business (minimum salary).

Common phraseology finds application in both book and colloquial speech (from time to time, New Year).

2. In emotionally expressive terms, all phraseological units can be divided into two groups:

a) Phraseologisms with a bright emotional coloring, which is due to their figurativeness, the use of expressive linguistic means in them. Such phraseological units have the coloring of familiarity, irony, playfulness, contempt (neither fish nor meat, sit in a puddle). Book phraseological units are characterized by a sublime, solemn sound (to die).

b) Phraseologisms, devoid of emotional and expressive coloring and used in a strictly nominative function (agenda, explosive device). Such phraseological units are not characterized by figurativeness, they do not contain evaluation.

3. Norms for the use of phraseological units.

Both in oral and written speech, there is a significant number of errors in the use of phraseological units. The most typical are the following:

a) replacement of the phraseological combination component (the lion's share, instead of the lion's share);

b) unjustified reduction or expansion of the composition of phraseological units (leave much to be desired, instead of leave much to be desired);

c) the use of an unsuccessful definition as part of a phraseological combination (Unfortunately, at the evening dedicated to A.S. Pushkin, they asked slanderous questions about Natalya Nikolaevna);

d) contamination, or mixing, of two turns (pin to the throat, instead of pin to the wall and approach the throat);

e) distortion of the grammatical form of the components of a phraseological unit (tuck under the arm, instead of tuck under the arm);

f) violation of the grammatical connection of a phraseological unit with words adjacent to it (he never broke his hat to anyone, instead of anyone he never broke his hat);

g) the use of a phraseological unit that does not correspond to the context (among the students there were students who did not knit a bast in Russian, instead among the students there were students who did not know Russian well);

h) the stylistic inappropriateness of using a phraseological phrase (the commander ordered to reel in the fishing rods, instead the commander ordered to leave).

Chapter 2

Practical part

The study was conducted using the following methods: observation, questioning, sociological survey, task completion

During the observation, it was noticed that students and teachers use phraseological units and quite often, here are some of them:

Pupils: quieter than water, lower than grass;

From the pot two inches;

Christmas trees-sticks (dense forest);

Two of a Kind;

Teachers: fell from the moon;

The center of the world;

Beat the buckets;

Questionnaires and tasks were offered to different age groups.

Questionnaire:

1. Your age.
2. Profession specialty (if any).
3. What subject do you teach? (for teachers).
4. Your education (if any).
5. Do you know what phraseologism is?
6. How often do you use them in speech?
7. Why are you doing this?
8. Do you know the origin of phraseological units?

Why are you doing this to the question? (that is, you use phraseological units) the following answers were given:

inexplicable; so it turns out; for the accuracy and beauty of words; so that the speech is convincing and brighter; to enhance the effect of what was said; to enrich speech; to give expression to speech; in order to express your idea more figuratively; to link with obsolete expressions; for eloquence; that speech was literate; to convey the situation more clearly; because it fits the meaning; breaks out; to describe the situation; to explain to a person; for the sake of brevity; to formulate sentences in brevity; prove to the child to evaluate the action.

Exercise:

For adults and students: determine the phraseological unit from this illustration.

For teachers: replace these words in brackets with phraseological units:

1. The boy was running (fast)
2. My friend lives (far away)
3. At the lesson, Petya (was idle)
4. Houses are (close)
5. Feel (comfortable)

For teachers, the task was specially complicated, since they are more specialized in this area.

results studies are presented in the form of diagrams (see. Appendix 2).

Conclusion.

The older person, the more often he uses phraseological units. As it turned out, almost no one knows the theoretical information about them (teachers have the greatest experience in this), but they still use them in their speech, and quite often.

Phraseology covers primarily the sphere of human feelings. These include:

Admiration, delight, joy, happiness;

Good wishes, encouragement, courtesy, politeness, surprise, bewilderment, amazement;

mockery, disdain, contempt;

Irritation, annoyance;

Resentment, indignation, anger;

Warning, threat;

Interest; Attention; indifference, indifference;

Anxiety, excitement, anxiety; resentment; fright, fear, horror;

Embarrassment, shame; chagrin, sadness, longing.

Phraseology also broadly represents the properties and qualities of a person:

Directness, sincerity, frankness;

Self-control, courage;

Honesty, loyalty, devotion;

Mind, mind; energy, determination, confidence;

Purposefulness, independence;

Perseverance, stubbornness;

Care, responsibility;

Experience, experience, maturity, youth, inexperience;

mediocrity, mediocrity; idleness, laziness;

Loquacity;

Boasting, arrogance, boasting.

Phraseology also covers the sphere of human relations:

Unity, consent;

Strength, power, influence, dominance;

Price, valuation; expectation, hope;

Reminder, memories, memory;

Success, luck, recognition;

Request, prayer; concession, reconciliation;

Denial, refusal, disagreement, objection;

Deception, swindle;

Accuracy, clarity, reliability;

Help, support, assistance, etc.

People learn phraseological units from other people. Children, for example, from their parents, grandparents, and at school, mainly in the lessons of Russian language and literature.

In the course of a sociological survey, it turned out that only students who have recently studied this topic in the lessons of the Russian language or literature, and people with higher education know the real origin of phraseological units. Phraseological units give speech figurativeness, expressiveness, make it richer, more beautiful. Use them correctly in speech.

Memo. Correct use of phraseological units

1. Do not replace words in phraseological units.
2. Do not include new words in phraseological units.
3. Do not change the grammatical form of words.
4. Do not change the order of words in a phraseological unit.
5. Use phraseological units!

Attachment 1

Phrasebook

Augean stables (book) - about a very dirty, neglected place, room; about the extreme disorder in business. An expression from Greek mythology.

Achilles' heel (book) - a weak side, a vulnerable spot of someone. In Russian, the expression has been used since the end of the 18th century, when the translation of the Iliad was completed.

Beat the thumbs (simple. disapproved) - idly spend time, mess around; to do trifling business. Actually Russian phraseological unit. Initially, beat the bucks - split, break the aspen block into bucks (chocks) for the manufacture of small items from them (spoons, cookers, etc.), i.e. do a very easy, trifling thing. The figurative meaning of the expression appeared in folk speech.

Valaam's donkey(book) - about a submissive, silent man who unexpectedly protested, expressed his opinion; about a stupid, stubborn woman. From the biblical legend about the always obedient donkey of the prophet Balaam, who unexpectedly protested against the beatings with a human voice.

upside down(simple) - somersault, upside down (fly, go down, etc.); completely different than it was, in complete disarray (put, throw, etc.)

All over Ivanovo(colloquial) - in full force, in full measure; very loud. The expression is actually Russian, known since the 17th century.

At full speed - running speed.

Do not spill water(colloquial) - very friendly; inseparable, always together. Actually Russian expression.

Two of a Kind (colloquial) - completely match each other (by their qualities, interests, habits, etc.). the expression is based on a comparison: just as two boots should be similar to each other, so people can resemble each other in different qualities.

Keep tight-lipped- be very strict and harsh with someone.

Christmas trees - sticks (dense forest)- an expression of annoyance, surprise, censure, admiration, etc. It can be assumed that the phraseological unit is a transformation of the exclamation “green trees”, the manifestation of which historians associate with the fact that before the revolution, spruce branches were depicted on tavern signs.

Nick down(colloquial) - remember firmly, forever. Initially, turnover meant a playful threat. The nose was also called a tag that they carried with them and on which they put notches to record work, debts, etc.

Rolling up your sleeves (colloquial approving) to do something diligently, diligently. The expression arose from the free phrase roll up the sleeves - “wrap up, tuck the sleeves up”. In ancient Russia, clothes were worn with very long sleeves: to the knees or even to the ground. It was impossible to work in such clothes without rolling up the sleeves.

For distant lands- very far from this place. The expression goes back to Russian folk tales, in which a threefold repetition is common: for distant lands, in a distant kingdom, in a distant state, and has the meaning - “very far away”.

Like a squirrel in a wheel(colloquial) - at a tense pace, in incessant chores, deeds (spin, spin, spin, etc.). An expression from the fable of I. Krylov "Squirrel".

How to look into the water(colloquial) - about a person who foresaw, accurately predicted something. The expression is associated with fortune-telling on the water: sorcerers and healers, according to the state of the surface of the water, predicted the future, someone's. fate.

Like a fish in water (colloquial) - freely, naturally, well.

Like Christ in the bosom(colloquial obsolete) - very good.

Lion's share (book) - the biggest, best part of smth. Phraseologism is a translation of the French expression La part du lion.

Manna from heaven (book) - about smth. extremely important, necessary, eagerly awaited. According to the biblical manna - food sent by God from heaven to the Jews when they went through the desert to the promised land.

Disservice (colloquial) - an inept, awkward service that brings harm, trouble instead of help. Phraseologism goes back to I. A. Krylov’s fable “The Hermit and the Bear”, which tells about the friendship of the hermit with the bear. Once the hermit lay down to sleep, and the bear drove flies away from him. He drove the fly off his cheek, she sat on his nose, then on his forehead.

The bear took a heavy cobblestone and killed a fly on his friend's forehead with it.

wet chicken (colloquial contempt.) - about a weak-willed, weak-willed person who is not able to fend for himself; about a man who has a miserable, downtrodden appearance. Phraseologism is part of the proverb Wet chicken, and also roosters - we are talking about likening a person to a chicken wet in the rain, the appearance of which is miserable and unpleasant.

Neither fish nor fowl (colloquial) - about a person without individual traits, features; about an unknown person. Phraseologism is international, known to many Slavic and European languages. In the Russian language got, most likely, from English.

One world smeared(colloquial) - about people who are similar to each other in behavior, their qualities (usually negative). Miro - "the fragrant oil used in worship in the church." Initially, the expression had the meaning - "one faith."

Stay with your nose- let yourself be fooled. Nose - a bribe, an offering. The expression meant to leave with an unaccepted offering, without an agreement.

Goof - to be in a difficult, awkward or ridiculous position. The expression is actually Russian, it came from the speech of spinners and rope craftsmen in the form of a free phrase to get into a mess. Prosak is a rope or rope camp on which ropes were twisted.

Procrustean bed(book) - a clearly limited framework that does not allow to show initiative, creativity.

The center of the world - arrogant, prone to exaggerate one's own importance. The ancients considered the navel to be the center of the human body, its middle. According to their myths, the father of the gods Zeus wished to know where, in this case, lies the navel of the earth. He launched eagles from two "ends of the world". Flying at the same speed, the birds collided in the sky over the place where the Greek city of Delphi later arose. It then began to be considered the center of the world.

Broken heart (colloquial) - to suffer from love, to be rejected by a loved one.

At hand (colloquial) - quite close, not far, near. The expression is actually Russian. Initially, it was used in the form of a hand to give and had the meaning “hand-length distance”, such a construction: the nominative case of the noun + the infinitive of the verb, was common in Russian (mowing grass, etc.) later in this structure the nominative case was replaced by the accusative: hand submit. Since the accusative and instrumental cases of nouns in the role of direct and indirect object have the same meaning (cf. throw a stone and throw a stone), the structure with the instrumental case has developed and consolidated: at hand.

Breaking my head (colloquial) - very quickly, swiftly (run, rush, rush, rush, etc.). the expression arose as a result of the breakdown of the noun breakhead "desperate person, daredevil" into a phrase.

Ate the dog (colloquial) - about a person who has extensive experience, solid knowledge in smth., who is a master of his craft.

Salt of the earth - the most important, important, valuable. The expression is taken from the Bible. Jesus told his disciples these words: “You are the salt of the earth!”

shot sparrow(colloquial) - an experienced, experienced, cautious person who is difficult to outwit, deceive.

Trishkin caftan - the constant correction of some shortcomings due to the appearance of others.

darkness (colloquial) - about a large number, an innumerable multitude of someone, something.

Get out of life

At the devil on Easter cakes- terribly far away, somewhere in the wilderness. Kulichki is a spoiled Finnish root word, “kuligi”, “kulizhki”, which has long been included in Russian speech. So in the North were called forest clearings, meadows, swamps. Here, in the wooded part of the country, the settlers of the distant past were constantly cutting down “kulizhki” in the forest - areas for plowing and mowing.

doubting Thomas (colloquial) - about a person experiencing constant doubts. Taking nothing for granted.

Though a dime a dozen (colloquial) - a lot, in large quantities, an excess of something or someone.

Center of gravity - the most important, the most important; essence, foundation

Annex 2

Knowledge of the meaning of the term "phraseologism"

The use of phraseological units in speech

The purpose of using phraseological units in speech

Task for the definition of phraseology (according to the illustration)

The task of replacing the phrase with phraseologism

Bibliography

1. Chepasova A. M. Phraseology of the Russian language (Book for youth). - Chelyabinsk, 1993
2. Subbotina L. A. Phraseological dictionary of the Russian language for schoolchildren. - Yekaterinburg, U-Factoria, 2006
3. Babkin A. M. Russian phraseology, its development and sources. L. - Enlightenment, 1970
4. Popov R. N. Phraseologisms of the Russian language. M.: Enlightenment, 1976
5. Alekhin A. I. Phraseological unit and word. – Minsk, 1991

Ministry of Education and Science of the Russian Federation

Federal Agency for Education

GOU VPO Kemerovo State University

Department of Stylistics and Rhetoric

Phraseology

Features of the use of phraseological turns in speech

COMPLETED: Shelkovnikova Anna E-041

CHECKED: Assistant of the Department of Stylistics

and rhetoric Trushkin Yu.V.

Kemerovo 2005

Abstract plan

Introduction

3.1 Functions of phraseological units in various styles of speech

3.2 Synonymy of phraseological units

3.3 Antonymy of phraseological units

Conclusion

Bibliography

Introduction

The phraseology of the Russian language is extremely diverse. It is used in all styles of speech due to the unique ability of phraseological units to say a lot with a few words, since they determine not only the subject, but also its sign, not only the action, but also its circumstances. The versatility of Russian phraseology points, first of all, to a rich historical heritage, embodies the incomprehensible Russian soul, because it is no coincidence that most phraseological units received life precisely among the people. In the future, as writing and literature developed, phraseology was developed by publicists and writers, leaving behind a whole sheaf of new discoveries in this area. Mastering this cultural "archive" allows you to comprehend the life of people of various strata in a particular era, their richness of language and the power of meaning, and therefore is necessary for every educated person.

1. An inexhaustible source - phraseology

The phraseology of the Russian language serves to create imagery and expressiveness of speech. It is unusually rich and diverse in its composition, has great stylistic possibilities, due to its internal properties, which make up the specifics of phraseological units. This is a semantic capacity, emotionally expressive coloring, a variety of associative links. The expression of an emotional, subjective beginning in speech, evaluativeness, semantic richness of a phraseological unit act constantly, regardless of the will of the speaker.

The effect of a phraseological unit increases significantly if the author plays with the literal meaning of its components, changes its lexical composition, includes it in new combinations that are unusual for him. All stylistic features of phraseological units make them an active language tool.

The complexity of the semantics of phraseological units distinguishes them from one-word synonyms. So, a sustainable combination in a big way means not just “rich”, but “rich, luxurious, not embarrassed in means”. Phraseologism to cover up traces means not just “destroy, eliminate something”, but “eliminate, destroy what can serve as evidence in something”.

Phraseology attracts speakers with its expressiveness, potential ability to positively or negatively assess the phenomenon, express approval or condemnation, ironic, mocking or other attitude towards it. This is especially pronounced in the so-called phraseological units-characteristics, for example: a white crow, a decoy duck, a prodigal son, not a timid ten, a berry in a field, a dog in the hay.

Phraseological units deserve special attention, the evaluation of which is due to their origin. Indeed, in order to understand the accusatory nature of phraseological units, for example, the gifts of the Danes, the scapegoat, it is necessary to know the history of the emergence of a stable phrase. Why are the gifts of the Danaans “insidious gifts that bring death to those who receive them”, what is the history of the appearance of this phraseological unit? The expression is taken from the Greek legends about the Trojan War. “The Danes, after a long and unsuccessful siege of Troy, resorted to a trick: they built a huge wooden horse, left it near the walls of Troy, and pretended to swim away from the shore of the Troad. The priest Laocoön, seeing this horse and knowing the tricks of the Danaans, exclaimed: “Whatever it is, I am afraid of the Danaans, even those who bring gifts!” But the Trojans, not listening to the warnings of Laocoon and the prophetess Cassandra, dragged the horse into the city. At night, the Danaans, who hid inside the horse, went out, killed the guards, opened the city gates, let in their comrades who returned on ships, and thus captured Troy.

The origin of the expression scapegoat is also noteworthy. It is found in the Bible and is associated with a special rite among the ancient Jews to lay the sins of the whole people on a living goat, which is why they call a person who is blamed for someone else's guilt, who is responsible for others.

Phraseologisms, originating from ancient mythology, are quite diverse. Each such phraseological unit evokes certain associative links, correlates with the images of the heroes of antiquity, which determines their semantic richness and expressiveness. So, the stable phrase Damocles sword in the meaning of “imminent, threatening danger” is associated with the ancient Greek legend about Damocles, who was one of the close associates of the Syracusan tyrant Dionysius the Elder and enviously spoke of him as the happiest of people. Dionysius decided to teach the envious man a lesson and seated him in his place during the feast. And here Damocles saw a sharp sword hanging over his head, hanging on a horsehair. Dionysius explained that this is a symbol of the dangers to which he, as a ruler, is constantly exposed, despite his seemingly happy life.

Phraseologism Procrustean bed comes from the nickname of the robber Polypemon. In Greek mythology, it is said that Procrustes laid all those he caught on his bed and cut off the legs of those who did not fit, and stretched out the legs of those for whom the bed was long. Procrustean bed means "that which is a measure for something, to which something is forcibly adjusted or adapted."

Ancient phraseological units serve as an excellent means for conveying the author's irony, ridicule. Such a function is performed by the revolutions of the exploits of Hercules, the Trojan horse, Sisyphean labor, Pandora's box, between Scylla and Charybdis, Pyrrhic victory, Aesopian language, Babylonian pandemonium.

The stylistic use of many emotionally expressive phraseological units is determined by the peculiarity of the relationship between the general meaning of a phraseological unit and the meaning of its components. Phraseological units are of particular interest, the figurativeness of which acts as a reflection of visibility, “pictureness”, enclosed in the freest phrase, on the basis of which a phraseological unit is formed. For example, when preparing for work, we roll up our sleeves to make it easier to do the job; meeting dear guests, we spread our arms wide, showing that we are ready to wrap them in our arms; when counting, if it is small, for convenience, we bend our fingers. Free phrases naming such actions of people have visibility, “picture”, which “by inheritance” is transmitted to homonymous phraseological units: roll up your sleeves - “diligently, diligently, energetically do something”; with open arms - "friendly, cordially receive, meet someone"; count on fingers - "very little, little."

The picturesqueness of a phraseological unit, due to the visualization of a free phrase homonymous to it, becomes especially visible when the direct and figurative meaning is played out at the same time. This is one of the stylistic devices. Let's give an example of such use of phraseology in one of the journalistic articles: "Emergency exit" - advice to the owners of companies that are threatened by takeovers, mergers and other digestive functions of competition. True, an emergency exit does not guarantee against disappearance in the element of competition. You pull yourself together, and they take you by the throat. Breathing stops, arms drop.

You pull yourself together - a phraseological unit with the meaning "to achieve complete self-control", and take it by the throat means "oppress, force you to act in a certain way." In the cited text, a phraseological unit is used, but the direct meaning of the free phrase “take by the throat” shines through it. The phrase “hands down” has a direct meaning, but the meaning of a phraseological unit pulsates in it - “to lose the ability or desire to act, to do something”.

This chapter lists only some of the tropes, figures, and techniques that help make speech figurative and emotional. However, they do not exhaust the whole variety of expressive means of native speech.

2. Features of the use of phraseological units

Phraseologisms should be distinguished from free phrases. To clarify their fundamental differences, let us dwell on the features of the use of phraseological units in speech.

An important feature of phraseological units is their reproducibility: they are not created in the process of speech (like phrases), but are used as they are entrenched in the language,

Phraseologisms are always complex in composition, they are formed by combining several components. It is important to emphasize that the components of phraseological units are stressed. Therefore, in the strict sense, terms cannot be called phraseologisms used together, but written separately, official and significant words such as under the arm, which have only one stress. The complexity of the composition of phraseological units suggests their similarity with free phrases (cf .: get into a mess - fall into a trap). However, the components of a phraseological unit are either not used independently, or they change their usual meaning in a phraseological unit (blood with milk means “healthy, with a good complexion, with a blush”).

Many phraseological units are equivalent to one word (cf .: spread the mind - think). These phraseological units have an undivided meaning. However, there are those that can be equated with a whole descriptive expression (cf.: to run aground - to get into an extremely difficult situation). For such phraseological units, as V. A. Larin noted, “the initial ones are free turns of speech, (...) direct in meaning. Semantic renewal usually occurs due to more and more free, figurative use.

Phraseological units are characterized by the constancy of the composition. In free phrases, one word can be replaced by another if it fits the meaning (cf .: I read a book, I look through a book, I study a book). Phraseological units do not allow such a substitution. It would never occur to anyone to say that the cat cried instead of the cat. True, there are phraseological units that have options (to spread with the mind - to spread with the brains). However, the existence of variants of some phraseological units does not mean that words can be arbitrarily replaced in them. Variants that are fixed in the language are also characterized by a constant lexical composition and require accurate reproduction in speech.

The constancy of the composition of phraseological units allows us to speak about the "predictability" of their components. So, knowing that the word bosom is used in phraseology, one can predict another component - a friend; the word cursed suggests the word enemy used with it, etc. Phraseologisms that do not allow any variation are absolutely stable combinations.

Most phraseological units are characterized by the impenetrability of the structure: they do not allow the inclusion of new words in them. So, knowing the phraseological unit to lower your head, you cannot say: lower your head low. However, there are such phraseological units that allow the insertion of separate clarifying words (cf .; kindle passions - kindle fatal passions). In some phraseological units, it is possible to skip one or more components. For example, they say to go through fire and water, cutting off the end of a phraseological unit and copper pipes. The reduction is explained by the desire to save speech means and has no special stylistic meaning.

Phraseological units are inherent in the stability of the grammatical structure, they usually do not change the grammatical forms of words. So, it is impossible to say beat a buck, replacing the plural form of a buck, or use a full adjective instead of a short one in phraseology on a bare foot. However, in special cases, variants of grammatical forms in phraseological units are possible (cf .: warm your hand - warm your hands).

Most phraseological units have a strictly fixed word order. For example, it is impossible to interchange the places of words in the expression neither light nor dawn, although the meaning would not seem to be affected if we said: neither dawn nor light. At the same time, in some phraseological units, it is possible to change the order of words (cf .: do not leave a stone on a stone - do not leave a stone on a stone). The rearrangement of components is usually allowed in phraseological units consisting of both a verb and nominal forms dependent on it.

The heterogeneity of the structural features of phraseological units is explained by the fact that phraseology combines a rather motley language material, and the boundaries of phraseological units are not clearly outlined.

3. Stylistic use of phraseological means of the language

3.1 Functions of phraseological units in different styles of speech

Phraseological means of the language, like vocabulary, are used in various functional styles and, accordingly, have one or another stylistic coloring.

The stylistic layer itself is made up of colloquial phraseology (without a year, a week, in all Ivanovo, you can’t spill it with water), it is used mainly in oral communication and in artistic speech. Colloquial phraseology is close to colloquial, more reduced (set the brain, scratch the tongue).

Another stylistic layer is formed by book phraseology, which is used in book styles, mainly in writing. As part of book phraseology, one can single out scientific (center of gravity, thyroid gland), journalistic (shock therapy, live broadcast), officially business (minimum salary, testify).

It is possible to single out a layer of commonly used phraseology, which is used both in book and colloquial speech (from time to time, to matter). There are few such phraseological units. In emotionally expressive terms, all phraseological units can be divided into two groups. A large stylistic layer is made up of phraseological units with a bright emotional and expressive coloring, which is due both to their figurativeness and the use of expressive linguistic means in them. So, colloquial phraseological units are painted in familiar, playful, ironic, contemptuous tones (neither fish nor meat, sit in a puddle, only the heels flashed); bookish ones have a sublime, solemn sound (stain hands in blood, die).

Another stylistic layer is formed by phraseological units, devoid of emotional and expressive coloring and used in a strictly nominative function (composting a ticket, railway). Such phraseological units are not characterized by figurativeness, they do not carry evaluation. Among phraseological units of this type there are many terms (securities, currency transactions). They are characterized by unambiguity, the words that form them appear in direct meanings.

3.2 Synonymy of phraseological units

The rich phraseology of the Russian language contains great synonymous possibilities, which serve as the basis for its stylistic use.

1) Many phraseological turns are synonymous with separate words: doze off - nod off; offended - pout lips; set fire to - set a red rooster, etc. Against the background of neutral words, the given phraseological units stand out for their colloquial-colloquial character. Most often, phraseological turns and adverbs are synonymous, and in some cases the phraseologism has a bookish character (cf .: forever - forever and ever; openly - with a raised visor), in others - colloquial colloquial (cf.: quickly - at full speed; loudly - a good mother).

2) Phraseological turns form a number of ideographic synonyms that differ in shades of meaning. So, phraseological units (to work) rolling up their sleeves - in the sweat of their brow - tirelessly with the general meaning "zealously" differ in that rolling up their sleeves conveys the meaning of intensity in work, in the sweat of their brow is associated with the meaning "to earn with difficulty" (i.e. "work to live"), and tirelessly - with the meaning "tirelessly, diligently, enthusiastically."

3) Phraseological turns form a number of stylistic synonyms among themselves; cf. book. order to live long and simple. stretch your legs (with the general meaning of "die").

Phraseological turns are widely used in all speech styles, but in a different function: if in scientific and official business speech, as a rule, general literary, interstyle stable turns are used, acting in a nominative function, then in fiction, in journalistic works, in colloquial speech the expressive-stylistic side of phraseological units of a bookish and colloquial nature with their great expressive possibilities often comes to the fore.

The methods of using phraseological units in fiction and journalism are especially diverse. Writers use phraseology not only in the form in which it exists in the language, but also change it, updating the semantics, structure and expressive and stylistic properties of phraseological phrases. New semantic shades are created, a new artistic quality of phraseological units appears, word connections are enriched, individual turns are formed by analogy with phraseological units existing in the language. Wed: I love the zemstvo, but with a strange love (S.-Sch.); Your pronoun [address like your nobility] (Ch.); Be healthy, Happy New Year, with new happiness, with new noisy successes, with new trousers and boots (Ch.); With all the strength of a puppy, the beggar puppy screamed (M.); Combing hair? Why? It’s not worth the trouble for a while, and it’s impossible to be forever combed (M.); The matches were ready to burn out of shame for the one who had left the factory, but they could not light up in any way (E.K.).

3.3 Antonymy of phraseological units

Antonymic correlations in phraseology are much less developed than synonymic ones. The antonymy of phraseological units is supported by the antonymic relations of their lexical synonyms (cf .: smart - stupid, seven spans in his forehead - he won’t invent gunpowder).

Antonymous phraseological units are distinguished into a special group, partially coinciding in composition, but having components that are opposed in meaning (cf .: with a heavy heart - with a light heart). Components that give such phraseological units the opposite meaning are often lexical antonyms (brave - cowardly, light - heavy), but they can get the opposite meaning and only in phraseologically related meanings (face - back).

For writers and publicists, antonymic phraseological units are of interest, having common components in their composition, since their collision especially enlivens speech, gives it a punning sound. For example:

At the very beginning of his speech, Jenkins warned that the measures he proposed would be "harsh", that the new budget would be "tough" ... "Such a hard budget is needed to get England on its feet," Jenkins argued. “We don’t know about England, but he knocks us, the English off our feet,” a man from the street bitterly ironizes.

3.4 Polysemy and homonymy of phraseological units

Most phraseological units are unambiguous: they always have the same meaning. For example: to soar in the clouds - "indulge in fruitless dreams." But there are phraseological units that have several meanings. For example, a wet chicken can mean: 1) "a weak-willed, ingenuous person, a weakling"; 2) "a person who looks miserable, depressed, upset by something."

The ambiguity of phraseological units most often arises as a result of fixing their figurative meanings in the language. For example, the idiom baptism of fire - "the first participation in battle" - received another meaning in the language due to its figurative use - "the first serious test in any business." Most often, figurative meanings appear in phraseological units of a terminological nature (bring to one denominator, center of gravity). It is easier to develop polysemy in phraseological units that have an indecomposable, integral meaning and are correlative in their structure with phrases.

Homonymy of phraseological units occurs when phraseological units that are identical in composition act in completely different meanings (cf .; take the word - “speak on your own initiative at the meeting” and take the word - “receive an oath promise from someone in something ").

Homonymous phraseological units appear as a result of a figurative rethinking of the same concept, when its different features are taken as a basis. For example, the phraseological unit to let a (red) rooster in the meaning of “set a fire” goes back to the image of a fiery red rooster, resembling a flame in color; the phraseologism to let (give) a rooster in the meaning of “make squeaky sounds” was created on the basis of the similarity of the sound of the singer’s voice, broken on a high note, with the “singing” of a rooster. Such homonymy arises due to the accidental coincidence of the components that formed phraseological units.

Phraseologisms can have correspondences among free phrases. For example, bite your tongue can be used as a combination of words that have free meanings, but more often this expression acts as a phraseological unit with the meaning "shut up, refrain from speaking." In such cases, the context suggests how this or that expression should be understood: as a phraseological unit or as a combination of words that enter into their usual lexical meaning. For example: A heavy and strong fish rushed ... under the shore. I started to bring her to clean water. (Paust.). Here, no one will attach a metaphorical meaning to words that, under other conditions, can be part of a phraseological unit to bring to light.

3.5 Stylistic use of proverbs, sayings, "winged words"

Stylistically, not only stable combinations are used in their varieties (phraseological unions, phraseological units, phraseological combinations), but also other phraseological means, which include proverbs, sayings, "winged words". As well as the turns discussed above, phraseological expressions are used in fiction, journalism, and colloquial speech.

The figurative power of proverbs was also noted by N.V. Gogol: “our proverbs show the extraordinary fullness of the people’s mind, who knew how to make everything his tool: irony, mockery, clarity, accuracy of the picturesque image ...” M. Gorky said that “proverbs and songs are always short, and the mind and feelings are invested in them on whole books.

In fiction, proverbs and sayings are most often used as a figurative means of revealing the inner appearance of a character, characteristics of his speech manner (cf. the role of proverbs in Belkin's Tales and The Captain's Daughter by A.S. Pushkin, in Dead Souls by N.V. Gogol, in the works of M. Gorky)

In journalistic literature, proverbs and sayings are used to enhance expressiveness, political sharpness of thought. Socio-political phraseology is replenished with apt expressions of well-known political figures.

Quotes from works of fiction are widely known: To be or not to be? (W. Shakespeare); Fresh tradition, but hard to believe; Signed, so off your shoulders; Well, how not to please your own little man!; The times of the Ochakovskys and the conquest of the Crimea; There is no beast stronger than a cat; And Vaska listens and eats; Our ancestors saved Rome; And the chest just opened (I.A. Krylov); More in number, cheaper price; And who are the judges? (A.S. Griboyedov); A spark will ignite a flame (A.I. Odoevsky); The deeds of bygone days, the legends of antiquity deep; Dreams, dreams, where is your sweetness?; And happiness was so possible, so close (A.S. Pushkin); Dead Souls; And submit here Lyapkin-Tyapkin (N.V. Gogol); Hero of our time; No rudder and no sails; In a difficult moment of life (M.Yu. Lermontov); On the one hand, it is impossible not to confess, on the other, it is impossible not to confess; In relation to meanness (M.E. Saltykov-Shchedrin); Man in a case; No matter what happens (A.P. Chekhov); Man - that sounds proud; To the madness of the brave we sing a song; You can’t go anywhere in the carriage of the past (M. Gorky), etc.

4. Phraseological innovation of writers

Writers and publicists, updating the semantics of phraseological units, often restore the original meaning of the words included in them. The author, as it were, returns to the free use of words that have formed a stable combination, and beats their usual lexical meaning. As a result, a two-dimensional comprehension of phraseological unit takes place: a fifth-grader hit the teacher not in the eyebrow, but in the eye. The resulting external homonymy of phraseologism and free combination gives rise to a pun.

The second plan of the meaning of the phraseological unit can be revealed when reading the subsequent text. Got into a bind, but was comforted by reading his name on the cover.

The method of destroying the figurative meaning of a phraseological unit, as we see, does not affect the lexical and grammatical composition - its external form is usually preserved, but the meaning is interpreted in a new way: Life is in full swing ... and everything is on the head.

Phraseologisms consciously used by the writer in a sense unusual for them can be called semantic neologisms in phraseology. They are often used by comedians (tear and throw - play sports).

In order to update phraseological units, writers give them an unusual form. Modifications of phraseological units can be expressed in the reduction or expansion of their composition.

The reduction, or shortening of the composition, of a phraseological unit is usually associated with its rethinking. For example: Make the deputy pray to God ... (cutting off the second part of the proverb “so he will break his forehead” - only strengthens the irony in assessing the decision of the Duma of the Russian Federation, which aggravated the political situation in Transnistria. Opposite to reduction, the expansion of the phraseological unit: These are those granite stumbling blocks of knowledge - the definition is granite , introduced into a stable phrase, gives the image a special clarity.The composition of a phraseological unit is often expanded due to the introduction of clarifying words (Cats are not ordinary, but with long yellow claws scraped her by the heart. - Ch.).

Changing the composition of a phraseological unit can become a means of enhancing the expressive coloring of speech (I will wait with the greatest impatience ... just don't put it off too long - M. E). In other cases, the introduction of additional words into phraseological turns gives them new semantic shades: Bad time for joint performances - you can sit in a dirty puddle, but you don’t want to. - M. G. Sitting in a puddle means "putting yourself in an awkward position"; the introduced definition expands the meaning: “to allow oneself to be drawn into a dishonest game”.

5. New phraseology and its use

5.1 Birth of a new phraseology

Phraseology is understood as a set of phraseological units of any language. This includes, first of all, stable combinations of words that are used as ready-made, reproduced in his speech units: not salty slurping, come to a conclusion, express distrust, take into circulation, black box. Many also refer to phraseology as proverbs, sayings, winged words, speech cliches, which also have the most important features of phraseological units: stability and reproducibility: The night cuckoo will overtake the day cuckoo; Every vegetable has its time; Beauty will save the world (F. Dostoevsky); white gold (cotton); liquid gold (oil); black gold (coal).

Each epoch gives birth to its own phraseology. This is especially noticeable in the socio-political sphere. A good example of this is the text of the country's Basic Law - the Constitution. As you know, during the years of Soviet power in Russia, four constitutions were created, successively replacing each other. The October events of 1917 and the establishment of Soviet power gave impetus to the creation of the Constitution of the Russian Soviet Federative Socialist Republic (RSFSR) in 1918. After the formation of the Union of Soviet Socialist Republics, the Constitution of the USSR was adopted in 1924. In 1936, it was replaced by the Stalinist Constitution of the USSR, which, it was believed, legislated the victory of socialist social relations in the country. In 1977 Brezhnev's Constitution of "a developed socialist society building communism" was adopted.

The latter operated until 1993, having survived the collapse of the USSR for three years. In all these constitutions, the political power of the working people, the equality of all citizens, a democratic electoral system, the provision of broad rights and freedoms to the working people and guarantees for their implementation were declared. However, the practical implementation of these provisions was largely nullified by the established command and control system.

A fundamentally new phenomenon in the socio-political life of the country is the Constitution of the Russian Federation, adopted by referendum on December 12, 1993. It proclaimed Russia a democratic federal legal state with a republican form of government, division of state power into legislative, executive and judicial, ideological pluralism, equality of all forms of ownership, including private, with a market economy. The Constitution of the Russian Federation also outlines the main areas of activity of federal government bodies, which include: the President, the Federal Assembly (Federation Council and the State Duma), the Government, the Constitutional Court, the Supreme Court, the Supreme Arbitration Court. Hence the large number of phrases in the Basic Law of the country, new in comparison with the previous constitutions, of a sustainable nature, naming the actions of federal government bodies, unthinkable under the socio-political system approved by the previous constitutions. First of all, these are verb-nominal phrases such as to be carried out by a referendum, to adopt regulations, to create a conciliation commission, to recognize them as unconstitutional. This also includes substantive-substantive phrases with a dominant verbal noun (trust in the government, listening to messages), substantive-adjective (currency regulation, triple deviation), as well as individual verbs, for example, to be introduced, associated in use with the names of certain objects, in this case bills, proposals: A bill (proposal) is submitted ...

A significant part of these stable phrases was known to the Russian language before, but they were used to characterize the activities of foreign or pre-revolutionary Russian government bodies, therefore, they are reoriented to modern Russian reality. For example: express no confidence in the government, send a message, refuse confidence, resign the government, resign, raise a question of confidence, make a decision to dissolve, take an oath - about the president, hold parliamentary hearings. No less part of the phrases is generally new in the Russian language, reflecting the features of modern Russian political reality: to interpret the constitution, protect and ensure the stability of the ruble, have the rule of law, use conciliation procedures, exercise powers on an ongoing basis. There are separate tracing papers from the English language, for example, dismissal from office (from the English. Impeachment).

None of the given stable phrases naming the actions of the federal bodies of state power is found in the previous constitutions. For example, the previous Constitution imputed the decision of all issues that it attributed to the jurisdiction of the USSR to the Supreme Soviet of the USSR, comparable in its role to the current Federal Assembly. These issues include: “the adoption of the Constitution of the USSR, the introduction of amendments to it; admission of new republics to the USSR, approval of the formation of new autonomous republics and autonomous regions; approval of state plans for the economic and social development of the USSR, the State Budget of the USSR and reports on their implementation; the formation of organs of power of the Union of Soviet Socialist Republics accountable to him” (Article 108). In addition, each of the chambers of the Supreme Soviet (the Council of the Union and the Council of Nationalities) makes a decision on recognizing the powers of deputies or on recognizing the elections of individual deputies as invalid, elects the Chairman of the chamber, submits disputed issues for resolution to the conciliation commission, and then considers them again or transfers them to the nationwide voting (referendum).

Chapter 15, which deals with the functions of the Supreme Soviet of the USSR, also states that it elects the Presidium of the Supreme Soviet of the USSR, which in turn calls elections to the Supreme Soviet of the USSR, convenes sessions of the Supreme Soviet of the USSR, and coordinates the activities of the standing committees of the chambers of the Supreme Soviet of the USSR etc. Finally, it is important to note that many aspects of the activities of the former Supreme Soviet of the USSR are no longer characteristic of state authorities: the adoption of the Constitution, the admission of new republics into the country, the election of the Presidium as a permanent body of the Supreme Soviet, etc.

So, the political system in Russia has changed - the functions of state authorities have changed, as well as the bodies themselves, which was immediately reflected in the language, in this case at the level of stable verb-nominal and substantive-nominal phrases. Some of them fell into disuse, others (in even greater numbers) entered. One should not only constantly master new phraseology, but also actively and skillfully master it. Otherwise, it is difficult to talk about current socio-political events not only in an official setting, but even with friends, especially if they are not averse to modern printed matter, listen to radio and television programs.

In the socio-political sphere, a huge number of other stable phrases arose. Take, for example, the word syndrome. Initially, it acted as a medical term with the meaning "a combination of signs (symptoms) that have a common mechanism of occurrence and characterize a certain disease state of the body." But in the course of perestroika and the further development of our society, this word began to mean a social disease, and in some cases, in combination with definitions, it was perceived as a free phrase, while in others it acquired a stable character. The former include club sympathy syndrome (Ros. Gazeta. 1993. July 14), post-Chernobyl syndrome (Ros. Gazeta. 1997. July 11), post-referendum syndrome (Ros. Gazeta. .1993. June 1), fear syndrome (coma. 1997. 6 Sept.). They are single, individual in use. The internal form of such phrases is clear, and they do not require additional explanations.

In contrast, some combinations with the word syndrome are perceived as stable whole expressions and are not clear without specific comments. Thus, the expression Afghan Syndrome in the Dictionary of Perestroika is defined as follows: “A set of socio-psychological factors that led to the rejection of the surrounding reality by some of the participants in the war in Afghanistan in connection with the reassessment of the role of this war in the public mind.” An example of such an understanding is given: “The cause of the Afghan syndrome is visible from conversations with soldiers, officers, storekeepers of the Afghan contingent. Anyone will highlight the key thought: "We did not fight." Moreover, by “we” an individual Afghan does not mean himself - he means the army ”(Literaturnaya gazeta. 1989. 4 September). One more example can be given, and more than one: “Neuropsychiatric disorders haunt almost everyone who performed an“ international duty ”in Afghanistan (...) A special group of specific diseases has already been discovered that are characterized by a protracted, sometimes chronic course. These are just the strokes of a general picture called "Afghan syndrome" (Ros. Gazeta. 1992. November 11).

The enemy syndrome turned out to be quite common, meaning "a set of socio-psychological factors in the life of Soviet society during the crisis of national and economic relations, characterized by hostility, suspicion, distrust of each other." If there are no serious changes in the coming months, that's when it will begin. So let's start looking for someone to blame. I don't want to believe it. But how to be? How to avoid confrontations? After all, the “enemy syndrome” appears at rallies, in collectives, even in homes, in families ”(Lit. newspaper. 1989. M 49).

A whole fan of phraseological combinations appeared on the basis of the words space and field, used, however, not in their physical meaning, which has long been inherent in them, but in a figurative, metaphorical one. So, if in the beginning it was more often said about a single economic space, which was understood as “a market with free movement of goods and capital on the basis of an agreement between sovereign states that are part of the former USSR”, or simply about an economic space as a “sphere of action of common economic processes”, then subsequently, no matter what definitions the space was endowed with: ruble, post-Soviet, constitutional, political, general education, etc.

The same should be said about the metamorphosis that took place with the word field. In this sense, it turned out to be synonymous with the word space, although with a narrower meaning and fewer definitions attached to it: administrative, antimonopoly; constitutional, musical, etc. field. And what kind of "wars" have not been waged recently in all these "spaces" and "fields": the laws of the legislative and executive authorities, compromising materials, nerves, even press conferences,

To replace the stable combinations and expressions like call to the carpet; wipe into camp dust; any initiative is punishable; a step to the left, a step to the right is considered ..; some pretend to work, others pretend to pay. On the pages of the periodical press, such stable phrases as staying afloat, finding your niche, only lazy not, for the rest of your life, began to appear more and more often. No less often used are stable expressions such as Everything is allowed that is not prohibited by law, Whoever does not take risks does not drink champagne, It's a shame for the state. Under the influence of advertising clichés, they flashed not only on the pages of newspapers and magazines, but also in our speech, not simply, but very simply, well, very (cool woman, interesting reading), well, simple (fantastic; girl), great company, sweet couple. True, many of these phraseological units are quickly forgotten as soon as another advertising campaign begins, and the speech is replenished with new fashionable turns. But they are the property of our speech, and they must be treated as its inevitable, albeit fickle, companion.

Back in the early 80s. seemed "high" in use, filled with deep meaning, many expressions from the propaganda lexicon of the recent past. Under the influence of perestroika processes, they received a distinct ironic connotation. Examples. Everything for a person (which continued in the slogan - “everything in the name of a person”): “The bureaucratic system disguises itself with paper slogans, repeating in words:“ Everything is for a person ”, but in reality it tramples and humiliates this very person” (Neva. 1990. Md eleven). Developed (real) socialism: “For ten years now we should have lived under communism (if we had fulfilled the decisions of the XXII Congress of the CPSU and the provisions of the III Party Program). Well, okay, but 17 years have been reaped under Brezhnev's developed socialism ”(Smena. 1989. 29 December); “Real socialism turned out to be a system with such low economic and social efficiency, and, therefore (...), it is necessary to bring the world socialist movement to a different trajectory of development” (Pravda. 1990. January 17). Bright Future: The "Russian doctrine" of a bright future is based, in essence, on the fourth dream of Vera Pavlovna [the heroine of the novel by N.G. Chernyshevsky "What to do?"]. Belief in a bright future turned into a perverted religion of power (Lit. newspaper. 1990. March 21.).

5.2 Use of new catchwords

Separately, we note the use in live speech of the so-called winged words, which include phraseological units such as balls, the road to the Temple, I wanted the best, but it turned out as always, which by origin are associated with some literary source or public figure. Turning to metaphorical words, turns of phrase and expressions to revive one's own statement, to emphasize one's attitude to it or to affirm a voiced thought has long been characteristic of the educated part of the population. This technique is widely used in our time. Let's see from what specific sources the winged words used by our contemporaries are taken, under what circumstances and how they are used.

The period of Soviet history, popularly called "Gorbachev's perestroika", is a time of heated discussions about the further development of the Soviet state and the social system that has developed in it after October 191, about the possibility of improving the political and economic structure in the country, changing social working conditions and everyday life. . The declared publicity was understood, on the one hand, as openness in the activities of state and other bodies, and on the other hand, as the right to speak and write objectively about the events of the past and present. And for this, voluntarily or involuntarily, it was necessary to resort to linguistic means, in particular to winged words, which in Soviet times were considered unacceptable in political discussions. They are primarily biblical.

The comprehension of the post-revolutionary period as a time not only of lost opportunities, but also of great real losses suffered by society and the people, led to the fact that from all sides, from all stands and pages of the media, there were calls to revive cities, villages, folk traditions, spirituality , temples, national languages ​​and customs, classical education, history, etc. And then they remembered the saying, borrowed by the ancestors from the book of Ecclesiastes, or the Preacher, - it's time to collect stones. Everyone rushed to “collect stones”, although not everyone knew what and how to do. This gave Literaturnaya Gazeta a reason to write: “Open any newspaper of the past year of your choice. For example, "Soviet Culture" dated June 22, 1989. Do you see a large headline - "TIME TO COLLECT STONES ..."? Or here is Pravda of July 21. Don't forget: "TIME TO COLLECT STONES"... On September 26, a film-concert was held according to the 1st program of the Central Television. And it was called ... Well, of course, "... AND TIME TO COLLECT STONES" (January 24, 1990). About the coming period of restoration, creation after desolation, stagnation, they continued to write using this winged turnover and further, for example: TIME TO COLLECT STONES. What awaits Russian vacationers in Estonia (Izvestia. 1994. 25 Aug.). Moreover, the popularity of this saying served as an impetus for the appearance in newspaper headlines of its variants, although not of a sustainable nature, but retaining its core word and structure as a whole. For example: TIME TO BUY FUR - about stopping the increase in prices for furs and fur products (Ros. Gazeta. 1995. May 18), TIME TO COLLECT MONEY - about tightening financial discipline (Independent newspaper. 1991. Feb. 28; Ros, newspaper. 1995 . May 7), TIME TO PAY DEBTS - about the need to pay off wage arrears (Ros. Gaz. 1996. March 12). There are also other variants of this winged phrase, in which the key is the verb-nominal combination to collect stones: ART TO COLLECT STONES (Lit. newspaper. 1994. April 13), NIKITA MIKHALKOV COLLECTS STONES.

We can give examples of the aphorisms of the classics of the past, which have become popular in the present due to the moral charge inherent in these aphorisms: “The idea of ​​progress, not limited by religion, has led to everything we have come to. Even Dostoevsky warned: if there is no God, then everything is permitted. Despite the apparent simplicity of this formulation of the twentieth century. showed how scary she is, and she was scary in Russia, Germany, Italy, Spain. (Ros. gazeta. 1997. May 29), “It would seem that the threat of a return to the totalitarian past should unite us. But no, everyone has their own law. How can one not recall Tolstoy, who wrote that since bad people, united, constituted a force, then all honest people should only do the same ”(Ros. Gazeta. 1997. May 29).

However, even among the Democrats there were heated debates regarding the moral value of some of the winged phrases quoted. Characteristic in this sense is the controversy between the human rights activist S. Kovalev and his opponents. Deputy S. Kovalev, fighting against patriotism, tried to include A. Pushkin and L. Tolstoy as his allies. In the TV program "Itogi" (January 1, 1995), he attributed to the latter the phrase "Patriotism is the last refuge of a scoundrel." This outraged many democratically minded figures, who, firstly, argued that this aphorism did not belong to L. Tolstoy, but to an English writer of the eighteenth century. Samuel Johnson (the one who also said "Hell is paved with good intentions"), and therefore one must be extremely careful when referring to the source; secondly, they referred to the words of L. Tolstoy himself, who wrote: “It is strange to me that my sons do not have patriotism. I confess, I have”; thirdly, they drew attention to the fact that in general it is impossible to snatch individual statements from the holistic concept of seeing the world of anyone, and even more so of such a giant of thought as the great Russian writer L. Tolstoy (Ros. Gazeta. 1995.4 Feb.).

An appeal to the country's historical experience gave reason to recall the statements of not only literary, but also statesmen of the past, which until quite recently were considered reactionary, and reference to them was recognized as sedition. These statements were carefully linked with current events, which is why the forgotten aphorisms sounded fresh and defiant. It seems that the first person to be commemorated in this way was the PA. Stolypin - at the beginning of this century, the tsarist Minister of the Interior, and then Chairman of the Council of Ministers. The broad circles of the Russian population were basically indoctrinated only with the fact that he was a “hanging man”. Even the gallows, to which malicious violators of public order could be sentenced, was called "Stolypin's tie." But it turned out that P.A. Stolypin was a major reformer and that he owns the aphorism: "They need - great upheavals, we need -" great Russia ". Many deputies of the Supreme Soviet of the USSR decorated their speeches with this aphorism, it could be found in many polemical articles: “If we recall the once popular words of Stolypin, we really need not great upheavals, but great Russia. The Americans, however paradoxical it may seem, do not need either one or the other ”(Ros. Gazeta. 1995. January 1). An interviewer once told the former Chairman of the State Duma of the Russian Federation I. Rybkin about this: “During perestroika, Stolypin’s phrase was very often quoted: “You need great upheavals, but we need great Russia,” and representatives of different camps threw it at each other. And now she has been forgotten. Although, it seems to me, today this phrase is much more relevant than then ”(Ros. Gazeta. 1995. June 2).

The great anniversary was approaching - the 50th anniversary of the Victory over Nazi Germany (1995). Increasingly, millions of soldiers who gave their lives for their homeland began to be remembered. Many of them were not buried yet. And then the public consciousness stirred up, and many times it began to be repeated - and not only in the media - the saying of Generalissimo A.V. Suvorov, who did not know defeat on the battlefield, The war is not over until the last soldier is buried: “The great Suvorov said that the war is not over until the last soldier is buried. Unfortunately, no matter how bitter it is to admit it, we have places in Russia where the unburied remains of soldiers still lie, many unmarked soldiers' graves remain ”(V. Chernomyrdin. Ros. Gazeta. 1995. April 21).

Under the communist system, many sayings appeared, which, after its replacement, began to act as winged words, because the names of the figures who gave birth to them are known. For example, the phrase “one country taken separately”, used by V. Lenin in one of his pre-revolutionary articles about the dispute about the possibility of building socialism in Russia, regardless of the international situation, was replicated by I. Stalin in a number of works that were studied by millions of people of different generations. One of the fundamental questions of that time was discussed: is it possible to build socialism in "one, separately taken country" in the conditions of "capitalist encirclement". “It is possible,” the supporters of the socialist path of development of society argued. What came of it is now well known. The market economy has come to replace the failed system. But the oppressed communist ideology left its mark on the language. In particular, the phrase “(one) taken separately” began to be actively used, albeit with a slight touch of irony, in relation not only and not so much to the country as a whole, but to a variety of objects: “Let socialism compete with capitalism in a single country ”(Governmental Bulletin. 1991. Md 24), “An attempt to have a multi-party system in one single CPSU” (Vech. Leningrad. 1991. September 13), “Happy sailing on one single ferry” (Vech. Leningrad. 1991. July 7 ), “Privatization problems affect the “individual person” much more” (Smena. 1993' 3 Apr.).

Until now, many other winged words are used in the public sphere, which became such in Soviet times. They originate not from the speeches of politicians, but from the statements of cultural figures. For example, the word thaw got the meaning “some liberalization in the sphere of public and cultural life after the death of I.V. Stalin" under the influence of I. Ehrenburg's story "The Thaw": "After two weeks of a frantic surge in the cult at Stalin's funeral, his name suddenly began to disappear from the pages of the press. The first, still pre-Khrushchev, “thaw” arose, associated with the activities of Malenkov ”(Kommunist. 1990. Md 9). But usually the appearance of the “thaw” is associated with the activities of N.S. Khrushchev, therefore, even the “Khrushchev thaw” is often said: “The Khrushchev thaw and Brezhnev’s stagnation changed little in the position of the official ideology: it still demanded ideologically consistent public statements” (Ros. Gazeta. 1992. May 7). In post-perestroika times, the winged word thaw began to be freed from chronological attachment specifically to the activities of N.S. Khrushchev and began to denote a certain liberalization that came after authoritarian or totalitarian rule: “But there were also “thaws”. The enlightened Empress Catherine I believed that in 60 years all schisms [on religious grounds] would disappear. They say that if popular schools are established and established, ignorance will disappear by itself, without violence. Another enlightened emperor, Alexander 1, in a decree of February 21, 1803, wrote: “Without making violence of conscience and without entering into the search for an internal confession of faith, do not allow any refusals and deviations from the Church and strictly forbid any temptations in this, not in the form of heresies, but as a violation of common decency and order” (House and Fatherland, 1997, April 12-14).

The words mankurt and sharkovy, which have become figurative, have acquired special intellectual significance. Mankurt is the one who has lost his historical memory, moral, spiritual values ​​and guidelines, connection with his people (named after the mankurt, the hero of the book by Chingiz Aitmatov “And the day lasts longer than a century ...”: “It is easy to deprive people of historical memory, turn, in the bright image of Ch. Aitmatov, into mankurts "(Pravda. 1990. March 23.)," Not true! We are not mankurts. Do not forget your family, but rise above national identity, and at this height of benevolence, mutual respect, see pain in the eyes of another and imbued with it "(Pravda. 1989. Sept. 3). Hence the noun mankurtization was formed - the transformation of someone into a mankurt: "Soviet man is, as it were, a metaphor for the entire Soviet people, but in fact - a mutational consequence of migration and mankurtization, as well as “national”, that is, international politics” (Spark. 1990. N 35).

The Sharikovs are those who are characterized by aggressive behavior, dependency, primitive instincts, and the denial of moral standards. The figurative word arose on behalf of the hero of the story M. Bulgakov. "Dog Heart" - a fantastic creature obtained as a result of an experiment to turn a dog (nicknamed Sharik) into a man. Here is what was written about this type of people in the magazine “Communist”: “The world of blind passions of the balls is primitive to the extreme, their power is horror ... A little more, and the“ aesthetics ”of ignorance of the balls, thoughtlessness, unprofessionalism will cross the fatal line ... Severe shortage gives the "crush at the boiler" a kind of biological raid of the struggle for survival with a clear advantage in favor of the most toothy, impudent, merciless individuals. Sharikovs - in a word... Equalization in the material sphere is not enough for the Sharikovs; Hence Sharovsky - inherent in ball, characteristic of ball, Sharkovism - the way of thinking and behavior characteristic of ball.

The new era in the development of Russian society has brought to life new wingedisms. As already noted, among the first tasks that the reformers set themselves was the spiritual revival of the people. A striking example of a winged phrase associated with a discussion of the ways of this revival can be the road to the temple, which means "the path to renewal, moral purification." This trend became widespread after the release of the film "Repentance" in 1984 (directed by T. Abduladze). In this film, the image of the temple is used as a symbol of universal values. Here is an excerpt from the script of the film published in the Literary and Artistic Almanac: “Someone knocked on the door, Keti looked out. Under the window stood a woman in a ridiculous dress, with two suitcases. “Tell me, does this road lead to the temple?” she asked. Keti looked at the stranger in bewilderment. “I ask, will this road lead to the temple?” repeated the old woman impatiently and demandingly. “No, this is Varlam Aravidze Street, and it is not this street that leads to the temple.” The stranger raises an eyebrow in surprise: “Then why is she needed? What is the road if it does not lead to the temple? (1987. M 2). Even in newspaper headlines, this turnover began to occur no less than the equally popular “Time to collect stones”: ROAD TO THE TEMPLE (Ros. Gazeta. 1992. Feb. 21; St. Pet. Vedomosti. 1994. May 21 .; Ros. Gazeta . 1994. 7 Nov.); WHICH TEMPLE IS THE ROAD LEADING TO (Izvestia. 1991. March 23.), THE ROAD LEADING TO THE TEMPLE IS FIRED DAILY (Change. 1991. May 27.). There are also various variants of this winged turn in the same headings: WHERE IS THIS STREET? WHERE IS THIS TEMPLE? What's happening? Perestroika, one might say, began not with speeches, but with the film "Repentance." The last phrase of the film - about the street that leads to the Temple, the famous Novy Mir article "Which Street Leads to the Temple?", which marked the beginning of new journalism - was not forgotten, and many people held on for a long time to the fact that everything that happens in the country, - is the search for a road to a clean, honest, bright - to the Temple. Where is this street? Where is this Temple? (New time. 1991. M 91), THE ROAD TO THE RISTALISCH LEADS THROUGH THE TEMPLE (Ros. Gazeta. 1994. Dec. 27), THE ROAD WHICH DOES NOT LEAD TO THE PARKING LOCATION (Megapolis express. 1994. May 25), SAY, THIS ROAD LEADS TO THE SPECIAL HOLD? (New time. 1991. Feb. 9), WILL THIS ROAD BRING OUT OF THE CRISIS? (Glasnost. 1991. - April 25).

The call for the restructuring of all aspects of public life, M. Gorbachev called for it all the years of the leadership of the country, and those advances in this direction, which were outlined in the then Soviet society, found, as it were, concentrated expression in the speech process has begun, belonging to the first and last President of the USSR. This expression, which was so liked by the general public, quickly became winged and became widely used: “The process has begun, Gorbachev once said” (Ros. Gazeta. 1994. July 9), “PRIMORSKI PRIKHVATIZATION”. There are no vouchers yet, but, as they say, the process has already begun ”(Ros. Gazeta: 1992. September 9). “The process has already begun: other “red directors” who are not able to pull their firms out of bankruptcy are beginning to be swept away by a wave from below” (Koms. Pravda. 1994. Feb. 10). “He [Gorbachev] still considers himself the number one democrat in post-communist Russia and, it seems, is not at all averse to repeating the catchphrase: “The process has begun! .. (Ros. Gazeta. 1994.23 Oct.). This Gorbachev's aphorism is still very popular: “Enterprising people invite potential investors, promising mountains of gold. And the process has begun ”(Ros. - newspaper. 1997.30 April). “The Secretary General of the Organization of American States expresses the hope that this [visit of the Pope] “God willing, will be the beginning of the establishment of greater political freedoms in Cuba.” In short, using the now fashionable expression, the process has begun. (Ros. Gazeta. 1998. Feb. 20).

The popularity of Gorbachev's aphorism is also evidenced by its widespread use for humorous purposes. Such an effect is achieved if the expression process has started is used in one context, not only in the Gorbachev sense (about the beginning of the implementation of any plan, idea), but in its direct meaning: “THE PROCESS WENT”. Today, a process has begun in Moscow that rightfully claims to be the title, if not the "trial of the century", then the most high-profile process of the last decades of Russian history. On the dock - 12 senior officials of the former USSR, accused in the case of the State Committee for the State of Emergency (Change. 1993. 14 April). The aphorism also acquires a humorous connotation if other words are added to it or its components are changed: THE PROCESS HAS GONE. BUT WITHOUT ME (Lit. newspaper. 1994. 20 Apr.), THE PROCESS DID NOT GO AGAIN (St. Net. Vedomosti. 1994. 4 Jan.). THE PROCESS OF APPROBATION WENT ... (Lit. gazeta. 1994. Jan. 12), FROM THE THIRD ATTEMPT "THE TRAIN WENT" (Ros. gazeta. 1993. Oct. 14).

Conclusion

In this work, only some tropes, figures, and techniques were given to help make speech more figurative and emotional. However, they do not exhaust the whole variety of expressive means of native speech. Resorting to them, one should not forget that all these “flowers of eloquence”, as the prominent master of Russian judicial eloquence P.S. Porokhovshchikov are good only when they seem unexpected to the listener. They cannot be memorized, they only need to be absorbed along with folk speech, developing and improving speech culture, speech taste and flair.

The culture of speech is not only a sign of a person's high culture, but also due to the latter, so it is important to systematically engage in self-education. It must be remembered that the correctness of our speech, the accuracy of the language, the clarity of the wording, the skillful use of terms, foreign words, the successful use of figurative and expressive means of the language, proverbs and sayings, catchwords, phraseological expressions, the richness of the individual dictionary increases the effectiveness of communication, enhances the effectiveness of the spoken word .

Bibliography

1. Vvedenskaya L.A., Pavlova L.G. Culture and art of speech. M. 1999

2. Golub I.B. Stylistics of the Russian language. M. 1997

3. Rosenthal D.E. Reference book on the Russian language. practical style. M. 2001

4. Maksimova V.I. Russian language and culture of speech. M. 2002

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Introduction

From childhood to old age, the whole life of a person is inextricably linked with the language. The rich and powerful, truly magical Russian language is given to man as a possession. And an attentive attitude to one's own and other people's speech, a good understanding of all shades of the word, mastery of the language culture is the task of modern society. To speak well, you need to know the language you speak well. The one who reads a lot, who listens attentively to people who own the culture of speech, speaks and writes better. Listening to others, you can notice a lot of interesting things in their speech, and most importantly, learn to distinguish a well-aimed Russian word from a verbal weed.The purpose of this work : to analyze the use of phraseological units (phraseological means) using an example in journalism and fiction.Tasks: consider the concept of "phraseologism" more widely, because phraseological units are one of the sources of enrichment of the Russian language, learn how to choose phraseological units correctly. This is a necessary condition for bright, expressive and accurate speech.

After all, the phraseological richness of the Russian language is enormous. And only those who love their native language, who know it well, will feel the joy of free possession of it.

Words are combined with each other to form phrases. Some of them are free, they are formed by us in speech as needed. Each word in them retains an independent meaning and performs the function of a separate member of the sentence. For example,read an interesting book, walk down the street . But there are phrases that are called non-free, related, or phraseological. In them, words, when combined together, lose their individual lexical meaning and form a new semantic whole, which, according to semantics, is equated to a separate word, for example:release a red rooster - set firebeat the buckets - mess aroundat any moment - soon,pinhead - small.

As a rule, such combinations are fixed in the language as a result of frequent and long, sometimes centuries-old practice of use. One and the same combination can act as either free or bound, depending on the context and meaning. For example:He closed his eyes and quickly fell asleep - the Dean's office closed his eyes to the misbehavior of the student .

2

Chapter 1. Phraseological units, definition and classification.

Phraseology (from Greekphrase "expression" andlogos "teaching, science") - a set of lexically indivisible, integral in meaning, reproduced in the form of ready-made speech units of word combinations.

Phraseological units can be divided into groups in terms of origin and tradition of use:

expressions from colloquial everyday speech:to speak teeth, to lose one's head, miracles in a sieve, fish without fish and cancer, born in a shirt;

expressions from professional areas of use, from slang:baffle, green street - from the usage of railroad workers;clumsy work, no hitch, no hitch - from the speech of carpenters;rub glasses, a bit card - from the slang of gamblers;

expressions from literary speech:
a) terms and phrases from scientific use:center of gravity, chain reaction, roll on an inclined plane, bring to a white heat;
b) expressions from works of fiction and journalism:"And the chest just opened" (I. Krylov); "with feeling, with sense, with arrangement" (A. Griboedov); "living corpse" (L. Tolstoy); "The case smells of kerosene" (M. Koltsov).

By stylistic color distinguish the following phraseological units:

1. Neutral – used in all styles of speech: a vicious circle, a just cause, live a century, with bated breath, know your worth, a game of imagination. regain consciousness.

2. Book – used in book styles, mainly in writing: probe the soil, follow in the footsteps, tempt fate, disappear from the face of the earth, Egyptian execution, stumbling block, Augean stables.

3. Conversational – used primarily in oral communication: live happily ever after, behind seven locks, the eye rejoices, as if on pins and needles, through teeth, the first pancake is lumpy, seven Fridays a week.

4. Colloquial – differ from colloquial lowering, rudeness: to Kudykina mountain, to give a miss, to fool the head, a trifling matter, to reach the handle, to starve the worm, to shed a tear.

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Chapter 2 The use of phraseological units in speech

Phraseological turns are widely used in various styles .. speech.

In fiction, in journalism, in colloquial speech, the use of phraseological units is associated with their expressive capabilities. Imagery, expression, characteristic of a significant part of phraseological units, help to avoid stereotypes, dryness, facelessness in speech communication. At the same time, phraseological units of a bookish nature have an "increased" expressive-stylistic coloring, their use gives speech solemnity, poetry, and bookishness.

Colloquial phraseological units are characterized by a "reduced" expressive and stylistic coloring, which allows expressing irony, familiarity, contempt, etc. It is necessary to take into account the especially reduced nature of phraseological units located on the periphery of the literary language, vernacular phraseological units (to rage with fat, just spit, slurp soup with bast shoes ) and roughly colloquial (no skin, no faces, show Kuz'kin's mother, spawn ). These specific properties of phraseological units are especially clearly visible when compared with commonly used lexical synonyms. Compare:die - lay down your head - break your neck, deceive - mislead - lead by the nose. In all styles of speech, interstyle phraseological turns with "zero" coloring are also widely used, such asany day, secret ballot, go crazy.

The use of phraseological units gives speech liveliness and figurativeness. It's appreciated

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journalists who willingly turn to Russian phraseology in feuilletons,

essays:The Volga, along with its dashing driver, disappeared as if it had fallen through the ground; The director - an atheist to the marrow of his bones - does not believe in either a brownie or a goblin. He claims that the apartment drought in the new five-story building is caused by builders. And their trace caught a cold in the state farm. Look for the wind in the field!

The appeal to colloquial phraseology in such cases often leads to a mixture of stylistically heterogeneous elements, which contributes to the comic sound of speech.

Humorists and satirists especially like to use phraseological units:Ostap came close to Vorobyaninov and, looking around, gave the leader a short, strong and invisible blow to the side. - ... Here's a gray hair in your beard! Here's a devil in your ribs!; That's right, - said Ostap, - and now on the neck. Twice. So. Nothing to do about. Sometimes the eggs have to teach the presumptuous chicken... One more time... So. Do not be shy. Don't hit the head again. This is his weakest point. (I. and P.). At the same time, stable combinations are transformed and often acquire new shades of meaning, as can be seen in the example of the quoted lines. Ilf and Petrov dismembered phraseologygray hair in beard , and the demon in the ribs , which in the second part of the sentence partly loses its metaphorical meaning (cf.:devil in the ribs - kick to the side); phraseological unitteach your grandmother to suck eggs transformed into its antonym (occasionalism). Phraseologismweakness in the text it sounds two-dimensional: both figuratively and literally (about the head), which creates a pun.

The creative transformation of phraseological units deserves more detailed consideration. Let us dwell on some methods of phraseological innovation of journalists and writers.
A tried and tested stylistic device for updating the semantics of phraseological units is a change in the number of components in them. It is expressed in expanding the composition of the phraseological unit through the use of clarifying words for certain components, which can change the phraseological unit beyond recognition, giving it a new figurative form:Cats not ordinary, but with long, yellow claws, scraped her heart (Ch.). In other cases, there is a reduction (reduction) in the composition of the phraseological unit, which is also associated with its rethinking:Helpful Hints : Don't be born beautiful (From gas.) - cutting off the second part of the proverbDon't be born beautiful, but be born happy creates a new aphorism: "beauty is the source of ..unhappiness."

The replacement of vocabulary components of phraseological units is also used for their ironic rethinking:With every fiber of his suitcase he strove abroad (I. and P.);Critics honored the novel with silence; He laughs well who laughs without consequences; Came? Saw? Shut up! (From gas.). Such a transformation of phraseological expressions leads to a radical change in their meaning and creates an acutely satirical effect.

A peculiar stylistic device of the author's processing of phraseological units

5

is a contamination of several expressions:Is it because silence is golden because it is

- sign

consent?; Divide someone else's opinion and rule; Lived my life at someone else's expense (From

gas.). Such a "crossing" returns the original lexical meaning to the phraseological components, and the phraseological units themselves are involved in a new figurative system. This gives a special semantic capacity and expressiveness to such puns.

One of the most striking stylistic devices for updating phraseological units is the destruction of their figurative meaning. At the same time, outwardly the phraseologism does not change, but loses its metaphorical meaning and is perceived literally:The writer Ivanov again received an open letter. It turned out that his neighbor in the stairwell Sidorov opened his letters. . In such situations, puns arise, built on the so-called external homonymy of phraseological units and free combinations of words.

Many of Emil Krotky's jokes are based on a two-dimensional comprehension of phraseological units:The play made a lot of noise: in all its actions they shot; Wise men and dentists look to the root; A firefighter always works with a spark; The radio awakens the thought. Even in those hours when you really want to sleep .

The second plane of meaning of a phraseological unit is sometimes revealed in a small context:Got into hardcover but consoled by reading his name on the cover; Trouble never comes alone, and his work was published in two volumes . In other cases, the two-dimensional meaning of a phraseological unit is clarified only in a broad context. So, reading in the newspaper the title of the article "broken map ", at first we perceive it in the usual sense - "the complete failure of someone's plans." However, the article tells about the operational geographical map that hung in the last months of the war at the headquarters of the fascist command. This makes us rethink the phraseological unit taken for the title of the publication , in the context of the entire article.

Phraseological units updated by writers are sometimes distinguished into a special group of occasional phraseological neologisms. Like lexical neologisms, they perform an expressive function in artistic speech, approaching the tropes:He is reputed for being a man of duty, that he has not yet repaid a debt to anyone; He made suggestions, but only subordinate clauses; Modesty adorns even those to whom it is not for face .

Chapter 3

The use of phraseological units in speech creates certain difficulties, since the language norm requires their exact reproduction, which is not always taken into account by speakers. So, in non-standardized speech, combinations of a pleonastic character, formed from phraseological units and redundant definitions, are quite often found.

6

to their components: "endure complete fiasco ", " heavy Sisyphean labor ",

" cheerful homeric laughter ". The expansion of the phraseological unit in such cases is not

justified.
There is also an unjustified reduction in the composition of a phraseological unit as a result of missing one or another of its components: "aggravating circumstance "

(instead ofaggravating guilt circumstance ); " wish this student success

the best " (instead ofleave something to be desired the best ).

The replacement of components in the composition of phraseological units is also unacceptable: "The teacher must know what lies the success of this work "; " Visit these places where else no journalist's foot has set foot "; " On the eve of the championship, the leaders more than enough worries ".

Often the reason for the distortion of the composition of phraseological units is an associative error: one or another of its components is replaced by a similar sound (often by a paronym): "not fell spirit ", " spend around the finger ", " broke out off his tongue ", " dot on and ", " seven spans on the forehead " etc.

Sometimes the grammatical forms of dictionary components are mistakenly replaced as part of phraseological units: "His head is whitened gray hair " (instead ofgray hairs ); " kids froze worms " (instead ofworm ), " He doesn't want to work chasing for long rubles "(distorted phraseological unitchasing a long ruble ).

Often the erroneous use of phraseological units is associated with the contamination of several (usually two) turns: "plays a role " - " has a role " (instead ofmatters - plays a role ), " give importance " (instead ofAttention , butattach importance ), " has a significant effect " (instead ofeffect produces andhas an impact ) etc.

Misunderstanding the etymology of phraseological units leads to comic errors: "at least a stake on the head scratches " (instead ofteshi ): " bring to white knee " (instead ofheat ; white heat - "the highest degree of heating of a metal, which first turns red, and then white"), "creaking heart " ( holding together - fromfasten ).

Sometimes in speech one can also observe the speaker's misunderstanding of the meaning of the phraseological unit used: "Cheerful and happy, the graduates sang their parting swan song ". " Today we have a joyful event: we escort to the last journey our senior comrades "The use of phraseological units without taking into account their semantics, as well as the structure, fundamentally distorts the meaning of the statement.

A gross speech error is also a distortion of the figurative meaning of a phraseological unit, which in the context is perceived not in its metaphorical meaning, but literally: "The record hasn't said its last word yet. "- the context revealed a direct meaning

7

words that formed a phraseological unit, and as a result a pun arose. Perception

phraseological units in their unusual, ugly meaning gives speech an inappropriate comic: "AT this year, Aeroflot managed to keep the flow of passengers at a high level ". However, it also happens that a free phrase in the text is perceived as

phraseological unit, which also creates a pun: "Printing house No. 5 issued geographical maps with white spots "(i.e., without a print). The reason for the inappropriate pun was the external homonymy of phraseological units and free phrases.

Both in oral and written speech, a significant number of errors are observed when

the use of phraseological units. The most typical are the following:

Replacing the component of the phraseological combination (sorting from empty to empty instead of pouring from empty to empty; the lion's part instead of the lion's share).

Unjustified reduction or expansion of the composition of the phraseological turnover (new rules entered into force instead of new rules; leave much to be desired instead of leave much to be desired).

The use of an unsuccessful definition as part of a phraseological combination (Unfortunately, at the evening dedicated to A.S. Pushkin, they asked slanderous questions about Natalya Nikolaevna instead of asking tricky questions).

Contamination (mixing) of two turns (along the coffin of the board instead of along the coffin of life and up to the coffin; pin to the throat instead of pin to the wall and approach the throat; play a meaning instead of play a role and have a meaning).

Distortion of the grammatical form of the components of a phraseological unit (tuck under the arm instead of tuck under the arm, the grandmother said for two instead of the grandmother said for two).

Violation of the grammatical connection of a phraseological unit with words adjacent to it (he never broke his hat to anyone instead of anyone and he never broke his hat; the speaker expressed regret for what happened instead of the speaker expressed regret for what happened).

The use of phraseological units that do not correspond to the context (Among the listeners there were students who did not knit the bast in Russian, instead of Among the listeners there were students who did not know Russian well; The audience inspires me with confidence that I, as an actress, can still do a lot, instead of the audience they inspire I believe that as an actress I can still do a lot).

The stylistic inappropriateness of using a phraseological phrase (the Commander ordered to reel in the fishing rods instead of the Commander ordered to leave).

8

Conclusion

Phraseologisms (phraseological means) reflect the national specifics of the language, its originality. The phraseology captures the rich historical experience of the people, it reflects ideas related to work, life and culture of people. The study of phraseology is a necessary link in the assimilation of the language, in improving the culture of speech. The correct and appropriate use of phraseological units gives speech a unique originality, special expressiveness, accuracy, imagery.

Phraseologisms, along with words, serve as the building material of the sentence and have essential features.

Sustainability - this is a measure, a degree of fusion, semantic indissolubility of all the components of a phraseological unit. The more stable the phraseologism in this regard, the more its constituent parts lose their previously generally accepted meanings. For example: to carry water with a sieve - to work aimlessly and to no avail. Here, all components of a phraseological unit have lost their own lexical meaning and serve to express the phraseological meaning as a whole.

Reproducibility- regular repetitionrenewabilityphraseological units in speech. For example, such phraseological units are reproduced as squeezing juice, not far off, hands do not reach, and so on.

Phraseological turns are almost untranslatable into another language, since they have a holistic meaning, and the words that make up the phraseological unit seem to lose their own meaning. For example: blood with milk - good health (person); baby talk - to speak naive, primitive, unreasonable, frivolous; wait for the weather by the sea - passively expect something, do nothing (usually forced).

Structure openness phraseologism is manifested in the fact that it is usually combined with all its composition, as one indivisible whole, in speech with the significant words (word) that surround it.

Phraseologism performs the role of one member of the sentence: "The casket threw itself into the eyes with decoration, cleanliness" (it stood out, it was different). (I. Krylov.) The guys worked with their sleeves rolled up (well, diligently).

In order to correctly use phraseological units in speech, you need to know their meaning and stylistic properties well. Here you may need a reference book, a dictionary. For example, the School Phraseological Dictionary of the Russian Language, edited by Zhukov V.P. and Zhukov A.V., intended mainly for high school students. Here are the phraseological units used in modern Russian. The authors reveal the meaning of phraseological units, show how they should be used in speech, give a stylistic description of each phraseological phrase, in some cases provide historical and etymological references that help to understand the semantic content of these units of the language.

9

Content

1. Introduction 2

2. Chapter 1 Phraseological units, definition and classification. 3-4

3. Chapter 2. The use of phraseological units in speech. 4-6

4. Chapter 3 Erroneous, unsuccessful use of phraseological units 6-8

5. Conclusion 9

6. List of used literature. ten

1

List of used literature

1. Abramova S.V. Organization of educational and research work in the Russian language // Russian language. - 2006. - No. 19. - S. 2 - 10.

2. Ashukin N.S., Ashukina M.G. Winged words. Literary quotations. Figurative expressions / Ans. ed. V.P. Vompersky; Il. A.B. Markevich. – M.: Pravda, 1986. – 768 p.

3 . Vvedenskaya L.A., Baranov M.T., Gvozdarev Yu.A. Russian word. Optional course "Vocabulary and phraseology of the Russian language". - M.: Enlightenment, 1990. - 144 p.

4. Grigoryan L.T. My tongue is my friend. (Materials for extracurricular work in Russian). A guide for teachers. M., "Enlightenment", 1976. - 224 With.

5. Internet resources.

10

Administration of Ulan-Ude

Education Committee

Municipal Autonomous General Educational Institution

"Secondary school No. 46"

The role of phraseological units in speech

Completed by: student of the 6th "c" class Gordeev A.

Scientific adviser:

Nechaeva V.A.,

teacher of Russian language

and literature

Ulan-Ude

2015

The use of phraseological units gives speech liveliness and figurativeness. This is appreciated by journalists who willingly turn to Russian phraseology in feuilletons, essays: the Volga, along with its dashing driver, disappeared, as if fell through the ground; The director is an atheist to the core- does not believe in either the brownie or the goblin. He claims that the apartment drought in the new five-story building is caused by builders. And them and the trace has caught a cold at the state farm. Look for the wind in the field! (From gas.). The appeal to colloquial phraseology in such cases often leads to a mixture of stylistically heterogeneous elements, which contributes to the comic sound of speech.

Humorists and satirists are especially fond of using phraseological units: Ostap came close to Vorobyaninov and, looking around, gave the leader a short, strong and imperceptible to the prying eye blow to the side. That's right, - said Ostap, - and now on the neck. Twice. So. Nothing to do about. Sometimes the eggs have to teach the presumptuous chicken... One more time... So. Do not be shy. Don't hit the head again. This is his weakest point (I. and P.). At the same time, stable combinations are transformed and often acquire new shades of meaning, as can be seen in the example of the quoted lines. Ilf and Petrov dissected the phraseological unit gray in the beard, and the demon in the rib, which in the second part of the sentence partly loses its metaphorical meaning (cf .: demon in the rib - a blow to the side); idiom chicken eggs do not teach is transformed into its antonym (occasionalism). Phraseologism weak point in the text sounds two-dimensional: both figuratively and directly (about the head), which creates a pun.

The creative transformation of phraseological units deserves more detailed consideration. Let us dwell on some methods of phraseological innovation of journalists and writers.

A tried and tested stylistic device for updating the semantics of phraseological units is a change in the number of components in them. It is expressed in the expansion of the phraseological unit through the use of clarifying words for certain components, which can change the phraseological unit beyond recognition, giving it a new figurative form: Cats are not ordinary, but with long, yellow claws, scraping her by the heart (Ch.). In other cases, there is a reduction (reduction) in the composition of the phraseological unit, which is also associated with its rethinking: Helpful Hints: Do not be born beautiful (From gas.) - cutting off the second part of the proverb Do not be born beautiful, but be born happy creates a new aphorism: "beauty is the source of unhappiness."

The replacement of vocabulary components of phraseological turns is also used for their ironic rethinking: With all the fibers of his suitcase, he strove abroad (I. and P.); Critics honored the novel with silence; He laughs well who laughs without consequences; Came? Saw? Shut up! (From gas.). Such a transformation of phraseological expressions leads to a radical change in their meaning and creates an acutely satirical effect.

A peculiar stylistic device of the author's processing of phraseological units is the contamination of several expressions: Is silence golden because it is a sign of consent?; Divide someone else's opinion and rule; He lived his life at the expense of others (From the gas.). Such a "crossing" returns the original lexical meaning to the phraseological components, and the phraseological units themselves are involved in a new figurative system. This gives a special semantic capacity and expressiveness to such puns.

One of the most striking stylistic devices for updating phraseological units is the destruction of their figurative meaning. At the same time, the phraseologism does not change outwardly, but loses its metaphorical meaning and is perceived literally: the writer Ivanov again received the Open Letter. It turned out that Sidorov, a neighbor in the stairwell, opens his letters. In such situations, puns arise, built on the so-called external homonymy of phraseological units and free combinations of words.

Many jokes of Emil Krotkiy are based on a two-dimensional understanding of phraseological units: The play made a lot of noise: they shot at all its actions; Wise men and dentists look to the root; A firefighter always works with a spark; The radio awakens the thought. Even during those hours when you really want to sleep.

The second plan of the meaning of a phraseological unit is sometimes revealed in a small-sized context: I got into a bind, but consoled myself by reading my name on the cover; Trouble never comes alone, and his work was published in two volumes. In other cases, the two-dimensional meaning of a phraseological unit is clarified only in a broad context. So, when reading the headline of an article "Broken Map" in a newspaper, at first we perceive it in its usual meaning - "a complete failure of someone's plans." However, the article tells about the operational geographical map, which hung in the last months of the war at the headquarters of the fascist command: This is the map of the end. It is devoid of threatening offensive arrows and flank attacks. We see a bridgehead, compressed to a patch, and semicircles nervously applied to the grid of roads - the last pockets of resistance (A.K.). This makes us rethink the phraseological unit taken for the title of the publication in the context of the entire article.

Phraseological units updated by writers are sometimes distinguished into a special group of occasional phraseological neologisms. Like lexical neologisms, they perform an expressive function in artistic speech, approaching the tropes: He is reputed to be a man of duty, that he has not yet paid a debt to anyone; He made suggestions, but only subordinate clauses; Modesty adorns even those to whom it does not suit.

The use of phraseological units in speech creates certain difficulties, since the language norm requires their exact reproduction, which is not always taken into account by speakers. So, in non-standardized speech, combinations of a pleonastic nature are quite often found, formed from phraseological units and redundant definitions for their components: "be patient complete fiasco ", " heavy Sisyphean labor "," happy Homeric laughter". The expansion of the phraseological unit in such cases is not justified.

There is also an unjustified reduction in the composition of a phraseological unit as a result of missing one or another of its components: "aggravating circumstance" (instead of aggravating guilt circumstance); "this student's progress is poor" (instead of leaving want the best).

The replacement of components in the composition of phraseological units is also unacceptable: "The teacher must know what success lies this work"; "Visit these places where else no journalist's foot has set foot"; "On the eve of the championship, the leaders more than enough worries ".

Often the reason for the distortion of the composition of phraseological units is an associative error: one or another of its components is replaced by a similar sound (often by a paronym): "not fell spirit "," spend around the finger ", " broke out he has with the language "," dot on and"," seven spans on the forehead "etc.

Sometimes the grammatical forms of dictionary components are mistakenly replaced as part of phraseological units: "His head is whitened gray hair"(instead of gray hairs); "Children froze worms" (instead of a worm), "He does not want to work, but chasing for long rubles "(the phraseological unit is distorted to chase a long ruble).

Often, the erroneous use of phraseological units is associated with the contamination of several (usually two) turns: "plays a meaning" - "has a role" (instead of having a meaning - plays a role), "pay attention" (instead of attention, but give importance), "has a significant effect" (instead of the effect produces and influences), etc.

Misunderstanding the etymology of phraseological units leads to comic errors: "at least a stake on the head scratches" (instead of tesha): "bring to white knee"(instead of heat; white heat -" the highest degree of heating of the metal, which first turns red and then white ")," creaking the heart "(fastening - from fastening).

Sometimes in a speech one can also observe a misunderstanding by the speaker of the meaning of the phraseological unit used: "Cheerful and happy, the graduates sang their swan song at parting." Or: [from a student's speech at the "Last Bell" holiday] "Today we have a joyful event: we escort to the last journey our senior comrades." The use of phraseological units without taking into account their semantics, as well as structure, fundamentally distorts the meaning of the statement.

A gross speech error is also a distortion of the figurative meaning of a phraseological unit, which in the context is perceived not in its metaphorical meaning, but literally: "The record has not yet said its last word" - the context showed the direct meaning of the words that formed the phraseological unit, and as a result a pun arose. The perception of phraseological units in their unusual, unimaginative meaning gives the speech an inappropriate comedy: "This year, Aeroflot managed to keep the flow of passengers at a high level"However, it also happens that a free phrase in the text is perceived as a phraseological unit, which also creates a pun:" Printing house No. 5 issued geographical maps with white spots"(i.e., without a print). The reason for the inappropriate pun was the external homonymy of phraseological units and free phrases.