Social institutions of the spiritual sphere and their role in the life of society. Social institutions of religion
Some ten years ago, receiving knowledge and education from a materialistic standpoint, we assumed that such specific institutions as religion and its organizations cease to be factors in national social life, lose their positions in influencing the worldview of people.
An analysis of the reality of our days has shown the erroneousness and haste of conclusions of this kind. Today, even with an unprofessional eye of the layman, one can notice that there is a noticeable activation of religious institutions that are directly trying to participate in solving a number of topical problems of our time. This can be observed in different regions, in countries with different levels of economic development, where different religions are widespread. The phenomenon of the intensification of religious activity did not bypass Russia either, and the troubled times of the so-called reforms further contributed to the strengthening of this activity. What is the value of religion for humanity, what are its social functions? These and other questions must be answered in the process of sociological analysis of religion as a social institution. Before considering religion from this point of view, it is necessary to consider what constitutes the concept of "social institution".
Social institutions are organized associations of people performing certain socially significant functions, ensuring the joint achievement of goals based on the social roles performed by members, set by social values, norms and patterns of behavior. And the process of streamlining, formalization and standardization of public relations and relations is called institutionalization. Since the middle of the last century in sociology and religious studies, an independent direction called “sociology of religion” has been developing and then gaining great development. E. Durkheim, M. Weber and other well-known scientists and public figures devoted their works to the study of religion as a social institution, incl. and K. Marx. According to Marx's theory, religion as a social phenomenon is an objective factor that externally and forcibly influences people like any other social institution. Marx thus laid the foundation for the functional method of studying religion. Religion, according to Marx, is more determined by social relations than a factor that determines them. Its social function is to interpret rather than produce existing relationships. The social function of religion is a function
ideological: it either justifies and thereby legitimizes the existing order, or condemns them, denying them the right to exist. Religion can perform the function of integrating society, but it can also act as a factor disintegrating society when conflicts arise on religious grounds.
Religion, from the point of view of absolute criteria, sanctions certain views, activities, relationships, institutions, giving them an aura of holiness, or declares them impious, fallen away, mired in evil, sinful, contrary to the law, the word of God, refuses to recognize them. The religious factor affects the economy, politics, the state, interethnic relations, family, culture through the activities of believing individuals, groups, organizations in these areas. There is an imposition of religious relations on other social relations.
The degree of influence of religion is connected with its place in society, and this place is not given once and for all; it, as already noted, changes in the context of the processes of sacralization, secularization, and pluralization. Such processes are non-unilinear, contradictory, uneven in civilizations and societies of different types, at different stages of their development, in different countries and regions in various socio-political and cultural situations.
The impact on the individual, society and its subsystems, tribal, folk-national, regional, world religions, as well as individual religious trends and confessions, is peculiar. In their doctrine, cult, organization, ethics, there are specific features that find expression among followers in the rules of attitude to the world, in the daily behavior of followers in various areas of public and private life; impose a seal on “economic man”, “political man”, “moral man”, “artistic man”, “ecological man”, in other words, on various aspects of culture. The system of motivation was not the same, and therefore the direction and efficiency of economic activity in Judaism, Christianity, Islam, Catholicism, Calvinism, Orthodoxy, Old Believers. Tribal, national and national (Hinduism, Confucianism, Sikhism, etc.), world religions (Buddhism, Christianity, Islam), their directions and confessions were included in different ways in interethnic, interethnic relations. There are noticeable differences in the morality and ethics of a Buddhist, a Taoist, a follower of a tribal religion. Art developed in its own way, its types and genres, artistic images in contact with certain religions. The works of the founders of the sociology of religion determined all its subsequent development, the main directions of research, problems, and methodology. By the end of XIX - beginning of XX century. the sociology of religion is emerging as an independent discipline.
66. What does the sociology of religion study?
The sociology of religion is one of the areas of general sociology, whose task is to study religion as a social phenomenon. She explores religion as one of the social subsystems, as a social institution, as a factor in motivating people's social behavior. For example, if philosophy in its studies of religion tries to penetrate into the essence of certain beliefs (to find the truth), then sociology seeks to identify the influence of certain beliefs on people's behavior.
The sociology of religion is a concrete science. In her research, she subjects to sociological analysis only those aspects of religion (social facts) that have been identified as a result of empirical research (survey, observation, experiment, etc.).
The founders of the sociology of religion are E. Durkheim and M. Weber. So, Durkheim believed that religion is one of the social institutions that arose to meet certain social needs. Therefore, for its study it is necessary to apply sociological methods and evaluation criteria. The meaning and purpose of religion is the cultivation of social (public) feelings and ideas, rituals and cult actions that become mandatory for all members of society and in the representation of individuals (groups) are an objective reality.
M. Weber also considered religion as a social institution. However, unlike Durkheim, he did not believe that religion, as an objective reality, completely subordinates an individual or group to its authority and power. According to Weber, religion is the basis of a system of values and norms that give meaning and meaning to the behavior and way of thinking of each individual, each social group, and thus contributes to individual self-realization.
A significant contribution to the development of the sociology of religion was made by such scientists as G. Simmel, B. Malinovsky, T. Parsons, T. Lukman, R. Bel, A.I. Ilyin, N.A. Berdyaev and others.
67. What is religion and what is its essence?
Religion is a system of beliefs in the existence of a certain transcendent instance (a supernatural worldview structure) that evaluates (controls) the actions and thinking of an individual, group, social community.
Transcendental (from lat. - going beyond) - inaccessible to knowledge; beyond what can be comprehended by natural methods. Therefore, religious dogmas in themselves are not subject to scientific analysis. They are either taken for granted or rejected.
Each religion is characterized by certain, specific ritual actions, which, according to believers, contribute to the establishment of a direct and feedback connection with the object of worship. For example, the rite of baptism in Christianity, circumcision in Judaism and Islam, meditation in Buddhism and Hinduism, etc.
The earliest forms of religion are the following: magic (witchcraft, sorcery); totemism (kinship with certain animals); fetishism (cult of inanimate objects); animism (belief in the soul and spirits), etc. Religion is one of the constituent parts of human culture. Having arisen at an early stage of primitive society, it goes through a long path of development from tribal forms to world forms.
As the social structure of society becomes more complex, so does the structure of religion. At the same time, changes are taking place in the relationship between religion and society. For example: in primitive society there are still no special differences between public life and the performance of religious rites, and there are no professional clergymen. During the period of the disintegration of the tribal system, separate, relatively independent elements of religion (priests, shamans, etc.) begin to emerge, but on the whole, social and religious life coincide. With the emergence of the state, relatively independent structures of religion begin to form, a special estate of clergymen appears, religious buildings (temples, monasteries, etc.) are built. But for all the above periods of the development of religion, one indispensable condition is characteristic - a person who is outside of religion is considered both outside the law and outside society, since religion was not separated from society and the state. In some countries, this situation persists even now (Saudi Arabia, Qatar, Iran, etc.).
The emergence of civil society and the rule of law contributed to the separation of church and state. In conditions of democracy and pluralism, adherence to a particular religion is determined not by legal acts, but by the free choice of each member of society.
In different periods of history, in different countries and regions of the world, the role of religion was very ambiguous. In a primitive tribal society, this or that totem was the patron of a certain kind, served as a symbol of faith and hope, and united a certain group of people. In the pre-Christian period, in a class society, religion merged with the state, and it was not easy to distinguish between their functions.
At the dawn of our era, Christianity arose as a revolutionary doctrine of the equality of all people before God and was directed against the Roman state. The paradox of history lies in the fact that in the future the main persecutor of the Christian religion, Rome, became the main city of the Christian world.
During the Middle Ages in Europe, the Catholic Church claimed the role of the main political force in solving the most important state and interstate issues. Many future monarchs, before taking the throne, had to ask for blessings from the Pope. The Crusades for several centuries shook not only Europe, but also other regions of the world. The "sacred" church court decided the fate of millions of people.
With the development of bourgeois market relations, the frozen dogmas of Christianity began to slow down social progress. In the XVI-XVII centuries. heterogeneous socio-political movements undermine the power of the Catholic Church. As a result of the reformation of the church, the state and society were freed from church guardianship, and the church itself was freed from the state. Secularization - liberation from church influence - contributed to the formation of a modern secular culture of society.
In the modern world, the role of religion in different countries is also ambiguous. In a democratic society, religion is one of the social institutions of civil society, the role and functions of which are regulated by constitutional norms. But there are countries where religion continues to have a significant impact on the domestic and foreign policy of the state and restrict human rights. Many international terrorist organizations use religious ideology for their own purposes.
68. Why does religion arise?
Among the variety of factors and reasons for the emergence of religion, five main ones can be distinguished.
1. Social and socio-climatic - human vulnerability to natural disasters and social cataclysms (wars, famines, epidemics, etc.). Desire to find protection in the supernatural.
2. Epistemological (cognitive) - the ability of human consciousness, in the course of cognitive activity, to impart supernatural (transcendental) properties to objects and phenomena that a person is not able to explore empirically. Abstract ideas about certain phenomena, based not on knowledge, but on faith.
3. Psychological, related to the impact of worship on the human psyche. For example, an individual may experience visions (hallucinations), strong emotional arousal, etc. during a religious ceremony.
4. Socio-psychological - a single faith and joint cult activities contribute to the integration of people within a certain socio-cultural community (Durkheim).
5. Historical - the conditionality of the existing religion by its previous development, i.e., historical roots.
69. What is the structure of religion?
Religion as a social institution is a complex social system. The main elements of the structure of religion are: religious consciousness, religious cult, religious organization.
1. Religious consciousness is a specific form of social consciousness, the main feature of which is belief in the supernatural. Religious consciousness can be conditionally divided into two components - religious psychology and religious ideology.
Religious psychology includes various properties of the psyche of people that are directly or indirectly related to religion, for example, myths, traditions, ideas, attitudes, prejudices, emotions, moods, opinions, etc. Each of the properties of the psyche takes its place in the structure of religious psychology and fulfills its specific role. So, for example, if emotions and moods are very changeable, then traditions and myths can be passed down from generation to generation for many years. Religious psychology is the ordinary level of religious knowledge.
Religious ideology in the structure of religious knowledge represents another theoretical level. If religious psychology is based on ordinary ideas about religion, then religious ideology involves a systematic theoretical substantiation of religious dogmas and religious practices. It is the basis (a guide to action) for the unification of believers and the building of a religious organization. The main sources of the emergence and development of religious ideology are sacred texts and scriptures. In the Christian religion, such a source is the Bible, in Islam - the Koran. Religious ideology is the basis (guide to action) for uniting believers and building a religious organization.
Religious and political elites at all times and in different countries have sought and continue to strive to "privatize" religious ideology, to make it an obedient weapon in achieving their own selfish goals. Often this leads to religious conflicts and wars both between adherents of different religions (for example, between Christians and Muslims), and between adherents of different directions in one religion (between Sunnis and Shiites in Islam, Catholics and Orthodox in Christianity, etc.).
2. Religious cult (from Latin - veneration) - a system of symbolic forms and actions with which believers seek to express their adherence to a particular religion or influence the supernatural. For example, the cross is a symbol of the Christian religion, the crescent is a symbol of the Muslim religion; in Christianity, rites such as the baptism of newborns and the funeral of the dead are considered obligatory; in Russia, in order to influence supernatural forces, the church often organized an "extraordinary religious procession."
3. Religious organizations - a certain form of association and management of believers. There are four main types of religious organizations: church, sect, denomination, cult.
70. What types of religious organizations exist?
In the scientific literature, it is generally accepted that all religious organizations are divided into four main types: church, sect, denomination, cult.
The Church (from the Greek - God's house) is an open, mass religious organization that has close ties with the broad strata of society and operates within it. The main features of the church are: the presence of a more or less developed dogmatic and cult system; the presence of a special layer of people - clergy (clergy) and ordinary believers - parishioners; centralized management system for individual church divisions; the presence of specific religious buildings and structures.
A sect is a special religious organization (a group of believers) that rejects the basic values of the official church and the majority of believers. Usually a sect is formed by a group of believers who have broken away from the main church. A sect is a closed or semi-closed organization that requires a certain initiation ritual to enter. Leaving a sect is also not easy.
A denomination is an intermediate link between a church and a sect. It is more open and numerous than a sect, but also, in fact, is a religious organization that broke away from the official church. For example, such Protestant denominations as Baptists, Presbyterians, Methodists, etc. arose as a result of a split from the Christian church. Sometimes denominations are formed as a result of expansion (aggregation) of sects. Denominations are most characteristic of those countries in which freedom of religion has become the basis of religious pluralism (USA, Canada, etc.).
A cult is a closed religious organization (an extreme form of a sect) based on the worship of some false messiah. The pernicious influence of some cult religious organizations on young people (teenagers) causes the legitimate indignation of their parents and the public. Often, the activities of such organizations become the subject of proceedings for law enforcement agencies.
There are currently more than a million adherents (followers) of various totalitarian religious sects in Russia, many of which are banned in the West or are under the strict control of special services there.
71. What are the social functions of religion?
All religious relations, ultimately, are one of the types of social relations, and religion itself is a complex social system that regulates relations between people. At all times and under any conditions, religious institutions, in addition to religious functions, also performed social functions, that is, they acted as social institutions. Religion is not so much a person's attitude to God (Gods), as the relationship between people about God (Gods).
The main functions of religion as a social institution:
1. Illusory-compensatory - giving a person hope in real life and in the other world.
2. Worldview - belief in the existence of a certain transcendent instance, which (faith) largely determines the system of value orientations, ways of thinking of believers and their perception of the world around them.
3. Regulatory - the creation and functioning of a certain system of values and norms that motivates the behavior of believers.
4. Integrative - a believer identifies (identifies) himself with a certain social community of people who adhere to the same religious views. The feeling of unity with "brothers" in faith is inherent in all believers. However, this feeling is often used to divide people into “us” and “them”.
5. The function of demarcation (ideological) - in the modern world, religion has become a powerful means of ideological influence on the minds of people in order to separate the opposition to each other.
Other social functions of religion can also be named, for example, such as: educational, socialization function, legal, political, cultural, ideological, etc.
72. What is the role of religion in the consolidation and division of people?
Religion plays a huge role in the consolidation and identification of people. Already in the primitive era, a clan or tribe expressed its identity by associating itself with a certain totem (animal, plant, etc.). The totem was both a patron and a symbol (emblem, coat of arms), and a factor in uniting people. In modern world religions, symbols-totems are such attributes of religion as a cross in Christianity, a crescent in Islam, a statue or image of Buddha in Buddhism, etc.
Another unifying factor in religion is joint religious ceremonies: procession, mass pilgrimage to holy places, ritual religious dance, joint prayer, etc. Joint ceremonies (even rituals of grief and loss), according to E. Durkheim, cause their participants to experience a state of unity and excitement, which involves the mobilization of all active forces.
The next factor in the unity of people is the religious worldview (faith). It implies the unity of views, value orientations, certain forms of behavior for all adherents of a particular religion. Religious worldview is the main unifying factor for believers. And written sources (Bible, Koran, Talmud, etc.), which set out the main postulates (statements, requirements, axioms) of faith, are considered sacred for every believer.
As a consolidating factor, one can name the self-identification (self-determination) of an individual who may not be a convinced believer, not attend temples, not pray, but consider himself a supporter of a particular religion.
But any social identification involves comparison and opposition. In order to consolidate within the framework of their religious identity (faith, confession), people must somehow distinguish it from others, that is, divide people into “us” and “them”. At the same time, as a rule, one's own faith and its adherents are evaluated more positively than others. These assessments can be cultivated consciously, or they can arise at the subconscious level. This is the essence of identification.
The consolidating properties of religion at all times were widely used by various kinds of political adventurers, nationalists, ambitious religious figures and patriots. Religious ideology is a powerful means of mobilizing people both to defend the fatherland and to wage wars of conquest. So, in the XI-XIII centuries. the Catholic Church initiated and blessed the "crusades", and in the XVI-XVIII centuries. - Huguenot wars. In the Middle Ages, most of the wars of conquest and liberation acquired a religious character. In Muslim vocabulary, there is even such a thing as "ghazavat" (jihad) - meaning "holy war" of Muslims against the infidels.
Religious wars are not a thing of the past. And in the modern world, ambitious politicians and terrorist organizations use religion to achieve their own selfish goals. As a result, entire peoples and countries fall apart and are at enmity between the two on religious grounds. So the former Yugoslavia broke up into Orthodox Serbia, Catholic Croatia, Muslim Bosnia and other "religious" enclaves. In Northern Ireland, the once united people "divided" into Catholics and Protestants, and between these religious communities for many decades (according to other calculations - for many centuries) there has been a permanent war. In Iraq, two branches of the Muslim religion - Shiites and Sunnis - are killing each other. International adventurers seek to divide the whole world along religious lines and unleash a World War on this basis. According to some researchers, this war (the Fourth World War) has already begun.
Literature
Weber M. Sociology of Religion / Selected. Society image. - M., 1994.
Volkov Yu.G. Sociology: Elementary course. - M., 2003.
Garadzha V.I. Sociology of religion. - M., 1996.
Zimmel G. Towards the sociology of religion // Questions of sociology. 1993. No. 3.
Moskovichi S. A machine that creates gods. - M., 1998.
Religion and Society: A Reader in the Sociology of Religion. - M., 1996.
Smelzer N. Sociology. - M., 1994.
Sociological Encyclopedia. In 2 vols. T. 2. - M., 2003.
Ugrinovich D.M. Art and religion. - M., 1982.
Freud Z. The future of one illusion. Psychoanalysis and religion // Twilight of the gods. - M., 1989.
Has the following features: 1 - Turns into a social in.-t earlier than others. 2 - The system of relations that develops as a result of the consolidation of religious norms. 3 - Arises after the mythological consciousness.
As you know, religion exists not only as a system of ideas, perception and explanation of the world. The strength and significance of religion in the life of society is so great because religion (religious practice) functions as the most important social institution that ensures the appropriate behavior of people.
The main elements of religion as an institutionalized system are:
Religious symbols, ideas, treatises, dogmas, teachings, recorded in the Holy Scriptures, Torah, Koran, etc.
A cult that emotionally supports the believer's attachment to a given religion, develops religious feelings in him: temple services, prayers, holidays, rites, rituals;
The organization of people's interactions about religious practice is the church. The latter organizes, coordinates, and controls the religious activities of all adherents of a given religion, making a clear delimitation of status and roles between clergymen. Priests who carry out religious and cult and ideological and religious activities, and the laity, i.e., ordinary people.
The church unites adherents of one religion into a single social group, is an important social organization in any society.
Religion as a sacred (sacred) form of meaning-making of people's activities, a transcendental (i.e., going beyond the limits of the everyday world) justification of human existence, has performed and is performing a diverse role in the life of society and man
Functions of Religion
Religion as a social institution performs the following functions in society.
worldview function. All over the world, religion provides answers to burning questions about the meaning of existence, the cause of human suffering and the essence of death. These answers give people a sense of purpose. Instead of feeling like helpless beings dragging out a meaningless existence under the blows of fate, believers are convinced that their lives are part of a single divine plan.
compensatory function. The answers that religion gives to questions about the meaning of existence give consolation to believers, convincing them that their suffering on earth is not in vain. Religious rituals associated with critical events such as illness and death allow people to maintain their peace of mind during the bitter hours of life and reconcile them to the inevitable. The individual knows that others sympathize with him and finds solace in familiar and well-established rituals.
The function of social self-identification. Religious teachings and practices unite believers in a community of people who share the same values and pursue the same goals (“we Jews”, “we Christians”, “we Muslims”). Religious rituals that accompany, for example, a marriage ceremony connect the bride and groom with a larger community of people wishing well to the young. The same applies to other religious rites, such as the baptism of an infant or the funeral of the dead.
Socio-regulatory function. Religious teachings are not quite an abstraction. They are also applicable to people's daily lives. For example, four of the Ten Commandments preached by Moses to the Israelites are related to God, while six others contain instructions for people's daily lives, including relationships with parents, employers, and neighbors.
The function of social control. Religion not only sets the norms for everyday life, but also controls the behavior of people. Most of the rules of a religious group apply only to its members, but some rules set limits for other citizens who do not belong to a religious community. An example of this provision is the religious instructions included in the penal legislation. So, in Russia blasphemy and adultery were once criminal offenses for which people were tried and punished to the fullest extent of the law. Laws that prohibit the sale of liquor until 12 noon on Sundays—or even the sale on Sundays of “non-essential goods”—is another illustration of this point.
adaptive function. Religion can help people adapt to a new environment. For example, it is not easy for immigrants to adapt to the strange customs of a new country that seem to them. By preserving the native language, familiar rituals and beliefs, religion provides an inseparable connection of immigrants with their cultural past.
protective function. Most religions support the government and resist any changes in the social situation, directing their sacred authority against the forces that demand to violate the status quo, revolutionaries, condemn attempts at coup d'état. The Church protects and supports the existing power, and the power, in turn, provides support to the denominations that protect it.
Socio-critical function. Although religion is often so closely tied to the prevailing social order that it resists change, there are times when it comes out as a critique of the current situation in society.
Social forms of organization of religion
religious community
The universal church is a religious structure that to some extent contributes to the integration of society and at the same time, through the beliefs and ideas contained in it, satisfies most of the personal needs of individuals at all social levels. It is characterized by a systematic and effective combination of the qualities of both church and sect. Its universality is manifested in the fact that it covers all members of society, and in the fact that there is a close relationship between the two main functions of religion. In heterogeneous societies, such an equilibrium is achieved with great difficulty and cannot be maintained for very long: the lack of completeness of the system, the insistence of the ruling groups to maintain an order acceptable to them without the changes inevitable in a changing society, differences in individual requirements - all this stimulates schismatic tendencies, so typical for religions of complex societies.
Ecclesia. Like the universal church, the ekklesia (from the Greek ekklesia, church) encompasses the entire society. The difference is that sectarian tendencies are less pronounced in it. It adapts itself so well to the demands and needs of the dominant social elements that the needs of the lower classes are frustrated. The ecclesia is better at reinforcing the impact of existing patterns of social integration than it is at fulfilling many of the functions of religion for the individual. It can be defined as the universal church in a state of ossification.
Becker describes the ecclesia as follows: “The social structure known as the 'ekklesia' is a predominantly conservative entity, not in open conflict with the secular moments of social life, openly universal in its goals ... In its full development, the ekklesia tries to merge with the state and with the ruling classes and seeks to establish control over the personality of each individual. Members of the ecclesia belong to it from birth, they do not need to join it. However, it is a social structure somewhat akin to a nation or a state, not in any sense elected... The ecclesia, by its very nature, attaches great importance to the prayers it sends, the doctrinal system it articulates, the official administration of worship and education with side of the spiritual hierarchy. Ecclesia as an intrasocial structure is closely merged with national and economic interests; since this is the pattern of the majority, its very essence compels it to adjust its ethics to the ethics of the secular world; it should represent the morality of a respectable majority”
Denomination. This type of religious organization is not as universal as the ekklesia, because it is limited by class, national, racial, and sometimes regional boundaries. With a certain stretch, a denomination can also be called a church, since it is in relative, but not perfect harmony with the secular power structure. The church of the "pure" type contains sectarian elements, and its members represent all social and class levels existing in society. Many denominations began their existence as sects and have not completely broken away from their origins.
Denominations are very diverse, for example, in the US they range from Congregationalism, which has persistent sectarian tendencies, to Lutheranism, which has adapted well to secular power structures. On the whole, denominations tend to follow the path of compromise. This is partly due to the fact that in modern society, in contrast to the relative religious unity of the Middle Ages, sectarian elements are more inclined to form their own institutions than to integrate with the universal church.
A stable sect is a small religious group that is not inclined to compromise with the state and the church. Sects are unstable by their very nature. Either the group breaks up and disappears when its leader and other members die, or it is included in a more formal structure with the ability to accept new members and ensure their common interests are served. Professional religious leaders appear when the enthusiasm of the first generation of sectarians, which determined the democracy of the movement, decreases, and the tension of direct opposition to the established social order subsides. Nevertheless, the final transition to the bosom of the national church may not happen.
Cult. The term "cult" is used in a variety of ways. Firstly, this concept denotes a small religious group that unites people striving for their own mystical experience, with an undeveloped organizational structure, and a charismatic leader. This group in many ways resembles a sect, but it is characterized by a deeper break with the dominant religious tradition in society. Second, cult refers to the type of religious organization that is the furthest away from the "universal church" type. This is a small, short-lived, often local organization, usually built around an imperious leader (compare with the trend towards widespread participation in religious practice by ordinary members of the sect).
Social organizations
social organization- this is an association of people who jointly implement a certain program or goal and act on the basis of certain procedures and rules. Social organizations vary in complexity, specialization of tasks, and formalization of roles and procedures. There are several types of classification of social organizations. The most common classification is based on the type of membership people have in an organization. In accordance with this criterion, three types of organizations are distinguished: voluntary, coercive or totalitarian and utilitarian.
AT voluntary people enter organizations to achieve goals that are considered morally significant, to obtain personal satisfaction, increase social prestige, the possibility of self-realization, but not for material rewards. These organizations, as a rule, are not associated with state, government structures, they are formed to pursue the common interests of their members. Such organizations include religious, charitable, socio-political organizations, clubs, interest associations, etc.
hallmark totalitarian organizations is involuntary membership, when people are forced to join these organizations, and life in them is strictly subject to certain rules, there are supervisory personnel who deliberately control the people's environment, restrictions on communication with the outside world, etc. The named organizations are prisons, army, monasteries and so on.
AT utilitarian Organizations people enter to receive material rewards, wages.
In real life, it is difficult to single out the pure types of organizations considered; as a rule, there is a combination of features of different types.
According to the degree of rationality in achieving goals and the degree of efficiency, traditional and rational organizations are distinguished.
The goals of the organization are its fundamental element. Target- is the desired result or conditions that the members of the organization strive to achieve in order to satisfy collective needs. . There are three main types of goals:
1) objectives of the assignment: plans, assignments given from the outside by a higher-ranking organization,
2) orientation goals: the common interests of the participants, realized through the organization,
An important point of joint activity is the combination of the goals of tasks and the goals of orientations. The goals of the system should fit into the goals of the task and the goals of orientation.
Every organization must adapt to the influence of the external environment. The activity of a social organization is influenced by:
State and political system,
Competitors and the labor market, economics,
Social and cultural factors
Religion - a set of values, norms and rules of behavior related to the sphere of the transcendent; a form of organization of social interaction focused on the sacred (sacred). Religion is one way of giving meaning to social action.
Theories of religion. The sociological approach to religion was formed to a large extent under the influence of the ideas of the three "classics" of sociology: K. Marx, E. Durkheim and M. Weber.
Emil Durksheim considered religion from the position of structural functionalism. The scientist gave a definition of religion, opposing the concepts "sacred" and " profane"(worldly). Sacred objects and symbols, he argues, are considered outside the ordinary aspects of existence, which form the realm of the mundane.
Sacred - (from English, sacral and lat. sacrum - sacred, dedicated to the gods) in a broad sense, everything related to the Divine, religious, otherworldly, irrational, mystical, different from everyday things, concepts, phenomena. Contrasted with profane - secular, worldly
E. Durkheim emphasized that religions have never been just a set of beliefs. Every religion is characterized by constantly recurring rituals and rites in which groups of believers take part.
Ritual - (lat. ritualis - ritual, from lat. ritus, "ceremonial ceremony, cult rite") - a set of rites that accompany a religious act, or developed by custom or an established procedure for doing something; ceremonial.
rite - a set of actions of a stereotypical nature, which has a symbolic meaning. The stereotypical nature of the actions of the rite, that is, their alternation in some more or less rigidly specified order, reflects the origin of the word "rite". From the point of view of etymology, it means exactly "bringing something in order." Rituals are characterized as traditional human actions. Rites associated with birth, initiation, marriage, death are called family rites, and, for example, agricultural rites are called calendar rites.
Through collective rites, the sense of group solidarity is confirmed and strengthened. Rites distract people from the worries of worldly life and transfer them to a sphere where sublime feelings reign and where they can feel merging with higher powers. These higher forces, which supposedly are totems, divine beings or gods, are in reality a reflection of the influence of the collective on the individual.
Rites and rituals, from the point of view of E. Durkheim, are essential for strengthening the solidarity of members of social groups. This is the reason why rituals are found not only in standard situations of regular worship, but also at all major events associated with changes in the social status of a person and his relatives, for example, at birth, marriage or death. Rituals and ceremonies of this kind are found in almost all societies. Durkheim concludes that collective rites, performed at those moments when people are faced with the need to adapt to significant changes in their lives, strengthen group solidarity. In small cultures of the traditional type, Durkheim argues, almost all aspects of life are literally permeated with religion. Religious rituals, on the one hand, give rise to new ideas and categories of thinking, and on the other hand, strengthen already established values. Religion is not only a sequence of feelings and actions, it actually determines way of thinking people in traditional cultures.
Unlike E. Durkheim, who paid attention to the integrating function of religion, K. Marx, considering religion from the standpoint of a conflictological approach, saw in it, first of all, a means of social control. He shared the view of religion as a self-alienation characteristic of people. The opinion is often expressed that K. Marx rejected religion, but this is not true. Religion, in his opinion, is "the heart of a heartless world, a refuge from the cruel everyday reality." From the point of view of K. Marx, religion in all traditional forms must disappear. The famous saying of K. Marx “religion is the opium of the people” can be interpreted as follows: religion promises that the reward for all the hardships of earthly life will be received in the afterlife, and teaches us to come to terms with existing living conditions. Possible happiness in the afterlife thus diverts attention from the fight against inequality and injustice in earthly life. In this case, K. Marx draws attention to the applied function of religion: religious beliefs and values often serve as an excuse for property inequality and differences in social status. For example, the thesis that "the meek is rewarded" suggests that those who follow this position take a position of humility, non-resistance to violence.
M. Weber, from the position of "understanding" sociology, undertook a large-scale study of religions existing in the world. The German sociologist, first of all, focuses on the study of the relationship between religious and social changes. M. Weber, in contrast to K. Marx, argues that religion is not necessarily a conservative force, on the contrary, social movements that had religious roots often led to dramatic changes in society. Thus, Protestantism influenced the formation of the capitalist development of the West.
Types of religious organizations. All religions are characterized by the existence of communities of believers, but the ways in which such communities are organized are very diverse. The specificity of the sociological study of Christianity lies in the fact that the church and the sect are seen as a dichotomy, and not as separate and unrelated phenomena. The concept of dichotomy "church sect" was introduced into the sociology of religion by the German scientists M. Weber and E. Troeltsch. Also, such sociologists of religion as R. Niebuhr, B. Wilson and others analyze in detail the church and the sect, their similar characteristics and differences.
The church and the sect are the largest religious organizations that streamline religious activities and religious relations in society. For a long period of time, the church and the sect coexist, being in close connection with the actual situation in society and its development. At the same time, the differences between these religious organizations are both formal and substantive.
Based on the concepts of Weber and Troeltsch, one can present the main characteristics of the church and the sect. The Church is a large religious organization that recognizes the importance of the state and other secular institutions in maintaining social order, has a hierarchical organization based on the clergy. The church, as a rule, has a large number of followers, since belonging to it is determined not by the free choice of the individual, but by tradition (the fact of his birth in a particular religious environment, on the basis of the rite of baptism, the individual is automatically included in this religious community). In addition, there is no permanent and strictly controlled membership in the church.
Unlike a church, a sect is a small, voluntary religious group that is created on the basis of the principle of exclusivity, requires its members to be completely submissive, and emphasizes its separation from society. Its characteristic features are voluntary membership, the perception of its attitudes and values as exceptional, the absence of division into clergy and laity, and a charismatic type of leadership.
concept denominations was introduced into the sociology of religion by R. Niebuhr in his work “The Social Sources of Denominationalism”. This type of religious association combines the features of a church and a sect. Most often, it borrows from the church a relatively high system of centralization and a hierarchical principle of management, recognition of the possibility of spiritual rebirth and salvation of the soul for believers. With the sect, it is brought together by the principle of voluntariness, constancy and strict controllability of membership, the exclusivity of attitudes and values.
The study of the denomination and its difference from the sect was also carried out by the English sociologist B. Wilson. Based on Niebuhr's criticism of the concept of denomination, he focuses on the fact that not all sects undergo denominationalization. This process is influenced by various factors: the origin, leadership and initial organization of the sect.
Church, sect and denomination are traditional forms of religious organization. Their characteristics are developed in detail in theoretical and empirical terms, and the terms are quite clearly defined. However, at the present stage of the development of society, another type of religious organization, new religious movements, is becoming more widespread. They, according to the English sociologist of religion A. Barker, “offer a religious or philosophical worldview or a means by which any higher goal can be achieved, for example, transcendental knowledge, spiritual enlightenment, self-realization, or “true * 4 development” .
Describing the social nature of the emergence of NRMs, the researchers note that their greatest activity is manifested in times of crisis and social upheaval, in “critical” periods of history associated with profound changes in the economy, political moods, and the general attitude of a person. The growing distrust of the official ideology and the dominant religion that accompanies these phenomena contributes to an increase in the number of new religious movements that offer their adherents a different understanding of social problems and ways of their possible resolution.
Functions of religion. The most significant functions of religion as a social institution include: integrative; regulatory; psychotherapeutic; communicative.
- 1. The integrative function of religion was quite fully disclosed by E. Durktheim, who, studying the primitive religions of the Australian aborigines, drew attention to the fact that religious symbolism, religious values, rituals and customs contribute to social cohesion, ensure the stability and stability of primitive societies. The adoption of a certain system of beliefs, symbols, according to Durktheim, includes a person in a religious moral community and serves as an integrative force that unites people.
- 2. The regulatory function of religion lies in the fact that it supports and enhances the effect of social norms of behavior accepted in society, exercises social control, both formal - through the activities of church organizations that can encourage or punish believers, and informal, carried out by the believers themselves as carriers moral standards in relation to people around. In essence, this function of religion could be called normative, because any religion prescribes to its adherents certain standards of behavior, due to the prevailing religious values.
- 3. Psychotherapeutic function of religion. The sphere of its action is, first of all, the religious community itself. It has long been noted that various religious activities associated with cult activities - worship, prayers, rituals, ceremonies, etc. - have a calming, comforting effect on believers, give them moral stamina and confidence, protect them from stress.
- 4. The communicative function, like the previous ones, is important, first of all, for the believers themselves. Communication for believers proceeds in two ways: communication of an individual with God (gods, spirits, etc.), communication of adepts within a group (with each other). "Communion with God" is considered the highest form of communication and, in accordance with this, communication with "neighbors" acquires a secondary character. The most important means of communication is cult activity - worship in the temple, public prayer, participation in the sacraments, rituals, etc. The language of communication is religious symbols, scriptures, rituals.
These four functions of religion as a socio-cultural institution are universal in nature and can be manifested in any type of religious practice.
An essential feature of the present stage of the development of religion, primarily in Western countries, is the process secularization. Secularization is interpreted as the process of replacing the religious and mythological picture of the world with its scientific and rational explanation, and the weakening of the influence of religion on various social institutions - education, the economy, politics, etc., which is closely related to this. The weakening of the role of religious sanctions as a means of social control, the separation of church and state, the spread of scientific atheism, the transformation of religious faith into a private matter of the individual.
- Barker A. New Religious Movements: A Practical Introduction. St. Petersburg: Nauka, 1997, p. 166.
Religion as a social institution
Introduction
Religion as a phenomenon inherent in human society throughout its history and covering the vast majority of the world's population to this day, nevertheless turns out to be an area inaccessible and at least incomprehensible to very many people.
Religion is a kind of behavior (cult), worldview and attitude based on belief in the supernatural, inaccessible to human understanding.
Religion is a necessary component of social life, including the spiritual culture of society. It performs a number of important sociocultural functions in society. One of these functions of religion is ideological or meaningful. In religion as a form of spiritual exploration of the world, the mental transformation of the world is carried out, its organization in the mind, in the course of which a certain picture of the world, norms, values, ideals and other components of the worldview are developed that determine the relationship of a person to the world and act as guidelines and regulators of his behavior.
1. Causes of religion and its functions
Religion as a social phenomenon has its own reasons for the emergence and existence of social, epistemological and psychological.
Social causes are those objective factors of social life that necessarily generate and reproduce religious beliefs. Some of them are connected with the attitude of people to nature, others - with the relationship between people.
The attitude of people to nature is mediated by the available means and tools. The less developed they are, the weaker man is in the face of nature, the greater the dominance of natural forces over him. Primitive man had too limited means to influence the world around him. Being unable to obtain the desired result by real means, he resorted to imaginary means. The English ethnographer B. Malinovsky, who studied the life of the tribes of Melanesia, noticed that magic precedes and accompanies those types of work of the islanders, where there is no certainty in the results and chance plays an important role. Magic in such cases acted as a substitute for the real impact of man on nature.
In later eras, relations between people continued to develop spontaneously. In this case, the laws of the development of society act as unknown elemental forces that determine the fate of people. The causes of social phenomena in the minds of people seem mysterious, supernatural and mystified. All this served as a prerequisite for the emergence of religion.
Gnoseological causes are the prerequisites, the possibilities for the formation of religious beliefs that arise in the process of human cognition of the laws of natural phenomena. The emergence of a person's ability to think abstractly, i.e. to isolate in thinking the general, essential and necessary, abstracting from the individual, insignificant and accidental, contributed to the development of theoretical knowledge. The ability to isolate the general and essential in thinking and fix them in the language allows you to know the world deeper, more precisely, more fully; but it also creates the possibility of transforming general concepts into certain "independent entities", which are considered as existing outside and independently of the material world. Thus, abstraction in thinking from reality becomes an epistemological prerequisite for the formation of religious ideas.
The psychological reasons for the emergence and reproduction of religion are as follows. Religious beliefs also arise depending on the emotional state of people, their moods, experiences, etc. Constant and persistent negative emotions, including insecurity and fear, as recurring experiences, can create fertile ground for an individual to become involved in religion. In addition to fear and self-doubt, other negative emotions create the same ground for religion - feelings of grief, grief, loneliness. The constant accumulation of negative emotions in the absence of real opportunities to eliminate their source leads to the fact that a person is looking for means of getting rid of negative experiences, including in religion.
Religion has a number of functions. Its main function is defined as illusory-compensatory (compensate, replenish). Religion plays the role of an illusory compensator due to the weakness of man, his impotence, primarily social. Being unable to solve life's problems on earth, a person transfers their solution to the world of illusions. Problems that are not solved in this world, religion promises to compensate, to make up for their solution in the illusory other world. To do this, it is enough to behave decently in relation to it, the fulfillment of the institutions prescribed by religion.
The ideological function of religion is of great importance. Specifically reflecting reality, it creates its own picture of the world order and, accordingly, motivates the behavior of the believer, his orientation in the world. Religion establishes certain norms of behavior, regulates the relationship of the believer in the family, everyday life, society on the basis of developed systems and regulations, which is its regulatory function.
2. Structure and functions of religion
Religion is a multifunctional phenomenon, it performs many functions, affecting various aspects of social life. There is no single accepted list of the functions of religion, and there cannot be, since it will be necessary to enumerate almost all significant areas of human life. Therefore, we will focus only on those that are most often mentioned in religious studies.
In sociology, the following components are distinguished in the structure of religion:
Religious consciousness, which can be ordinary (personal attitude) and conceptual (the doctrine of God, lifestyle norms, etc.);
Religious relations (cult, non-cult);
Religious organizations.
The main functions (roles) of religion:
Worldview - religion, according to believers, fills their lives with some special meaning and meaning.
Compensatory, or consoling, psychotherapeutic, is also associated with its ideological function and ritual part: its essence lies in the ability of religion to compensate, compensate a person for his dependence on natural and social disasters, remove feelings of his own impotence, heavy experiences of personal failures, insults and the severity of life, fear of death.
Communicative - communication between believers, "communication" with gods, angels (spirits), souls of the dead, saints, who act as ideal mediators in everyday life and in communication between people. Communication is carried out, including in ritual activities.
Regulatory - awareness by the individual of the content of certain value orientations and moral norms that are developed in each religious tradition and act as a kind of program for people's behavior.
Integrative - allows people to realize themselves as a single religious community, held together by common values and goals, gives a person the opportunity to self-determine in a social system in which there are the same views, values and beliefs.
Political - leaders of various communities and states use religion to justify their actions, unite or divide people according to religious affiliation for political purposes.
Cultural - religion contributes to the spread of the culture of the carrier group (writing, iconography, music, etiquette, morality, philosophy, etc.).
Disintegrating - religion can be used to separate people, to incite enmity and even wars between different religions and denominations, as well as within the religious group itself. The disintegrating property of religion is usually spread by destructive followers who violate the basic precepts of their religion.
Psychotherapeutic - religion can be used as a means of psychotherapy.
3. Modern world religions
Religion, along with society, went from imperfect beliefs: fetishism, totemism, magic and animism to modern world religions.
Three world religions turned out to be more perfect, and therefore the most widespread: Buddhism, Christianity and Islam. Their main feature, which made it possible to step over the boundaries of one nation, is cosmopolitanism. These religions are addressed to all peoples, the cult is simplified in them, there is no national specificity.
The most important idea of world religions - the equality of all believers before God, regardless of their social status, skin color and nationality - made it relatively easy for them to take the place of the existing many-sided deities and completely replace them. All world religions promise believers a fair treatment, but only in the other world and depending on piety in this.
Buddhism is one of the first world religions. Appeared in the VI-V centuries. BC. in India. Subsequently, changing, it spread among the peoples of Central and Southeast Asia, the Far East. On the territory of Russia, Buddhism is practiced by Buryats, Kalmyks, Mongols, Tuvans.
There are no reliable sources about the founder of Buddhism. But Buddhist theologians believe that he was the son of an Indian king named Siddhartha from the Gautama family, who after death began to be called Buddha (enlightened, who achieved wisdom). The main provisions of this doctrine are set forth in the canonical collection Tipitaka. The Buddhist pantheon has thousands of buddhas, saints, bodhisattvas (beings who have achieved salvation, but continue to take part in saving people), gods of local old religions, angels, demons, as well as the main god of Brahmanism - Brahma. All gods are divided into good and evil.
According to the teachings of Buddhism, everything in the world is the result of the endless movement of drachmas, spiritual and material particles. Their various combinations create objects, animals, humans, and decay leads to death, after which new combinations are created and rebirth occurs. Rebirth depends on good or bad deeds in life. The process of rebirth is called the "wheel of life" or samsara. The ultimate goal of a virtuous life is merging with the Buddha, immersion in nirvana (super-existence), i.e. overcoming all desires and passions, a break in the chain of rebirths, the cessation of reincarnations, absolute inviolable peace.
