The origin and development of the vocabulary of the modern Russian language. The origin of the vocabulary of the modern Russian language
Vocabulary in terms of its origin
| Parameter name | Meaning |
| Article subject: | Vocabulary in terms of its origin |
| Rubric (thematic category) | Education |
The lexical system of the modern Russian language did not arise immediately. The process of its formation was very long and complicated.
New words are constantly appearing in the Russian language, but there are many of them whose history goes back to the distant past. These ancient words are an integral part of the modern dictionary as a group of native vocabulary of the Russian language.
The following genetic groups of words of the original vocabulary of the Russian language (original Russian vocabulary) are distinguished: 1) Indo-European (Indo-Europeanisms); 2) common Slavic (common Slavisms); 3) East Slavic / Old Russian (East Slavicisms / Old Russianisms) and 4) Russian proper (Russianisms).
Indo-European vocabulary (Indo-European words) - words that have been preserved in modern Russian from the era of the Indo-European community (2nd millennium BC) and which, as a rule, have correspondences in other Indo-European languages:
- kinship terms. For example: mother, father, son, daughter;
- animals. For example: sheep, mouse, wolf, pig.
Common Slavic vocabulary (common Slavs´zmy) - words whose existence dates back to the era of the common Slavic language (before the 6th century AD). These include:
- some names of parts of the human body (eye, heart, beard, etc.);
- some names of animals (rooster, nightingale, horse, doe, etc.);
- words denoting natural phenomena and periods of time (spring, evening, winter, etc.);
- names of plants (tree, branch, oak, linden, etc.);
- names of colors (white, black, light brown, etc.);
- words naming settlements, buildings, tools, etc. (house, canopy, floor, shelter, etc.);
- names of sensory sensations (warm, sour, stale, etc.).
East Slavic (Old Russian) vocabulary (East Slavs´zmy and Old Rus´zmy) - words that appeared in the Russian language during the period of the settlement of the Slavs in Eastern Europe (VI-IX centuries), as well as during the formation of the Old Russian language (IX-XIV centuries .).
Proper Russian vocabulary (rusi´zmy) are words that appeared in the language of the Great Russian people (XIV-XVII centuries) and the national Russian language (from the middle of the XVII century to the present).
Along with the original vocabulary in the Russian language, there are groups of words borrowed from other languages at different times. Borrowed vocabulary is also genetically heterogeneous. It consists of Old Slavonic and non-Slavic (foreign language) words.
Borrowing is the transition of elements of one language to another as a result of language contacts, the interaction of languages. Borrowed words are mastered by the borrowing language, adapting to its features. In the course of this adaptation, they are assimilated to such an extent that their foreign origin may not be felt at all and is discovered only by etymologists. For example: gang, hearth, shoe, Cossack (Turk.). Unlike completely assimilated (learned) words, foreign words retain traces of foreign origin in the form of peculiar sound, spelling and grammatical features. Often, foreign words denote little-used, special, as well as concepts peculiar to foreign countries and peoples. For example: cynology is the field of scientific knowledge about dogs, their breeds and their care, hippology is the field of scientific knowledge about horses, kimono is a Japanese male and female dress in the form of a robe, guava is a fruit plant from tropical America.
Slavic borrowings are usually divided into Old Slavonicisms and Slavonicisms.
Old Slavic borrowings (Old Slavs´zmy) became widespread in Russia after the adoption of Christianity, at the end of the 10th century. Οʜᴎ came from the closely related Old Slavonic language, which was used for a long time in a number of Slavic states as a literary written language used to translate Greek liturgical books. Its South Slavic basis organically included elements from the West and East Slavic languages, as well as many borrowings from Greek. From the very beginning, this language was used primarily as the language of the church (in this regard, it is sometimes called Church Slavonic or Old Church Bulgarian). From the Old Slavonic language came to Russian, for example, church terms (priest, cross, rod, sacrifice, etc.), many words denoting abstract concepts (power, grace, consent, disaster, virtue, etc.).
In the Russian language there are Slavs´zmy - words borrowed at different times from Slavic languages: Belarusian (Belarus´zmy), Ukrainian (Ukrainian´zmy), Polish (Poloni´zmy), etc.
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For example: borsch (Ukrainian), dumplings (Ukrainian), dumplings (Ukrainian), jacket (Polish), shtetl (Polish), monogram (Polish), bekesha (venᴦ.), farm (venᴦ.) .
Since ancient times, through language contacts on everyday, economic, political, cultural grounds, borrowed elements from unrelated languages also entered the Russian language.
There are several classifications of foreign borrowings.
Taking into account the dependence on the degree of mastering foreign words, their structure and functioning features, borrowed words, exoticisms and barbarisms are distinguished.
Borrowed words are words that are completely (graphically, phonetically (orthoepic), semantically, word-formation, morphologically, syntactically) assimilated in the successor language.
Given the dependence on the structure, three groups of borrowed words are distinguished:
1) words that structurally coincide with foreign language samples. For example: junior (fr.
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junior), anaconda (Spanish anaconda), darts (English darts);
2) words morphologically formed by affixes of the successor language. For example: wedge-to-a (fr.
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tankette), kibit-k-a (tat. kibit);
3) words in which part of a foreign word is replaced by a Russian element. For example: shorts (short-s; the Russian plural ending -ы replaces the English plural indicator -s).
Exoticisms are words that are the national names of household items, rituals, customs of a particular people, country. These words are unique and have no synonyms in the successor language. For example: a cab is a one-horse carriage in England; ge'isha - in Japan: a woman trained in music, dancing, the ability to conduct secular conversation and invited to the role of a hospitable hostess at receptions, banquets, etc .; dekhka'nin - in Wed.
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Asia and Iran: Peasant.
Barbarians (foreign inclusions) are words, phrases and sentences that are in a foreign language environment, not mastered or poorly mastered by the successor language and transmitted in the successor language by means of the source language. For example: NB (nota bene) - ʼʼpay attentionʼʼ, happy end - ʼʼhappy endingʼʼ.
A special group is made up of internationalisms - words presented in various, and not the closest related languages (association, bureaucracy, etc.)
According to the source language, foreign borrowings are divided into different groups.
Borrowings from the Scandinavian languages make up a small part in the Russian language. These include mainly maritime terms and trade vocabulary. For example: scrub (Dutch draaien), wake (Dutch kielwater), receipt (Dutch kvitantie).
Borrowings from the Greek language (Grezisms) began to penetrate into the original vocabulary even in the period of common Slavic unity. Borrowings from the field of religion, science, and everyday life were significant in the period from the 9th to the 11th centuries. and later. Later borrowings are mainly related to the field of art and science. For example: apathy (Greek apatheia), apocrypha (Greek apokryphos), helium (Greek hēlios), dolphin (Greek delphis (delphinos)), cypress (Greek kyparissos).
Borrowings from the Turkic languages (Turkishzmy) penetrated into the Russian language both as a result of the development of trade and cultural ties, and as a result of military clashes. The main part of the Turkisms are words that came from the Tatar language (this is due to historical conditions - the Tatar-Mongol yoke). For example: ambal (Arabic hammal), gazelle (Kazakh žijrän), dzhigit (Turkic jigit), donkey (Turkic äšäk), caravan (Tat.), mound (Tat.), chest (Tat.).
Borrowings from the Latin language (Latinisms) mainly replenished the Russian language in the period from the 16th to the 18th centuries. For example: vote (Latin vōtum), hegemon (Greek hēgemōn), quint (Latin quinta).
Borrowings from the English language (anglicisms) date back to the 19th–20th centuries. A significant part of the words associated with the development of social life, technology, sports, etc., entered the Russian language in the 20th century. For example: volleyball (English volleyball), dandy (English dandy), boat (English cutter).
Borrowings from the French language (gallicisms) of the 18th–19th centuries. - ϶ᴛᴏ everyday vocabulary. For example: accessory (fr.
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accessoir), gallop (fr.
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galop), decorator (fr.
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decorateur).
Borrowings from the Germanic languages (Germanisms) are represented by a number of words of trade, military, everyday vocabulary and words from the field of art and science. For example: equipment (German Apparatur), guardhouse (German Hauptwache), generals (German Generalität).
Borrowings from the Italian language are represented mainly by musical terms. For example: allegro (it. allegro), adagio (it. adagio), soprano (it. soprano), carriage (it. carreta).
Borrowings from other languages. For example: karma (Sanskrit karma), keta (Nanaisk. keta), kefir (Oset. k’æru), kimono (Jap. kimono), Maya (Lang. Amer.
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Indians), maina (Finnish mainas), fiesta (Spanish fiesta), castanets (Spanish castaňetas).
Borrowed words also include calques.
Tracing is the process of creating words from native material according to foreign language samples. Tracing words are formed by replacing each significant part of a foreign word with a morpheme that is available in the Russian language. For example: the components of the Latin word in-sect-um are replaced, respectively, with the Russian components in-sec-th.
Word-building ka´lki - words that have arisen as a result of the translation of foreign words according to morphological parts while maintaining the word-building structure of the borrowed word. In this case, only the word-formation structure of the word is borrowed. For example: the French solid-ite´ in Russian is morphematically replaced by the word density; self-service (English) - self-service; sky-scraper (English) - sky-scraper, selbst-kosten (German) - self-cost, etc.
Semantic ka´lki are words that have an additional meaning under the influence of the corresponding foreign language sample. For example: under the influence of the figurative meaning of the French word clou (nail) - ʼʼthe main bait of a theatrical performance, programʼʼ - expressions appear in the Russian language the highlight of the season, the highlight of the concert; under the influence of the figurative meaning of the German word Plathform (platform) - ʼʼ program, a set of principles of a political partyʼʼ, the expression economic platform and the like appears in Russian.
Vocabulary from the point of view of its origin - concept and types. Classification and features of the category "Vocabulary in terms of its origin" 2017, 2018.
The lexical system of the modern Russian language did not arise immediately. The process of its formation was very long and complicated.
New words are constantly appearing in the Russian language, but there are many of them whose history goes back to the distant past. These ancient words are part of the modern dictionary as a group of native vocabulary of the Russian language.
The following genetic groups of words of the original vocabulary of the Russian language (original Russian vocabulary) are distinguished:
Kin terms ( mother, father, son, daughter);
Animals ( sheep, mouse, wolf, pig);
2) Common Slavic vocabulary ( Common Slavs´zmy ) - words whose existence dates back to the era of the common Slavic language (before the 6th century). These include:
Names of parts of the human body eye, heart, beard);
Animal names ( rooster, nightingale, horse, doe);
Names of natural phenomena and periods of time ( spring, evening, winter);
Plant names ( tree, branch, oak, linden);
Color names ( white, black, blond);
Names of settlements, buildings, tools, etc. ( house, canopy, floor, shelter);
Names of sensations warm, sour, stale);
3) East Slavic (Old Russian) vocabulary ( Eastern Slavs´zmy, ancient Rus´zmy ) - words that appeared in the Russian language during the period of the settlement of the Slavs in Eastern Europe (VI-IX centuries), as well as during the formation of the Old Russian language (IX-XIV centuries);
4) Actually Russian vocabulary ( Rus'zmy ) - words that appeared in the language of the Great Russian people (XIV-XVII centuries) and the national Russian language (from the middle of the XVII century to the present).
Along with the original vocabulary in the Russian language, there are groups of words borrowed from other languages at different times.
Borrowing called the transition of elements of one language to another as a result of language contacts, the interaction of languages. Borrowed words are mastered by the borrowing language, adapting to its features. In the course of this adaptation, they are assimilated to such an extent that their foreign origin may not be felt at all and is discovered only by etymologists. For example: gang, hearth, shoe, Cossack(Turk.) . Unlike completely assimilated (learned) words, foreign words retain traces of foreign origin in the form of peculiar sound, spelling and grammatical features. Often, foreign words denote little-used, special, as well as concepts characteristic of foreign countries and peoples. For example: kimono- Japanese men's and women's dress in the form of a bathrobe, guava- a fruit plant from tropical America.
Borrowed vocabulary
Slavic borrowings are usually divided into Old Slavonicisms and Slavonicisms.
Old Church Slavonic borrowings ( old Slavs´zmy ) became widespread in Russia after the adoption of Christianity, at the end of the 10th century. They came from the closely related Old Church Slavonic, which was used for a long time in a number of Slavic states as a literary written language used to translate Greek liturgical books. Its South Slavic basis organically included elements from the West and East Slavic languages, the Greek language. From the very beginning, this language was used primarily as the language of the church (which is why it is sometimes called Church Slavonic or Old Church Bulgarian). From the Old Slavonic language came to Russian, for example, church terms ( priest, cross, rod, sacrifice etc.), many words denoting abstract concepts ( power, grace, consent, disaster, virtue and etc.).
The Russian language has Slavs´zmy - words borrowed at different times from Slavic languages: Belarusian ( Belarus´zmy ), Ukrainian ( Ukrainianism ), Polish ( Polonies ) and others. For example: borsch(ukr.), dumplings(ukr.), vareniki(ukr.), sweater(Polish), place(Polish), monogram(Polish), bekesha(Hungarian), farm(Hungarian).
Since ancient times, through language contacts on everyday, economic, political, cultural grounds, borrowed elements from unrelated languages also entered the Russian language.
There are several classifications of foreign borrowings.
Depending on the degree of mastery of foreign words, their structure and features of functioning, borrowed words, exoticisms and barbarisms are distinguished.
Borrowed words - words that are completely (graphically, phonetically (orthoepic), semantically, word-formation, morphologically, syntactically) assimilated in the successor language.
Depending on the structure, three groups of borrowed words are distinguished:
1) words that structurally coincide with foreign language samples. For example: junior(fr. junior), anaconda(Spanish) anaconda), darts(English) darts);
2) words morphologically formed by affixes of the successor language. For example: wedge-to-a(fr. tankette), kibit-k-a(tat. kibit);
3) words in which part of a foreign word is replaced by a Russian element. For example: shorts (short-s; Russian plural ending -s replaces English plural - s).
Exoticisms - words that are national names of household items, rituals, customs of a particular people, country. These words are unique and have no synonyms in the successor language. For example: cab- one-horse carriage in England; geisha- in Japan: a woman trained in music, dancing, the ability to conduct small talk and invited to the role of a hospitable hostess at receptions, banquets, etc.; dehka'nin- on Wednesday. Asia and Iran: Peasant.
Barbarians (foreign inclusions) - words, phrases and sentences that are in a foreign language environment, not mastered or poorly mastered by the successor language and transmitted in the successor language by means of the source language. For example: NB (nota bene) - "pay attention", happy end- "a happy ending".
A special group is internationalism - words presented in various, and not the closest related languages ( association, bureaucracy etc.)
According to the source language, foreign borrowings are divided into various groups:
Borrowings from the Scandinavian languages make up a small part in the Russian language. These include mainly maritime terms and trade vocabulary. For example: scrub(dutch. draaien), wake(dutch. kielwater), receipt(dutch. kvitantie);
Borrowings from Greek ( Greekism ) began to penetrate into the original vocabulary even in the period of common Slavic unity. Borrowings from the field of religion, science, and everyday life were significant in the period from the 9th to the 11th centuries. and later. Later borrowings are mainly related to the field of art and science. For example: apathy(gr. apatheia), apocrypha(gr. apokryphos), helium(gr. helios), dolphin(gr. delphis (delphinos)), cypress(gr. kyparissos);
Borrowings from Turkic languages ( Turks´zmy ) penetrated into the Russian language as a result of the development of trade and cultural ties, as a result of military clashes. The bulk of the Turkisms are words that came from the Tatar language (this is due to historical conditions - the Tatar-Mongol yoke). For example: ambal(Arab. hammal), gazelle(Kazakh. ž ijran), horseman(Turk. jigit), ass(Turk. äšä k), caravan(tat.), mound(tat.), box(tat.);
Borrowings from Latin ( Latinisms ) mainly replenished the Russian language in the period from the 16th to the 18th centuries. For example: vote(lat. vōtum), hegemon(gr. hēgemōn), quint(lat. quinta);
Borrowings from English ( anglicisms ) belong to the XIX-XX centuries. A significant part of the words associated with the development of social life, technology, sports, etc., entered the Russian language in the 20th century. For example: volleyball(English) volleyball), dandy(English) dandy), boat(English) cutter);
Borrowings from French ( gallicisms ) XVIII-XIX centuries. This is household vocabulary. For example: accessory(fr. accessoir), gallop(fr. gallop), decorator(fr. de´ corateur);
Borrowings from Germanic languages ( germanism ) are represented by a number of words of trade, military, everyday vocabulary and words from the field of art, science. For example: equipment(German Apparatur), guardhouse(German Hauptwache), generals(German Generalitat);
Borrowings from the Italian language are represented mainly by musical terms. For example: allegro(it. allegro), adagio(it. adagio), soprano(it. soprano), coach(it. careta);
Borrowings from other languages. For example: karma(Sanskrit karma), chum salmon(Nanaisk. keta), kefir(Oset. k'æru), kimono(jap. kimono), Mayan(language of American Indians), lane(Finnish mainas), fiesta(Spanish) fiesta), castanets(Spanish) castanetas).
Borrowed words also include calques.
Tracing - the process of creating words from native material according to foreign language samples.
Word-forming ka'lki - words that have arisen as a result of the translation of foreign words according to morphological parts with the preservation of the word-formation structure of the borrowed word. In this case, only the word-formation structure of the word is borrowed. For example: french solid-ite´ in Russian is morphematically replaced by the word density; self service(English) - self-service; sky scraper(English) - skyscraper, selbst-kosten(German) - cost price etc.
Semantic phrases - words that have an additional meaning under the influence of the corresponding foreign language sample. For example: under the influence of the figurative meaning of the French word clou (nail) - “the main lure of a theatrical performance, program” - expressions appear in Russian highlight of the season, highlight of the concert; influenced by the figurative meaning of the German word Plathform (platform) - “a program, a set of principles of a political party” in Russian, the expression appears economic platform and the like.
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Introduction
Many years ago, restaurants did not have such an abundance of dishes as they do today. Currently, there are many different names of dishes that attract the attention of the consumer. Store shelves are "full" of a variety of cookbooks in which we can choose any recipe for cooking. There are specialized restaurants that prepare dishes of a certain country. Such as restaurants of sushi, Spanish, Mexican, Cuban and other cultures. Having tasted the national dish, we can understand the very culture of the country. Everyone can find something to their taste, try exotic dishes with interesting names.
"Why is the dish called that way?" - This question has caused discussions among people more than once. But lately we don't think about it anymore.
In this work, we want to trace the relationship between the name of the dish and its meaning.
The problem of borrowing words is very relevant at the present time. The Russian language is heavily littered not only with foreign vocabulary, but also with various jargons, which leads to the fact that we gradually forget the historically established literary Russian language, and we begin to rightly consider their foreign words to be native Russian.
The object of study of the course work is vocabulary in terms of its origin.
The subject of the study is the words in the names of dishes in the "Cookbook".
The purpose of the course work is to analyze the origin of the words in the names of dishes in the "Cookbook".
To achieve this goal, it is necessary to solve the following tasks:
Describe etymology as a science;
Consider the vocabulary of the Russian language from the point of view of its origin;
To characterize the original Russian and borrowed vocabulary;
Analyze the "Cookbook" in terms of the origin of the name of the dishes.
Vocabulary of the Russian language in terms of origin
Original Russian vocabulary
The modern Russian language was not immediately formed the way it is today. The vocabulary of the modern Russian language has come a long way of formation and development. Our vocabulary consists not only of native Russian words, but also of words borrowed from other languages. Foreign language sources replenish and enrich the Russian language throughout the entire process of its historical development. Some borrowings occurred in antiquity, others - at a later time, including today.
We single out two directions in which the replenishment of Russian vocabulary went.
1. New words were created from word-forming elements available in the language (roots, suffixes, prefixes). Thus, the original Russian vocabulary expanded and developed.
A word that originated in the Russian language according to the models existing in it or passed into it from an older predecessor language - Old Russian, Proto-Slavic or Indo-European is considered to be primordial. The history of the development of languages is the history of their separation. In ancient times (in the VI - V millennium BC) there was an unwritten Indo-European language. Subsequently, the language of a group of European tribes that settled in different territories and spoke their own dialects of the Indo-European language became sufficiently isolated from the language of other tribes. The language of the tribes that are the ancestors of the Slavic peoples, also unwritten, is called Proto-Slavic. In the first millennium of our era, the tribes that spoke the Proto-Slavic language settled widely in Central, Eastern and South-Eastern Europe and gradually lost their linguistic unity. Around the 6th - 7th century AD, the disintegration of the Proto-Slavic language into the South Slavic, West Slavic and East Slavic (Old Russian language) language groups is attributed. The Old Russian language becomes the language of the Old Russian people, which united in the 9th century into a single state - Kievan Rus. The original vocabulary includes all the words that came into the modern Russian language from the ancestral languages.
2. New words poured into the Russian language from other languages as a result of the economic, political and cultural ties of the Russian people with other peoples - these are borrowings from Slavic and non-Slavic languages.
The original Russian vocabulary is heterogeneous in origin: it consists of several layers, which differ in the time of their formation.
The most ancient among the original Russian words are Indo-Europeanisms - words that have survived from the era of Indo-European linguistic unity. According to scientists, in the V-IV millennium BC. e. there was an ancient Indo-European civilization that united tribes living on a rather vast territory. So, according to the studies of some linguists, it stretched from the Volga to the Yenisei, others believe that it was the Balkan-Danube, or South Russian, localization. The Indo-European linguistic community gave rise to European and some Asian languages \u200b\u200b(for example, Bengali, Sanskrit).
Words denoting plants, animals, metals and minerals, tools, forms of management, types of kinship, etc. ascend to the Indo-European parent language: oak, salmon, goose, etc.
Another layer of native Russian vocabulary consists of common Slavic words inherited by our language from common Slavic (proto-Slavic), which served as a source for all Slavic languages. This language-base existed in the prehistoric era on the territory between the Dnieper, Bug and Vistula rivers, inhabited by ancient Slavic tribes. By the VI-VII centuries. n. e. the common Slavic language fell apart, opening the way for the development of Slavic languages, including Old Russian. Common Slavic words are easily distinguished in all Slavic languages, the common origin of which is obvious in our time.
There are a lot of nouns among common Slavic words. These are, first of all, specific nouns: head, throat; field, mountain; sickle, pitchfork. There are also abstract nouns, but there are fewer of them: faith, will.
From other parts of speech in the common Slavic vocabulary, verbs are presented: see, hear, grow, lie; adjectives: kind, young, old, wise, cunning; numerals: one, two, three; pronouns: I, you, we, you; pronominal adverbs: where, as well as some service parts of speech: over, a, and, yes, but, etc.
The common Slavic vocabulary has about two thousand words, however, this relatively small vocabulary is the core of the Russian dictionary, it includes the most common, stylistically neutral words used both in oral and written speech.
The Slavic languages, which had the ancient Proto-Slavic language as their source, separated into three groups according to sound, grammatical and lexical features: southern, western and eastern.
The third layer of native Russian words consists of East Slavic (Old Russian) vocabulary, which developed on the basis of the language of the Eastern Slavs, one of the three groups of ancient Slavic languages. The East Slavic linguistic community developed by the 7th-9th centuries. n. e. on the territory of Eastern Europe. The tribal unions that lived here go back to the Russian, Ukrainian and Belarusian nationalities. Therefore, the words that have remained in our language from this period are known, as a rule, both in Ukrainian and in Belarusian, but are absent in the languages of the Western and Southern Slavs.
As part of the East Slavic vocabulary, one can distinguish: 1) the names of animals, birds: dog, squirrel, jackdaw, drake, bullfinch; 2) names of tools: axe, blade; 3) names of household items: boots, ladle, chest, ruble; 4) names of people by profession: carpenter, cook, shoemaker, miller; 5) names of settlements: village, settlement and other lexical-semantic groups.
The fourth layer of primordially Russian words is the Russian vocabulary itself, which was formed after the 14th century, i.e., in the era of the independent development of the Russian, Ukrainian and Belarusian languages. These languages already have their own equivalents for words belonging to the proper Russian vocabulary.
Actually Russian words are distinguished, as a rule, by a derivative basis: a mason, a leaflet, a locker room, a community, an intervention, etc.
It should be emphasized that in the composition of the Russian vocabulary itself there may also be words with foreign roots that have passed the path of Russian word formation and acquired Russian suffixes, prefixes: party spirit, non-party, aggressiveness; ruler, glass, teapot; words with a complex stem: a radio station, a steam locomotive, as well as many complex abbreviated words that replenished our language in the 20th century: Moscow Art Theater, timber industry, wall newspaper, etc.
The original Russian vocabulary continues to be replenished with words that are created on the basis of the word-formation resources of the language, as a result of a wide variety of processes characteristic of Russian word formation.
The vocabulary of the modern Russian language has come a long way of development. Our vocabulary consists not only of native Russian words, but also of words borrowed from other languages. Foreign sources replenished and enriched the Russian language throughout the entire process of its historical development. Some borrowings were made in antiquity, others - relatively recently.
Replenishment of Russian vocabulary went in two directions.
1. New words were created from word-forming elements available in the language (roots, suffixes, prefixes). Thus, the original Russian vocabulary expanded and developed.
2. New words poured into the Russian language from other languages as a result of the economic, political and cultural ties of the Russian people with other peoples.
The composition of Russian vocabulary in terms of its origin can be schematically represented in the table.
Vocabulary in terms of its use.
Common vocabulary- this is the common vocabulary of all Russian speakers. These words are used in any style of speech.
Limited vocabulary- words, the use of which is limited in accordance with the territorial and social division of the national language.
Dialectisms are expressions or modes of speech used by people in a particular locality. Differ phonetic, grammatical, derivational, lexical dialectisms.
Phonetic dialectisms are characterized by certain sound features, reflect the features of the sound system of speech.
Grammar and derivational dialectisms reflect the features of form formation and word formation.
Lexical dialectisms- these are words that are dialectal not in some part (sound, suffix), but in general. Lexical dialectisms are divided into proper lexical, ethnographic, semantic.
Proper lexical dialectisms are local names of nationwide concepts, phenomena, objects. These words, being non-literary, have synonyms in the literary language.
Ethnographic dialectisms- words that name objects, phenomena that are not included in public use. These words reflect the peculiarities of local life, the specifics of the work of people living in a certain territory.
Semantic dialectisms are local meanings of common words. In relation to them, the words of the literary language act as homonyms.
Special vocabulary- these are words and expressions that are used in special areas of human activity. Special vocabulary is divided into 2 groups: terms and professionalism.
Term(from lat. terminus - border, limit) - a word or phrase that is the exact name of any concept used in science, technology or art. Professionalism- a semi-official word, common (more often in colloquial speech) among people of one or another professional group and not being a strict, scientific designation of concepts.
11 Active and passive vocabulary. Russian proverbs and sayings. Phraseologisms. Aphorisms
Active vocabulary
The active stock includes familiar, everyday words that do not have a shade of obsolescence or novelty.
Passive vocabulary
Passive stock includes obsolete words and neologisms. Obsolete are divided into historicisms and archaisms.
historicisms- words naming non-occurring objects, phenomena, beings.
Example: Tsar, verst, gusli, hussar.
Archaisms- words that are obsolete names of objects, phenomena, creatures that still exist.
Example: Usta-mouth, very green.
Neologisms- Words that appear in the language to designate new, previously non-existing concepts, phenomena, objects. They remain new as long as the speaker feels his novelty, unusualness.
"Proverb" and "Proverb"- this is figuratively and briefly expressed folk wisdom.
For example: "To be afraid of wolves - do not go into the forest", "What cover, such is autumn", "There is no truth at the feet."
If we open a brief dictionary of literary terms, we will find that "by saying" called one of the types of folk oral art, an expression that defines one of the phenomena of life.
"Proverb" It is also a short saying about various life situations, as well as one of the types of oral folk art.
Examples of proverbs:
· "Your shirt is closer to your body"
· "Tears of sorrow will not help"
Saying examples:
· "Found a scythe on a stone"
· "Gruzdev called himself get in the body"
Phraseologism- this is a combination of two or more words that is stable in composition and structure and holistic in meaning.
Types of phraseological units
There are several types of phraseological units: phraseological unions, phraseological units, phraseological combinations.
Phraseological fusion (idiom)- this is a stable turnover, the meaning of which cannot be deduced from the meanings of its constituent words.
Example:after the rain on Thursday- Never or not sure when. If you do not know what this phraseological unit means, it is almost impossible to guess its meaning.
Phraseological unity- this is a stable turnover, the meaning of which can be deduced from the meanings of its constituent words. Phraseological unity is characterized by figurativeness: all words of such a turn, united, acquire a figurative meaning.
Example : go with the flow - obey the circumstances, do not take active actions.
Phraseological combination- a turn in which there are words both with a free meaning and with a phraseologically related meaning. The meaning of a phraseological combination can be deduced from the meanings of its constituent words.
As a rule, one of the words in the phraseological combination is permanent, and the rest of the words can be replaced.
Example: For example, you can say glow with joy, glow with happiness, glow with love. These are all phrases.
Phraseological features:
- Contains at least two words.
- Has a stable composition.
- Is not a title.
Aphorism- an original complete thought, uttered and written down in a concise, memorable textual form and subsequently repeatedly reproduced by other people.
Examples: "Everyone hears only what he understands";
"Knowledge is power"
Seven times - try it, and it's no use.
12. Phonetics. The sound of speech. Open and closed syllable. Phonetic analysis of the word. The emphasis is verbal and logical. The role of stress in poetry.
phonetics is the science of sound.
Example:Skis- skis- 4 b., 4 stars.
Speech sounds are the smallest sound units from which words are formed. We hear and pronounce sounds.
Sounds as material signs of language - perform two functions:
a) perceptual - the function of bringing speech to perception
b) significative - the function of distinguishing between significant units of the language of morphemes and words.
They can be described in three aspects:
Ø with acoustic(physical) aspect, in which sound is considered as oscillatory movements of the air environment caused by the organs of speech;
Ø with articulatory(physiological) aspect in which the sound acts as a product of the work of the human pronunciation organs (articulatory apparatus);
Ø from the functional (semantic) side(linguistic) aspect, where the sound is considered as one of the possible options for the implementation of the phoneme (sound type) in the process of functioning, performing a meaningful and constructive function.
Words are divided into syllables. Syllable- this is one sound or several sounds pronounced by one expiratory push of air
. Syllables are open and closed.
· open syllable ends in a vowel sound.
Yes, country.
· Closed syllable ends in a consonant.
Sleep, liner.
· There are more open syllables in Russian. Closed syllables are usually seen at the end of a word.
Wed: night-timer(the first syllable is open, the second is closed), oh-bo-doc(the first two syllables are open, the third is closed).
In the middle of a word, a syllable usually ends in a vowel, and a consonant or a group of consonants after a vowel usually goes to the next syllable!
Night-timer, tell me, announcer.
In the middle of a word, closed syllables can form only unpaired voiced consonants: [j], [p], [p '], [l], [l '], [m], [m '], [n], [n ' ]. (example)Math -ka, Sony -ka, co-lom -ka.
Phonetic parsing- this is a characteristic of the structure of syllables and the composition of a word from sounds.
Phonetic analysis of the word is carried out according to the following plan:
1. Write the word spelling correctly.
2. Divide the word into syllables and find the place of stress.
3. Note the possibility of transferring words by syllables.
4. Phonetic transcription of the word.
5. In order to characterize all the sounds: a. consonant - voiced - deaf (paired or unpaired), hard or soft, what letter it is designated by; b. vowel: stressed or unstressed.
7. Mark cases when the sound does not match the letter.
Phonetic analysis of the word carrot:
1. Carrot
2.Mor-kov (stress falls on the second syllable, 2 syllables).
3. Transfer: carrot
4. [markoff"]
5.M - [m] - consonant, solid, voiced and unpaired.
O - [a] - vowel and unstressed.
Р - [р] - consonant, solid, voiced and unpaired.
K - [k] - consonant, solid, deaf and double.
Oh - [o] - vowel and stress.
V - [f "] - consonant, soft, deaf and double.
6. There are 7 letters and 6 sounds in a word.
7.o - a, c - a dull sound f, b softens c.
Accetology- the science that studies word stress.
stressed is called the selection of a group of words, a single word or a syllable in a word.
| this is the selection of a word or group of words that are important in terms of meaning in a given phrase. For example, in A. Akhmatova's poem "Courage" (1942), the lines We know what is now on the scales And what is happening now ... pronounced with logical stress on allied words - pronouns what, which must necessarily be highlighted by the power of the voice, since it is they who determine the content of this entire phrase. | is the emphasis of a syllable in a word. If the word consists of two or more syllables, then one of them is pronounced with greater force, with greater duration and more distinctly. A syllable that is pronounced with greater force and duration is called a stressed syllable. The vowel sound of a stressed syllable is called a stressed vowel. The remaining syllables (and vowels) in the word are unstressed. The stress mark "́" is placed above the vowel of the stressed syllable: wall, field. |
13 Morphemics. The concept of a morpheme as a meaningful part of a word. Morphemic analysis of the word. Word formation. Ways of word formation.
Morphemics is the significant part of the word. (prefix, root, suffix, ending, stem)
Root- this is a significant part of the word, which contains the lexical meaning of all words with the same root. There are no words without a root, but there are complex words with several words. (Power plant-root1 (electro), root1 (station))
To find the root in a word you need to pick up words with the same root and highlight the same part in them.
Example: Water, water, water, water supply. All these words have a root - water -.
Console is a significant part of the word, which serves to form new words. There may or may not be prefixes in a word, and there may be several.
Example: Great-great-grandmother - two prefixes - great-.
Example: Grandma - there is no prefix.
Some consoles give the word additional lexical meanings.
Sufix - this is a significant part that serves to form new words and comes after the root sign.
Example: House-house (suffix –ik-)
Some suffixes give the word an additional lexical connotation.
The ending- this is a significant part of the word, which is located at the end of the modified parts of speech and serves to form the grammatical forms of the word.
Example: grandmothers (ending -i-), great-great-grandmother (ending -a-).
The foundation- it is a part of a word without an ending and an interfix. In order to highlight the stem in a word, it is necessary to change the grammatical form in order to determine the ending. The stem can be interrupted, for example, in reflexive verbs.
Example: Pedestrian
Highlight the base necessary to determine the way the word is formed.
Example: Winter (ending -a-, root -winter-, base -winter-) -winter (ending -iy -, suffix -n-, root -winter-, base -winter-).
Postfix- this is a significant part of the word, it is formed by the reflexive form of verbs, participles, gerunds and is located at the end of the word (after the end).
Example: The verb is to learn, the participle is a student, the participle is learning.
Interfix (connective verbs) - this is a significant part of compound words, which serves to form new words by narrowing the wasps.
Example:
Order of morpheme parsing
1. Determine the part of speech.
2. Find the ending for the changed parts of speech. To do this, change the form of the word.
3. Find words. Choose at least 2 single-root words.
4. Console.
5. Suffix.
6. The ending.
7. The foundation.
Example: Premonition.
Noun
Word formation- This is a branch of the science of language that studies the ways in which new words are formed.
1. Attached-
Example:
2. Suffixal- it is a way of forming a new word by adding a prefix to the original one.
Example: House - houses. Cat is a cat.
3. Attachment-suffix- it is a way of forming new words by adding a suffix.
The vocabulary of the modern Russian language has come a long way of development. Our vocabulary consists not only of native Russian words, but also of words borrowed from other languages. Foreign sources replenished and enriched the Russian language throughout the entire process of its historical development. Some borrowings were made in antiquity, others, thanks to the development of the Russian language, relatively recently.
Original Russian vocabulary it is heterogeneous in origin: it consists of several layers, which differ in the time of their formation.
The most ancient among native Russian words are Indo-Europeanisms- words preserved from the era of Indo-European linguistic unity. The Indo-European linguistic community gave rise to European and some Asian languages \u200b\u200b(for example, Bengali, Sanskrit).
Words denoting plants, animals, metals and minerals, tools, forms of management, types of kinship, etc. go back to the Indo-European parent language-base: oak, salmon, goose, wolf, sheep, copper, bronze, honey, mother, son, daughter, night, moon, snow, water, new, sew and etc.
Another layer of native Russian vocabulary is made up of words pan-Slavic, inherited by our language from the common Slavic (proto-Slavic), which served as a source for all Slavic languages. This language-base existed in the prehistoric era on the territory between the Dnieper, Bug and Vistula rivers, inhabited by ancient Slavic tribes. By the VI-VII centuries. n. e. the common Slavic language fell apart, opening the way for the development of Slavic languages, including Old Russian. Common Slavic words are easily distinguished in all Slavic languages, the common origin of which is obvious even in our time.
There are a lot of nouns among common Slavic words. These are, first of all, concrete nouns: head, throat, beard, heart, palm; field, mountain, forest, birch, maple, ox, cow, pig; sickle, pitchfork, knife, seine, neighbor, guest, servant, friend; shepherd, spinner, potter. There are also abstract nouns, but there are fewer of them: faith, will, guilt, sin, happiness, glory, rage.
The third layer of native Russian words consists of East Slavic(Old Russian) vocabulary, which developed on the basis of the language of the Eastern Slavs, one of the three groups of ancient Slavic languages. The East Slavic linguistic community developed by the 7th-9th centuries. n. e. on the territory of Eastern Europe. The tribal unions that lived here go back to the Russian, Ukrainian and Belarusian nationalities. Therefore, the words that have remained in our language from this period are known, as a rule, both in Ukrainian and in Belarusian, but are absent in the languages of the Western and Southern Slavs.
As part of the East Slavic vocabulary, one can distinguish: 1) the names of animals, birds: dog, squirrel, jackdaw, drake, bullfinch; 2) names of labor tools: axe, blade; 3) names of household items: boots, ladle, casket, ruble; 4) names of people by profession: carpenter, cook, shoemaker, miller; 5) names of settlements: village, freedom.
The fourth layer of native Russian words is proper Russian vocabulary, formed after the XIV century, i.e., in the era of independent development of the Russian, Ukrainian and Belarusian languages. These languages already have their own equivalents for words belonging to the proper Russian vocabulary. Actually Russian words are distinguished, as a rule, by a derivative basis: bricklayer, flyer, dressing room, community, intervention and under.
A special place in the composition of Russian vocabulary among Slavic borrowings is occupied by Old Slavonic words, or Old Slavonicisms(Church Slavism). These are the words of the most ancient Slavic language, well known in Russia since the spread of Christianity (988).
Being the language of liturgical books, the Old Church Slavonic language was at first far from colloquial speech, but over time it experiences a noticeable influence of the East Slavic language and, in turn, leaves its mark on the language of the people. Russian chronicles reflect numerous cases of mixing of these related languages.
Of the non-Slavic languages, the very first borrowings into the Russian language as early as the 8th-12th centuries. From Scandinavian languages (Swedish, Norwegian), words related to sea fishing came to us: skerries, anchor, hook, gaff, proper names: Rurik, Oleg, Olga, Igor, Askold. In the official business speech of Ancient Russia, the now obsolete words were used vira, tiun, sneak, stigma.
The most significant influence on the language of Ancient Russia was the influence Greek language. Kievan Rus carried on a lively trade with Byzantium, and the penetration of Greek elements into Russian vocabulary began even before the adoption of Christianity in Russia (VI century) and intensified under the influence of Christian culture in connection with the baptism of the Eastern Slavs (IX century), the distribution of liturgical books translated from Greek into Old Church Slavonic.
Greek in origin are many names of household items, vegetables, fruits: cherry, cucumber, doll, ribbon, tub, beets, lantern, bench, sauna; words related to science, education: grammar, mathematics, history, philosophy, notebook, alphabet, dialect; borrowings from the field of religion: angel, altar, pulpit, anathema, archimandrite, antichrist, archbishop, demon, oil, gospel, icon, incense, cell, schema, icon lamp, monk, monastery, sexton, archpriest, memorial service
Latin the language also played a significant role in the enrichment of Russian vocabulary (including terminology), associated mainly with the sphere of scientific, technical and socio-political life. The following words go back to the Latin source: author, administrator, audience, student, exam, external student, minister, justice, operation, censorship, dictatorship, republic, deputy, delegate, rector, excursion, expedition, revolution, constitution etc.
Language as a system is in constant motion, development, and the most mobile level of language is vocabulary: it primarily reacts to all changes in society, replenishing with new words. At the same time, the names of objects, phenomena that are no longer used in the life of different peoples, are completely out of use.
In each period of the development of the language, words belonging to active vocabulary, constantly used in speech, and words that have gone out of everyday use and therefore have received an archaic coloring. At the same time, new words are distinguished in the lexical system, which are just entering it and therefore seem unusual, retain a shade of freshness, novelty. Obsolete and new words are two fundamentally different groups in the vocabulary passive vocabulary.
