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The meaning of foreign words in Russian

The number of foreign words in everyday speech is increasing from year to year. But equivalent words also exist in Russian. The situation is aggravated by the media and the policies pursued by Russian ministries and departments in this direction. Increasingly, on TV screens we hear newly introduced words from the predominantly Germanic group of languages, mainly English, such as “manager”, “campus”, “shopping”, “creativity”, “digger” and other similar words.

The Russian language is deliberately polluted, and ordinary people forget that there are words with the same meaning in their native language. Therefore, the question comes to mind: “Where is this rich and powerful Russian language?”

So where did foreign words come from in the Russian language?

· From Slavic languages (Old Church Slavonicisms, Church Slavonicisms and Slavonicisms)

For about ten centuries, the Church Slavonic language represented the basis of religious and cultural communication among the Orthodox Slavs, but was very far from everyday life. The Church Slavonic language itself was close, but did not coincide, either lexically or grammatically, with the national Slavic languages. However, its influence on the Russian language was great, and as Christianity became an everyday phenomenon, an integral part of Russian reality, a huge layer of Church Slavonicisms lost their conceptual foreignness (names of the months - January, February, etc., heresy, idol, priest and others).

· From non-Slavic languages

Greekisms. A noticeable mark was left by Greekisms, which came into the Old Russian language mainly through Old Church Slavonic in connection with the process of completing the Christianization of the Slavic states. Byzantium took an active role in this process. The formation of the Old Russian (East Slavic) language begins.

Turkisms. Words from Turkic languages penetrated into the Russian language since Kievan Rus neighbored such Turkic tribes as the Bulgars, Polovtsy, Berendeys, Pechenegs and others.

Latinisms. By the 17th century, translations from Latin into Church Slavonic appeared, including the Gennadian Bible. Since then, Latin words have begun to penetrate into the Russian language. Many of these words continue to exist in our language to this day (bible, doctor, medicine, lily, rose and others).

· Borrowings under Peter I. The flow of borrowed foreign language vocabulary characterizes the reign of Peter I.

Peter's transformative activity became a prerequisite for the reform of the literary Russian language. The Church Slavonic language did not correspond to the realities of the new secular society. The penetration of a number of foreign words, mainly military and craft terms, the names of some household items, new concepts in science and technology, in maritime affairs, in administration and in art, had a huge impact on the language of that time.

It is known, however, that Peter himself had a negative attitude towards the dominance of foreign words and demanded that his contemporaries write “as intelligibly as possible,” without abusing non-Russian words.

· Borrowings in the 18th-19th centuries

M. V. Lomonosov made a great contribution to the study and organization of foreign borrowings. He believed that the Russian language had lost its stability and linguistic norm due to the “clogging” of the living spoken language with borrowings from a variety of languages.

By the end of the 18th century, the process of Europeanization of the Russian language, carried out mainly through the French culture of the literary word, reached a high degree of development. The old-language language culture was supplanted by the new European one. The Russian literary language, without leaving its native soil, consciously uses Church Slavonicisms and Western European borrowings.

· Borrowings in the XX--XXI centuries

Linguist L.P. Krysin, in his work “On the Russian Language of Our Days,” analyzes the flow of foreign language vocabulary at the turn of the 20th and 21st centuries. In his opinion, the collapse of the Soviet Union, the intensification of business, scientific, trade, cultural ties, the flourishing of foreign tourism, all this caused an intensification of communication with native speakers of foreign languages.

Now let's look at how these words are formed, that is, the ways of forming borrowed words in the Russian spoken language.

The range of new concepts and phenomena of Russian origin is limited. foreign borrowing vocabulary language

Therefore, borrowing an already existing nomination with a borrowed concept and subject is considered more prestigious and effective. The following groups of foreign borrowings can be distinguished:

1. Direct borrowings. The word is found in Russian in approximately the same form and with the same meaning as in the original language.

These are words such as weekend - weekend; black - black; mani - money.

2. Hybrids. These words are formed by adding a Russian suffix, prefix and ending to a foreign root. In this case, the meaning of the foreign word - the source often changes somewhat, for example: to ask (to ask), buzz (busy - restless, fussy).

3. Tracing paper. Words of foreign origin, used while maintaining their phonetic and graphic appearance. These are words such as menu, password, disk, virus, club, sarcophagus.

4. Half tracing paper. Words that, when grammatically mastered, obey the rules of Russian grammar (suffixes are added). For example: drive - drive (drive) “There hasn’t been such a drive for a long time” - in the meaning of “fuse, energy.”

5. Exoticisms. Words that characterize the specific national customs of other peoples and are used to describe non-Russian reality. A distinctive feature of these words is that they do not have Russian synonyms. For example: chips, hot dog, cheeseburger.

6. Foreign language inclusions. These words usually have lexical equivalents, but are stylistically different from them and are fixed in one or another area of communication as an expressive means that gives speech a special expression. For example: okay (OK); wow (Wow!).

7. Composites. Words consisting of two English words, for example: second-hand - a store selling used clothing; video salon - a room for watching films.

8. Jargon. Words that appeared as a result of the distortion of any sounds, for example: crazy - crazy.

Thus, neologisms can be formed according to models existing in the language, borrowed from other languages, and appear as a result of the development of new meanings for already known words.

I would like to discuss with you Mikhail Zoshchenko’s story “The Monkey’s Language.”

Difficult this Russian language, expensive citizens! Trouble Which difficult.

home cause V volume, What foreign words V him before trait. Well, take French speech. All Fine And It's clear. Keskese, mercy comsi -- All, please pay attention yours attention, purely French, natural, understandable words.

A come on, show up Now With Russian phrase - trouble. All speech sprinkled words With foreign, foggy meaning.

From this finds it difficult speech, violated breath And chatter nerves.

I Here on days heard talk. On meeting was. Neighbours my got to talking.

Very smart And intelligent talk was, But I, Human without higher education, understood theirs talk With labor And clapped ears.

Began case With nothing.

My neighbour, Not old more man, With beard, bent down To to his neighbor left And politely asked:

-- A What, comrade, This meeting plenary will Ali How?

-- Plenary, -- carelessly answered neighbour.

-- Look You, -- surprised first, -- something like that I And I see What is that? How as if it And plenary

-- Yes really be are deceased, -- strictly answered second. -- Today strongly plenary And quorum such got close-- only hold on.

-- Yes Well? -- asked neighbour. -- Really And quorum did you get close?

-- By God, -- said second.

-- AND What or He, quorum this?

-- Yes Nothing, -- answered neighbour, some confused. -- Got close And All here.

-- Tell on mercy, -- With chagrin shook it head first neighbour. -- WITH what would This He, A?

Second neighbour divorced hands And strictly looked on interlocutor, Then added With soft smile:

-- Here You, comrade, I suppose Not do you approve these plenary meetings... A to me somehow They closer. All somehow, you know whether, comes out V them minimally By essentially day... Although I, directly I'll say last thing time I relate enough permanently To this meetings. So, you know whether, industry from empty V empty.

-- Not Always This, -- objected first. -- If, Certainly, look With points vision. Join, So say, on point vision And from now on, With points vision, That Yes, industry specifically.

-- Specifically actually, -- strictly corrected second.

-- Perhaps, -- agreed companion. -- This I Same I admit it. Specifically actually. Although How When...

-- Always, -- short cut off second. --Always, Dear comrade. Especially, If after speeches subsection will brew minimal. Discussions And scream Then Not you'll turn out...

On podium ascended Human And waved hand. All fell silent. Only neighbours my, some hot dispute, Not straightaway fell silent. First neighbour no way Not could make peace With those What subsection brewed minimal. To him it seemed What subsection brewed some otherwise.

On neighbors my shushed. Neighbours shook shoulders And fell silent. After first neighbour again bent down co second And quiet asked:

-- This Who and there such came out?

-- This? Yes This presidium came out Very spicy man. AND speaker first. Forever acute speaks By essentially day.

Speaker extended hand forward And began speech.

AND When He pronounced arrogant words With foreign, foggy meaning, neighbours my harshly nodded heads. Moreover second neighbour strictly looked on first, wanting show, What He All or was rights V only What finished dispute.

Difficult, comrades, speak in Russian!

And so, this short ironic story by Mikhail sharply ridicules social shortcomings. Namely, idle talk, bureaucracy and ignorance. The issue concerns the story and the contamination of the Russian language with foreign words.

The characters in the story intersperse their speech with “foreign words with vague meaning.” The narrator, from whose first person the story is told, listens to them, “flapping his ears.” He is delighted and confident that the art of speaking in incomprehensible words is a sign of “smart, intelligent conversation.” This is the author's ironic technique - he shows the funny under the guise of the serious.

At the same time, the “intellectuals” themselves are complete ignoramuses. They don’t understand the words they use to say: “...the quorum has been reached - just hold on. Yah? - the neighbor asked with disappointment. “Has the quorum really arrived?... Why would it be him, huh?” Under the guise of “smart” conversation, people talk such nonsense that it’s enough to rip your stomach: “the subsection will be minimally brewed...”.

But no one is ready to admit their ignorance. Their contrasting speech, skillfully conveyed by the author of the story, makes the reader laugh sincerely.

Who are these people? That's right, they're just monkeys. Mikhail Zoshchenko directly expressed his opinion about them in the title of the story - “monkey language.”

We examined the problems associated with borrowing words from foreign languages, which is especially significant in modern conditions, since today there are serious concerns about the powerful influx of borrowings, which can lead to the devaluation of the Russian word. But language is a self-developing mechanism that can clean itself and get rid of unnecessary things. In general, foreign language terminology is a very interesting linguistic phenomenon, the role of which in the Russian language is very significant. I believe that in the schools of our city it is necessary to carry out work to instill in schoolchildren a culture of handling foreign words and good language taste. And good taste is the main condition for the correct and appropriate use of linguistic means, both foreign and one’s own.

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Foreign words enter the Russian language along with many concepts, ideas, theories and concepts. Inventing your own terms to express borrowed concepts is often too difficult and even impractical, so in most cases, along with a new concept, a word or phrase that expresses it also comes into the language. For example: floppy disk (from the English diskette) is a small-format magnetic disk, usually flexible, a storage medium for processing on a computer.

The number of such words is gradually increasing in the context of expanding political, economic, scientific, technical and cultural ties. Over time, many of the borrowed words are polished, adapted to the norms of the Russian language, and become changeable in accordance with these norms, which greatly facilitates their use. For example: audit (from the English audit) is a form of financial control over the activities of organizations, enterprises, firms, carried out at the request of the client. In addition, we say audit, meaning another meaning of the word: audit. An auditor (from Latin auditor - listener, investigator) is a person who checks the financial and economic activities of a company on the basis of a contract. This noun, like the word audit, is inflected.

The process of “Russification” of borrowed words is the subordination of borrowed unchangeable nouns and adjectives to the norms of inflection of the Russian language: kepi - cap, papua - papuans, papuan, lobby - lobbying - lobbyist - lobbyist, pike - dive, bezh - beige, etc.

However, there are many examples when borrowed words remain “foreigners” in the system of the borrowing language (jury, highway, scoreboard, attaché, kangaroo, etc.). Difficulties often arise in determining the grammatical gender of these words, in their pronunciation and stress placement. Things to remember:
1) indeclinable words of foreign language origin, denoting inanimate objects, belong to the neuter gender: publicity (advertising, fame, popularity); summary (a brief conclusion from what was said, a brief summary of the essence of the speech).
Although the word coffee is masculine, in colloquial speech it can also be used as a neuter;
2) if a word is included in a more general, generic concept, then it correlates with this concept in grammatical gender. Thus, indeclinable nouns included in the concept of “language” belong to the masculine gender: Bengali, Pashto, Hindi, etc.; the word Esperanto is used in both the masculine and neuter gender; the word sirocco is masculine (under the influence of the word wind); the words beriberi (disease), kohlrabi (cabbage), salami (sausage) are feminine; the word breeches is not only neuter, but also plural (trousers);
3) indeclinable foreign words denoting animate objects (animals, birds, etc.) are masculine: gray kangaroo, small chimpanzee, funny pony, pink cockatoo. But: hummingbird, kiwi-kiwi feminine (influenced by the word bird); iwasi (fish, herring), tsetse (fly) feminine; if it is clear from the context that we are talking about a female, then the names of the animals refer to the feminine gender: the kangaroo carried a baby kangaroo in its bag; a chimpanzee was feeding a baby;
4) indeclinable nouns of foreign origin, denoting people, are classified as masculine or feminine in accordance with the gender of the person designated: rich rentier, old lady; the same applies to proper names: great Verdi, poor Mimi; bigeneric words are vis-a-vis (my vis-a-vis is my vis-a-vis), protégé, incognito;
5) the gender of indeclinable nouns denoting geographical names (cities, rivers, lakes, etc.) is determined by the grammatical gender of the common noun denoting a generic concept (i.e., by the gender of the words city, river, lake, etc. ): sunny Batumi, wide Mississippi, deep-water Ontario, picturesque Capri (island), inaccessible Jungfrau (mountain);
6) the same principle is used to determine the grammatical gender of indeclinable names of press organs: “The Times” (newspaper) published...; Figaro Literaire (magazine) published...; Time (magazine) published...;
7) the pronunciation of foreign words has a number of features: in borrowed words, in place of the letter o in an unstressed position, [o] is pronounced, i.e. without reduction: b[o]a, [o]tel, kaka[o], for [o] ]; Double pronunciation is allowed: p[o]et - p[a]et, s[o]net - s[a]net, etc.; Before the vowel, denoted by the letter e, in many foreign words the consonants are pronounced firmly: at[e]lie, code[e]ks, cafe[e], Shop[e]n.

Simultaneously with the borrowing, another (Russian in origin) word with the same meaning can function in the Russian language, for example: aloe - agave, lumbago - lumbago, rendezvous - date.

Borrowed words that characterize specific national characteristics of the life of different peoples and are used in describing non-Russian reality are called exoticisms. Thus, when depicting the life and way of life of the peoples of the Caucasus, the following words are used: aul, saklya, arba, horseman; Italian flavor is conveyed by the words gondola, tarantella, tavern, spaghetti, pizza, etc.

Many borrowings, unable to withstand the test of time, quickly disappeared from the modern dictionary, but are found in literature: victoria (victory), plaisir (pleasure), voyage (travel), polites (politeness), etable (arrange).

In recent decades, the abuse of calques from foreign words has become a frequent occurrence, although there are Russian equivalents to denote the corresponding concepts. For example, we read in the newspapers: the summit participants came to a consensus... There is a large selection of ready-to-wear clothing in the boutiques... We hear on the radio: primaries have been held in the United States, the rating of the main candidate for the post of contender has decreased.

At the same time, the development of a market economy in Russia has naturally supplemented our speech with such borrowed words as broker (intermediary), dealer (a person or firm acting on the market using a manufacturer's trademark), tender (official offer to fulfill an obligation), tranche (financial part, series), transfer (financial transfer), offer (official proposal to conclude a deal) and many others.

It is worth noting such a phenomenon in the life of a foreign word as a shift in the hierarchy of meanings inherent in the source of borrowing. Thus, our dictionaries of foreign words give the following meanings of the English word sponsor: 1. Guarantor. 2. The person financing the event or organization. In modern Russian the first meaning has not taken root. The word sponsor means “a structure, a person who finances someone.” A similar shift has occurred in the use of the word business. In the Russian interpretation, business is a commercial activity, non-state trade, while the dictionary gives the following basic meanings: business, permanent occupation, specialty, duty, duty.

One more group of words should be highlighted. Their semantic transformations illustrate a certain change in socio-economic and - as a consequence - linguistic guidelines. Consider, for example, the words control, control. They have long been included in the Russian language, being borrowed from French, and mean accordingly: check, check. Since the 1990s, the word control has come to mean primarily not inspection, but management, keeping under influence. The pattern is found in English, where control means, first of all, management. In the new usage, the meaning of verification shifts to the number of secondary ones.

The words have undergone similar changes: analyst (now not so much the one who analyzes, but rather the observer, commentator); administration (now not only and not so much the governing body of an enterprise, but a government body); director or general director (not only the head of the enterprise, but also often its co-owner). A similar transformation can be found in the meanings of the words liberalization, model, policy.

The main thing in the use of borrowings is precise knowledge of the meaning or meanings of a foreign word and the appropriateness of its use.

Everyone knows that cultural contacts with neighbors are vital for the normal development of any nation. Mutual enrichment of vocabulary, borrowing words, terms and even names are inevitable. As a rule, they are useful for the language: the use of a missing word allows you to avoid descriptive phrases, the language becomes simpler and more dynamic. For example, a long phrase “trade in a certain place once a year” in the Russian language it is successfully replaced by the word that came from the German language fair. In modern Russia, unfortunately, we often have to deal with the unlawful and unjustified use of foreign words in everyday speech. All kinds shops, consulting, marketing and leasing literally litter the Russian language, without at all decorating it. However, it should be recognized that sweeping prohibitions can harm its normal development. In this article we bring to your attention, we will talk about the successful use of foreign words and terms.

Let's start with terms that are close and familiar to any teacher of Russian language and literature. Word poetry has become so firmly ingrained in our language that we no longer even think about its meaning. Meanwhile, translated from Greek it means "creation". Word poem translated as "Creation", A rhyme – "proportionality", "consistency", the same root word for it is rhythm. Stanza translated from Greek - "turn", A epithet – "figurative definition".

Such terms as epic ("collection of tales"), myth ("word", "speech"),drama ("action"), lyrics(from the word musical), elegy ("plaintive melody of the flute"), Oh yeah ("song"),epithalamus("wedding poem or song"),epic ("word", "story", "song"), tragedy ("goat song"), comedy ("bear holidays"). The name of the latter genre is associated with the holidays in honor of the Greek goddess Artemis, which were celebrated in March. This month, the bears came out of hibernation, which gave the name to these performances. well and scene- of course, "tent" where the actors performed. Concerning parodies, that is - "singing inside out".

If the Greeks took upon themselves the “responsibility” of giving names to poetic and theatrical terms, then the Romans took prose seriously. Latin experts will tell us that this short word can be translated into Russian by the phrase “purposeful speech.” The Romans generally loved precise and short definitions. It is not for nothing that the word came to us from the Latin language lapidary, i.e. "carved in stone" (short, condensed). Word text means "connection", "compound", A illustration – "clarification"(to text). Legend- This "what must be read",memorandum – "things to remember", A opus– "work", "work". Word plot translated from Latin means "story", "legend", but it came to the Russian language from German with the meaning "plot". Manuscript- This handwritten document, well and editor- This a person who has to “put things in order”. Madrigal– also a Latin word, it comes from the root “mother” and means a song in the native, “mother” language. To finish with literary terms, let's say that the Scandinavian word runes originally meant "all knowledge", Then - "secret" and only later began to be used in the meaning "letters", "letters".

But let’s return to the Romans, who, as we know, developed a unique set of laws for that time (Roman law) and enriched world culture with many legal terms. For example, justice ("justice", "legality"), alibi ("in the other place"), verdict ("the truth has been spoken"), advocate(from Latin "I urge"), notary – ("scribe"),protocol("first sheet"), visa ("viewed") etc. Words version ("turn") And intrigue ("to confuse") also of Latin origin. The Romans came up with the word blunder – “fall”, “mistake”, “wrong step”. Most medical terms are of Greek and Latin origin. Examples of borrowings from the Greek language include words such as anatomy ("dissection"), agony ("struggle"), hormone ("set in motion"), diagnosis ("definition"), diet ("lifestyle", "regime"), paroxysm ("irritation"). The following terms are of Latin origin: hospital ("hospitable"), immunity ("liberation from something"),disabled person ("powerless", "weak"), invasion ("attack"),muscle ("mouse"), obstruction ("blockage"), obliteration ("destruction"), pulse ("push").

Currently, Latin is the language of science and serves as a source for the formation of new, never existing words and terms. For example, allergy – "other action"(the term was coined by the Austrian pediatrician K. Pirke). Christianity, as we know, came to us from Byzantium, whose inhabitants, although they called themselves Romans (Romans), spoke mainly Greek. Along with the new religion, many new words came to our country, some of which were sometimes tracing paper - a literal translation of Greek terms. For example, the word enthusiasm ("divine inspiration") was translated into Old Church Slavonic as "possession"(!). This interpretation was not accepted by the language. Much more often, new terms were accepted without modification. The original meaning of many of them has long been forgotten, and few people know that angel- This "messenger", apostle – "messenger",clergy – "lot", icon case – "box", liturgy – "duty", deacon – "minister", bishop– "looker from above", A sexton– "watchman". Word hero also Greek and means "saint"- no more, no less! But this is a dirty word nasty came to us from the Latin language and means just "rural"(inhabitant). The fact is that pagan cults held a particularly tenacious hold in rural areas, as a result of which this word became synonymous with pagan. Words used to name representatives of the other world are also foreign in origin. Word daemon "deity", "spirit". It is known that Mikhail Vrubel did not want the demon depicted in his paintings to be confused with the devil or the devil: “Demon means “soul” and personifies the eternal struggle of the restless human spirit, seeking reconciliation of the passions overwhelming it, knowledge of life and not finding an answer to its doubts either on earth or in heaven,– this is how he explained his position.” What do the words devil and devil mean? Crap- this is not a name, but an epithet ( "horned"). Devil same – "seducer", "slanderer"(Greek). Other names for the devil are of Hebrew origin: Satan – "contradictory", "opponent", Belial- from the phrase "no use". Name Mephistopheles invented by Goethe, but it is composed of two Hebrew words - "liar" and "destroyer". And here's the name Woland, which M.A. Bulgakov used in his famous novel “The Master and Margarita”, is of Germanic origin: in medieval German dialects it meant "deceiver", "rogue". In Goethe's Faust, Mephistopheles is once mentioned under this name.

Word fairy is of Latin origin and means "fate". The Welsh believed that fairies came from pagan priestesses, while the Scots and Irish believed that they came from angels seduced by the devil. However, despite the centuries-old dominance of Christianity, Europeans still treat fairies and elves with sympathy, calling them “good people” and “peaceful neighbors.”

Word dwarf invented by Paracelsus. Translated from Greek it means "dweller of the earth". In Scandinavian mythology, such creatures were called "dark alves" or "ministruists". Brownie in Germany they call "kobold". Later this name was given to the metal, which had "harmful character", – made it difficult to smelt copper. Nickel name was elf living by the water, a big fan of jokes. This name was given to a metal similar to silver.

Word the Dragon translated from Greek means "sharply seeing". Interestingly, in China this mythological creature was traditionally depicted without eyes. Tradition tells that one artist of the Tang era (9th century) got carried away and painted the eyes of a dragon: the room was filled with fog, thunder was heard, the dragon came to life and flew away. And the word Hurricane comes from the name of the god of fear of the South American Indians - Huracana. The names of some precious and semi-precious stones also have their own meaning. Sometimes the name refers to the color of the stone. For example, ruby – "red"(lat.), chrysolite – "golden"(Greek), olevin – "green"(Greek), lapis lazuli– "sky blue"(Greek), etc. But sometimes their name is associated with certain properties that were attributed to these stones in ancient times. So, amethyst translated from Greek as "not drunk": according to legends, this stone is capable of “curbing passions,” so Christian priests often use it to decorate vestments and insert it into crosses. For this reason, amethyst has another name - “bishop’s stone”. And the word agate translated from Greek means "good", which he was supposed to bring to his owner.

There have been cases when the same word came to our country from different languages and at different times, resulting in different meanings. For example, words colossus, machination and machine- single-rooted. Two of them come to us directly from the Greek language. One of them means "something huge", other – "trick". But the third came through Western European languages and is a technical term.

Sometimes words are formed by combining roots belonging to different languages. For example: word abracadabra contains a Greek root with the meaning "deity" and Hebrew with the meaning "word". That is "word of God"- an expression or phrase that seems meaningless to the uninitiated.

And the word snob It is interesting in that, being Latin in origin, it appeared in England at the end of the 18th century. It comes from the Latin expression sine nobilitas ( "without nobility"), which was shortened to s. nob.: this is how passengers who did not have the right to dine with the captain began to be called on English ships. Later in English houses this word was placed on guest lists opposite persons who were to be announced without a title.

What about other languages? Did they contribute to Russian vocabulary? The answer to this question is clearly affirmative. There are many examples.

So, the Arabic phrase "lord of the sea" became a Russian word admiral.

Fabric name atlas translated from Arabic means "beautiful", "smooth". Cabal- This "receipt", "obligation",shackles – "fetters", "shackles" etc. They have long been perceived as Russian Turkic words scribble ("black or evil hand") And toddler ("like a watermelon"). About the antiquity of the word iron indicates its Sanskrit origin ( "metal", "ore"). Weight- This "heavy"(Persian), stage – "platform"(Spanish), coat of arms – "inheritance"(Polish). Words bank(from "lay the ship on its side") And yacht(from "drive") are of Dutch origin. Words emergency ("all the way up"– over all), bluff("deception"), velveteen("velvet") came to Russia from England. The last word is interesting because it is the “false friend of the translator”: readers have probably been surprised more than once that at receptions and balls, kings and court ladies flaunt in corduroy suits and dresses. The words came from the German language cabin boy("boy"), tie ("scarf"), vane ("wing"), flask ("bottle"), Workbench ("workshop"). There are a lot of borrowings from Italian and French. For example, trampoline("hit"),career("run"), feint ("pretense", "fiction"), stamp ("seal"), relay race ("stirrup") - Italian. Scam ("case"), gauze ("muslin"), balance ("scales"),compliment ("Hello"), negligee ("negligence") - French.

Italian and French gave birth to many musical and theatrical terms. Here are some of them. Italian word conservatory("shelter") recalls the decision of the Venetian authorities to turn 4 convents into music schools (XVIII century). Virtuoso means "valor", word cantata derived from Italian cantara – "sing", capriccio- from the word "goat"(a work with a galloping, “goat-like” change of themes and moods), opera –"composition", tutti – "performed by the whole cast".

Now it's France's turn: arrangement – "putting things in order", overture from the word "open", benefit – "profit", "benefit", repertoire– "scroll", decoration – "decoration", pointe shoes(solid toes of ballet shoes) – "edge", "tip", divertissement– "entertainment", foyer – "hearth". And in modern pop music the word is very popular plywood, which comes from German "to impose"(voice to already recorded music).

When talking about borrowing from the French language, one cannot ignore the culinary topic. Yes, word garnish comes from French "to supply", "to equip". Glyase- Means "frozen", "icy". Cutlet – "rib". Consomme – "bouillon". Langet – "tongue". Marinade– "put in salt water". Roll- from the word "clotting". Word the vinaigrette– exception: being French in origin (from vinaigre – "vinegar"), it appeared in Russia. All over the world this dish is called "Russian salad".

It is interesting that many popular dog names in our country are of foreign origin. The fact is that peasants in Russian villages could not often afford to keep a dog. Landowners, on the contrary, often kept dozens and even hundreds of hunting dogs on their country estates (and even took bribes with “greyhound puppies”) and several lap dogs in city houses. Since Russian nobles knew French (and later English) better than their native language, they gave foreign names to their dogs. Some of them have spread widely among the people. What familiar word could a peasant who does not know French hear in the nickname Сheri ("Cutie")? Of course, Ball! Trezor translated into Russian means "treasure"(French), nickname Barbos comes from the French word "bearded", A Rex- This "tsar"(lat.). A number of nicknames originated from foreign names. For example, Bobik and Tobik- these are variants of the Russian adaptation of the English name Bobby,Zhuchka and Zhulka descended from Julia. And the nicknames Jim and Jack don’t even try to hide their foreign origin.

Well, what about the great and mighty Russian language? Did he make his contribution to the development of foreign languages? It turns out that the Russian word has entered many languages of the world man. Word grandmother in English it is used in the meaning "women's headscarf", A pancakes in Britain they call small round sandwiches. Word vulgarity got into the English dictionary because V. Nabokov, who wrote in this language, despairing of finding its full-fledged analogue, decided to leave it without translation in one of his novels.

Words satellite And comrade known all over the world, and Kalashnikov for a foreigner it is not a surname, but the name of a Russian machine gun. Relatively recently, some now somewhat forgotten terms made a triumphal march around the world perestroika and glasnost. Words vodka, matryoshka and balalaika They are used so often and inappropriately by foreigners talking about Russia that they cause irritation. But for the word pogrom, which entered the dictionaries of many European languages in 1903, is frankly shameful. Words intelligentsia(author – P. Boborykin) and disinformation are not Russian “by origin”, but they were invented precisely in Russia. From the Russian language that became their “native”, they moved into many foreign ones and became widespread throughout the world.

In conclusion, we will give several examples of the successful formation of new words that were invented by poets and writers and appeared in the Russian language relatively recently. So, the appearance of words acid, refraction, equilibrium we must M.V. Lomonosov.N.M. Karamzin enriched our language with words of influence, industry, public, generally useful, touching, entertaining, focused. Radishchev introduced the word into the Russian language citizen in its modern meaning. Ivan Panaev was the first to use the word asshole , A Igor Severyanin- word mediocrity . V. Khlebnikov and A. Kruchenykh claim to be the author of the word get crazy .

Of course, in a short article it is impossible to adequately and completely talk about the meaning of words borrowed from foreign languages. We hope that we managed to interest readers who themselves will be able to continue their fascinating journey through the vocabulary of the Russian language.

Words name objects, phenomena, signs and actions of the surrounding world. The more a person learns about the world (including himself), the more he discovers new things in it, and accordingly calls everything new in words. The entire known world is thus reflected in the vocabulary of the language. The Russian language is one of the richest in the world in terms of vocabulary. “For everything,” wrote K. Paustovsky, “the Russian language has a great many good words.”

However, any language develops in interaction with other languages. Since ancient times, the Russian people have entered into cultural, trade, military, and political ties with other states, which could not but lead to language borrowing. Gradually, the borrowed words were assimilated (from the Latin assimilare - to assimilate, to liken) by the borrowing language and were no longer perceived as foreign.

Borrowed words – These are foreign words that have completely entered the lexical system of the Russian language. They acquired lexical meaning, phonetic design, grammatical features characteristic of the Russian language, are used in various styles, and are written in letters of the Russian alphabet.

Reasons for borrowing

In different historical periods, borrowings from other languages intensified both under the influence of external (non-linguistic) and internal (linguistic) reasons.

External reasons – these are various connections between peoples. So, in the 10th century. Kievan Rus adopted Christianity from the Greeks. In this regard, many Greek words entered the Old Russian language, along with borrowed religious ideas and objects of church worship, for example: altar, patriarch, demon, icon, cell, monk, lamp, metropolitan etc. Scientific terms, names of objects of Greek culture, names of plants, months, etc. were also borrowed, for example: mathematics, history, philosophy, grammar, syntax, idea, theater, stage, museum, comedy, tragedy, alphabet, planet, climate, doll, poppy, cucumber, beets, January, February, December and etc.

From the XIII to the XV centuries. Ancient Rus' was under the Mongol-Tatar yoke. Words from Turkic languages appeared: barn, cart, quiver, lasso, shoe, felt, armyak, sash, sheepskin coat, heel, trousers, noodles, khan, sundress, pencil, barn, chest, trestle bed, label.

During the period of transformations of Peter I, especially many words came into the Russian language from Dutch, German, English, and French. This:

military vocabulary: recruit, camp, watch, parade ground, uniform, corporal, order, soldier, officer, company, assault, harbor, fairway, bay, flag, cabin, sailor, boat, dugout, sapper, landing, squadron, artillery;

art terms: easel, landscape, stroke, leitmotif, highlight, full house, flute, dance, choreographer(from German); stalls, play, actor, prompter, intermission, plot, ballet, genre(from French); bass, tenor, aria, bravo, box, opera(from Italian); names of new household items, clothing: kitchen, sandwich, waffle, minced meat, tie, cap (and from the German language); muffler, suit, vest, coat, bracelet, veil, necklace, fashion designer, furniture, chest of drawers, buffet, chandelier, lampshade, cream, marmalade(from French).

Internal reasons – These are the needs for the development of the lexical system of a language, which are as follows:

1. The need to eliminate the ambiguity of the original Russian word, to simplify its semantic structure. This is how the words appeared import Export instead of polysemantic native Russians import, export. Words import Export began to mean “import”, “export” associated with international trade.

Instead of a descriptive name ( sniper - accurate shooter; motel – hotel for autotourists; sprint – sprinting; hit - fashionable song; killer - hitman).

Similarly, the words arose tour, cruise. This process is also supported by the tendency to create international terms. For example, football commentators call foreign players on domestic teams legionnaires.

2. The desire to clarify or detail the relevant concepts of language, to distinguish between its semantic shades. So, briefing – not just any meeting, casting – not just any competition, but primarily in the field of show business. For example, in Russian the word jam It is called both liquid and thick jam. To distinguish thick jam from fruits or berries, which is a homogeneous mass, from liquid jam, in which whole berries could be preserved, thick jam began to be called by the English word jam. The words also arose reportage(with native Russian story), total(with native Russian general), hobby ( with native Russian hobby), comfort - convenience: service - service; local– local; creative– creative ; charm – charm, charm; relaxation – rest ; extreme- dangerous ; positive– optimism. Thus, a word already existing in a language and a newly borrowed one share spheres of semantic influence. These areas may overlap, but will never completely coincide.

Linguistic features of borrowed words

Among the phonetic characteristics of borrowed words the following can be distinguished:

1. Unlike native Russians, they never begin with a sound A(which would contradict the phonetic laws of the Russian language), borrowed words have an initial a: profile, abbot, paragraph, aria, attack, lampshade, arba, angel, anathema.

2. The initial e distinguishes mainly Greek and Latinisms (Russian words never begin with this sound): era, era, ethics, exam, execution, effect, floor.

3. The letter f also indicates a non-Russian source of the sound f and the corresponding graphic sign was used only to designate it in borrowed words: forum, fact, lantern, film, sofa, scam, aphorism, broadcast, profile and so on.

4. A special phonetic feature of Turkic origin is the harmony of identical vowels: ataman, caravan, pencil, sundress, drum, chest, mosque.

5. The combination of two or more vowels in a word was unacceptable according to the laws of Russian phonetics, so borrowed words are easily distinguished by this feature: poet, theater, veil, cocoa, radio, punctuation.

Among the morphological features of borrowed words, the most characteristic is their immutability. Thus, some foreign language nouns do not change by case and do not have correlative singular and plural forms: coat, radio, cinema, metro, cocoa, beige, mini, maxi, blinds and etc.

Borrowing end XX – beginning XXI century.

Scope of use

We can distinguish two main types of borrowed words of our time. The first type is relatively old borrowings, updated in recent years in connection with changes in the political and economic system of Russia (for example, the word the president, borrowed during the Soviet era, became relevant in the 80s).

The second type is new borrowing. They are especially numerous.

In the 90s the influx of borrowings into the Russian language increased greatly, which was associated with changes in the sphere of political life, economics, culture and moral orientation of society.

Borrowings take leading positions in the political life of the country: president, parliament, inauguration, summit, speaker, impeachment, electorate, consensus etc.

in the most advanced branches of science and technology: computer, display, file, monitoring, player, pager, fax, modem, portal, processor, and also in financial and commercial activities:auditor, barter, broker, dealer, investment, conversion, sponsor, trust, holding, supermarket, manager, default etc.

Into the cultural sphere invade bestsellers, westerns, thrillers, hits, showmen, digests, casting and so on.

Noteworthy is the fact that the rapidly growing number of new names of persons in the Russian language is caused not only by the emergence of new professions - to a greater extent this is due to the fact that new subcultures are being identified, classified by way of life, by profession, by cultural affiliation. The bulk of these words are borrowed from English. In modern Russian, this group of new names for persons can be considered still developing and constantly growing:

blogger – a person who, on a professional or amateur basis, is engaged in maintaining and maintaining a blog; game designer - a person who develops the rules of computer games; downshifter – a person who voluntarily gave up a high position and income for the sake of a simple and leisurely life with his family, for the sake of spiritual self-improvement, and travel; skater – man riding a skateboard; trapper - fur-bearing animal hunter; thrasher – a young man with a non-standard appearance (plenty of piercings and tattoos, outrageous clothes), etc.

Attitude towards borrowing

Foreign words in the Russian language have always been the subject of close attention and discussion by scientists, public figures, writers, and lovers of the Russian language. Scientists were interested in what place borrowed words occupy in the vocabulary of the Russian language, from which languages the most words are borrowed, what is the reason for borrowing, and whether foreign words will clog up the native language. Repeated attempts were made to replace words that came from other languages with Russian ones (Peter I).

Borrowing is a completely natural way to enrich any language. Foreign words replenish the vocabulary of the language. This is their positive role. However, excessive and unnecessary use of foreign words complicates communication and leads to the formation of absurd phrases:

The students of grade 3 “B” made an identical decision.

Masha confidentially told her friend about this incident.

Until what time is the buffet open?

We wish consensus in the family!

Errors in the use of borrowed words lead to the formation of tautological combinations: leading leader, young prodigy, free vacancy, your own autograph, old veteran, forecast for the future, etc. On the other hand, reasonable borrowings enrich speech and give it greater accuracy.

Nowadays, the question of the appropriateness of using borrowings is associated with the assignment of lexical means to certain functional styles of speech (for example, in scientific speech, preference is given to a foreign language synonym - integration, not a union; flexion, not the ending). Foreign terminological vocabulary is an indispensable means of concise and accurate transmission of information in texts intended for specialists.

In our time, the creation of international terminology, common names for concepts, phenomena of modern science and production is also taken into account, which also contributes to the consolidation of borrowed words that have acquired an international character (medical, space terminology). For example: car, spaceport, democracy, republic, telegraph, dictatorship, philosophy.

Processes of vocabulary enrichment through borrowings occur today in all modern languages. However, how this will change the face of the Russian language, whether it will enrich it or “spoil” it, time will tell. It will also determine the fate of borrowings, which will ultimately be approved or rejected by the linguistic taste of the era.

Literature

2. Modern Russian language, edited by M., 1976

3. Brief etymological dictionary of the Russian language M., 1971

4. Dictionary of foreign words M: “Russian language”, 1988

5. Romanov and Americanisms in the Russian language and attitude towards them. St. Petersburg, 2000

Let's start with terms that are close and familiar to any teacher of Russian language and literature. Word poetry has become so firmly ingrained in our language that we no longer even think about its meaning. Meanwhile, translated from Greek it means "creation". Word poem translated as "Creation", A rhyme – "proportionality","consistency", the same root word for it is rhythm. Stanza translated from Greek - "turn", A epithet – "figurative definition".

Such terms as epic ("collection of tales"), myth("word", "speech"),drama ("action"), lyrics(from the word musical), elegy("plaintive melody of the flute"), Oh yeah ("song"),epithalamus("wedding poem or song"),epic ("word", "story", "song"), tragedy ("goat song"), comedy("bear holidays"). The name of the latter genre is associated with the holidays in honor of the Greek goddess Artemis, which were celebrated in March. This month, the bears came out of hibernation, which gave the name to these performances. well and scene- of course, "tent" where the actors performed. Concerning parodies, that is - "singing inside out" .

But let’s return to the Romans, who, as we know, developed a unique set of laws for that time (Roman law) and enriched world culture with many legal terms. For example, justice ("justice", "legality"), alibi ("in the other place"), verdict ("the truth has been spoken"), advocate(from Latin "I urge"), notary– ("scribe"),protocol("first sheet"), visa ("viewed") etc. Words version("turn") And intrigue ("to confuse") also of Latin origin. The Romans came up with the word blunder – “fall”, “mistake”, “wrong step”. Most medical terms are of Greek and Latin origin. Examples of borrowings from the Greek language include words such as anatomy("dissection"), agony ("struggle"), hormone ("set in motion"), diagnosis("definition"), diet ("lifestyle", "regime"), paroxysm ("irritation"). The following terms are of Latin origin: hospital("hospitable"), immunity ("liberation from something"),disabled person ("powerless", "weak"), invasion ("attack"),muscle ("mouse"), obstruction ("blockage"),obliteration ("destruction"), pulse ("push").

Currently, Latin is the language of science and serves as a source for the formation of new, never existing words and terms. For example, allergy – "other action"(the term was coined by the Austrian pediatrician K. Pirke). Christianity, as we know, came to us from Byzantium, whose inhabitants, although they called themselves Romans (Romans), spoke mainly Greek. Along with the new religion, many new words came to our country, some of which were sometimes tracing paper - a literal translation of Greek terms. For example, the word enthusiasm ("divine inspiration") was translated into Old Church Slavonic as "possession"(!). This interpretation was not accepted by the language. Much more often, new terms were accepted without modification. The original meaning of many of them has long been forgotten, and few people know that angel- This "messenger", apostle –"messenger",clergy – "lot", icon case – "box", liturgy – "duty", deacon –"minister", bishop– "looker from above", A sexton– "watchman". Word hero also Greek and means "saint"- no more, no less! But this is a dirty word nasty came to us from the Latin language and means just "rural"(inhabitant). The fact is that pagan cults held a particularly tenacious hold in rural areas, as a result of which this word became synonymous with pagan. Words used to name representatives of the other world are also foreign in origin. Word daemon "deity", "spirit". It is known that Mikhail Vrubel did not want the demon depicted in his paintings to be confused with the devil or the devil: “Demon means “soul” and personifies the eternal struggle of the restless human spirit, seeking reconciliation of the passions overwhelming it, knowledge of life and not finding an answer to its doubts either on earth or in heaven,– this is how he explained his position.” What do the words devil and devil mean? Crap- this is not a name, but an epithet ( "horned"). Devil same – "seducer", "slanderer"(Greek). Other names for the devil are of Hebrew origin: Satan – "contradictory", "opponent", Belial- from the phrase "no use". Name Mephistopheles invented by Goethe, but it is composed of two Hebrew words - "liar" and "destroyer". And here's the name Woland, which M.A. Bulgakov used in his famous novel “The Master and Margarita”, is of Germanic origin: in medieval German dialects it meant "deceiver", "rogue". In Goethe's Faust, Mephistopheles is once mentioned under this name.

What about other languages? Did they contribute to Russian vocabulary? The answer to this question is clearly affirmative. There are many examples that can be given. Thus, the Arabic phrase "lord of the sea" became a Russian word admiral.

Fabric name atlas translated from Arabic means "beautiful", "smooth".Cabal- This "receipt", "obligation",shackles – "fetters", "shackles" etc. They have long been perceived as Russian Turkic words scribble ("black or evil hand") And toddler ("like a watermelon"). About the antiquity of the word iron indicates its Sanskrit origin ( "metal", "ore"). Weight- This "heavy"(Persian), stage –"platform"(Spanish), coat of arms – "inheritance"(Polish). Words bank(from "lay the ship on its side") And yacht(from "drive") are of Dutch origin. Words emergency ("all the way up"– over all), bluff("deception"), velveteen("velvet") came to Russia from England. The last word is interesting because it is the “false friend of the translator”: readers have probably been surprised more than once that at receptions and balls, kings and court ladies flaunt in corduroy suits and dresses. The words came from the German language cabin boy("boy"), tie("scarf"), vane ("wing"), flask ("bottle"), Workbench ("workshop"). There are a lot of borrowings from Italian and French. For example, trampoline("hit"),career("run"), feint ("pretense", "fiction"), stamp ("seal"), relay race ("stirrup") - Italian. Scam ("case"), gauze ("muslin"), balance ("scales"),compliment("Hello"), negligee ("negligence") - French.

Italian and French gave birth to many musical and theatrical terms. Here are some of them. Italian word conservatory("shelter") recalls the decision of the Venetian authorities to turn 4 convents into music schools (XVIII century). Virtuoso means "valor", word cantata derived from Italian cantara –"sing", capriccio- from the word "goat"(a work with a galloping, “goat-like” change of themes and moods), opera –"composition", tutti – "performed by the whole cast".

Now it's France's turn: arrangement – "putting things in order", overture from the word "open", benefit – "profit", "benefit", repertoire– "scroll", decoration –"decoration", pointe shoes(solid toes of ballet shoes) – "edge", "tip",divertissement– "entertainment", foyer – "hearth". And in modern pop music the word is very popular plywood, which comes from German "to impose"(voice to already recorded music).

When talking about borrowing from the French language, one cannot ignore the culinary topic. Yes, word garnish comes from French "to supply", "to equip".Glyase- Means "frozen", "icy". Cutlet – "rib". Consomme – "bouillon".Langet – "tongue". Marinade– "put in salt water". Roll- from the word "clotting". Word the vinaigrette– exception: being French in origin (from vinaigre – "vinegar"), it appeared in Russia. All over the world this dish is called "Russian salad".