Mastering foreign words in Russian. General features of mastering English borrowings in Russian

As a result of economic, political and cultural ties with other peoples, various vocabulary was borrowed. Borrowed words can displace native Russian names, or be used along with them, becoming synonyms (export-import, import and export). The sources of borrowings were Slavic (Polish, Czech, etc.) and non-Slavic (Greek, Latin, French, German, Italian, English, Turkic) languages.

1. Mostly everyday vocabulary was borrowed from Polish (jacket, suede, stroller, cap), Latinisms (coin, public), German and Italian words (fair, ground, thing) were borrowed through it.

2. Bagel, borscht, hopak, shkolyar, and grain-grower were borrowed from the Ukrainian language.

3. From Czech – refugee, Polish, robot.

When moving into another language, words adapt to the phonetic structure and morphological system of the borrowing language and undergo lexico-semantic transformation:

1. Phonetic transformations - replacing foreign sounds with sounds of a borrowing language that are similar in quality.

a) nasal vowels in French are expressed by the corresponding vowels in combination with n, m (adventure, landing)

b) rearrangement of sounds (easel)

c) insertion of vowels between consonants (calico)

d) moving the accent (decorator, revolver)

2. Morphological transformations - assignment to a certain part of speech, distribution according to word-formation types, obtaining the appropriate grammatical design.

a) loss of endings (Grecisms -os, -on: bishop, idol, Latinisms -us, -um: muscle, decree).

b) change in generic affiliation (la sorte zh.r. – sort of m.r.).

3. Lexico-semantic transformation –

a) distribution by thematic and lexical-semantic groups: the Turkisms scarlet and bulany replenished the composition of the LSG adjectives of color

b) change in the volume of the word (narrowing) - powder in French means powder, powder, gunpowder, dust, sand. And in Russian - only powder.

c) rethinking the word, changing the conceptual basis (barn - palace)

d) the emergence of a new secondary meaning for the borrowed word (vinaigrette)

In the folk language there is a tendency to attach borrowed words to those consonant with their own words and rethink them in this circle - folk etymology, false etymology (trenchers). Folk etymology is used in YHL for stylistic purposes.

The degree of development varies:

1. assimilated - firmly entrenched in the lexical system of the Russian language and are perceived as originally belonging to it (pencil, soup)

2. Exotic words (exoticisms) - reflecting phenomena in the life and everyday life of other peoples (mademoiselle, satsivi, dollar). It is possible to find exact equivalents in Russian for such words, but the foreign language specificity will be lost during translation. When borrowing realities denoted by exoticisms, such words become the category of lexically mastered words (goulash, shish kebab).

3. Barbarisms - foreign words that are not fully mastered by the borrowing language, due to difficulties in grammatical mastery, often add a humorous or ironic tone to the text (chew chuingam, drink juice).

Calques in Russian.

Kalka is a word built on the model of a corresponding foreign word by transferring its constituent parts with the help of Russian word-formation elements. Tracing is the process of creating tracings. Calques differ from borrowings - someone else’s word is not transferred, but is translated using one’s own linguistic material when borrowing the semantics of its constituent parts.

1. derivational tracings - constructed with the help of Russian derivational elements (look - from German Aussehen - -aus - -you, sehen - look. Interjection and Latin interjectio, skyscraper and skyscraper, etc.).

2. Semantic tracings - words that borrow from their foreign language equivalents one of the LSVs (to touch - to worry from the French toucher (to touch), picture - the meaning of “movie film” from the English picture (picture, portrait, film).

3. Semi-calques - a word composed of borrowed and own elements, using the word-formation structure of a foreign language prototype word (television - Greek tele and Russian vision, humanity - humanitat - Latin root human and Russian -ost).

9. Lexicography. Main types of dictionaries (Maslov’s study, chapter 3, section 7

Semantic acquisition is the process by which a foreign word enters the system of concepts of the borrowing language.

The overwhelming majority of borrowings used in our speech are semantically mastered. These words are basically the names of those realities and concepts that have entered the lives of Russian people over many years, in the process of contacts with other peoples. This is a designation for household items: sconce, buffet, wardrobe, sofa, carpet, dressing table etc.; names of dishes and drinks: entrecote, vermicelli, goulash, cocoa, pasta, stew, lemon juice and so on.; names of types of clothing: trousers, blouse, blouson, jeans, tuxedo etc.; political terms: democracy, dictatorship, pluralism, populism etc.; Economics terms: share, dividend, loan etc.; titles related to science and art: axiom, hypothesis, theory, vaudeville, drama, comedy, stage; names of sports: basketball, volleyball, hockey, tennis, football; names of modes of transport: bus, metro, taxi, trolleybus etc. At the same time, we can note such cases of semantic development when a borrowed word, denoting a phenomenon that existed before in our system of concepts, introduces additional semantic nuances into the meaning of the corresponding Russian word. So, the Latin word opus(“work, work”) in Russian began to be used to name a separate musical work, designated by a serial number in a number of other works of a given composer. Borrowed from English comfort(“convenience”) began to mean the totality of everyday amenities, the convenience and comfort of a home, public institutions, etc.

Along with semantically mastered words, in our speech there are many such foreign words that denote concepts that are unusual in Russian reality. In the famous story by I.A. Bunin’s “Mr. from San Francisco” we read: “The route chosen by the gentleman from San Francisco was extensive. In December and January, he hoped to enjoy the sun of Southern Italy, ancient monuments, tarantella, serenades of wandering singers..."; "The cabman, a stout* man with red eyes, in an old jacket with short sleeves and knocked-down shoes, was hungover - he played dice all night trattorias, - and kept whipping his strong horse, dressed in Sicilian style..." The highlighted words denote realities that reflect the national characteristics of Italian life. Tarantella – the name of an Italian folk dance performed at a fast pace, accompanied by guitar playing, tambourine strokes, castanets, and sometimes singing; trattoria – a small restaurant, a tavern, where the menu certainly includes the Italians’ favorite spaghetti with tomato sauce and dry red wine.

* Kvoly – frail.

Tarantella, trattoria – These are exoticisms, i.e. words denoting objects, phenomena, unusual for Russian life. Exoticisms do not have synonyms in the Russian language, since they reflect what is specific in the life of another people. Therefore, they can only be translated into Russian descriptively.

Exotic vocabulary reflects the most diverse aspects of the life of a particular country: its everyday life(in the names of dwellings, types of clothing, foods, drinks): bungalow, hut, tent;anorak, bubu, geta, kimono, burqa, sari, sombrero;couscous, lobio, mate, spaghetti;culture(in the names of dances, musical instruments, specific literary genres, etc.): krakowiak, polonaise, rumba, samba, tarantella;kantele, samisen, trembita;dzekku(one of the types of Chinese poetry is quatrains), tank(unrhymed five-line in Japanese poetry), haiku(unrhymed tercet); socio-political groups,institutions,estates,positions and so on.: lobby, mujahideen, Knesset, ninjas, samurai etc. Many exoticisms reflect the realities associated with the religion of a particular people, with their beliefs: guru, Quaker, priest, priest, mullah, muezzin, prelate, rabbi, church, mosque, minaret etc. Exoticisms also include names of phenomena that reflect the characteristics of geography and climate: mistral, prairie, simoom, sirocco etc.

The listed thematic groups of exoticisms (and these, of course, are not all groups) are mainly names of specific concepts. But exoticisms can also denote abstract concepts that exist in the minds of a nation as an essential element of its culture and are perceived by other people as specific. Such is, for example, exoticism hara-kiri, denoting suicide by cutting open the abdomen. But this is not an ordinary suicide, but one that was accepted among the Japanese samurai and was committed by sentence or voluntarily if the honor of the samurai was affected. Japanese bushido(“the way of the warrior”) is the name of the code of conduct of the Japanese samurai, which presupposes loyalty to the overlord, recognition of military affairs as the only occupation worthy of a samurai.

And here is how one of the specific abstract Japanese concepts is explained kokoro in G. Grigorieva’s book “Born by the Beauty of Japan”: “ Kokoro – the most important concept of the Japanese mentality. It is difficult to find an analogue in our language. Kawabata, speaking about how the spirit of Western and Japanese cultures differs, saw the difference in “our kokoro". Kokoro – the feeling mind and the thinking sense. It is through kokoro the process of intuitive cognition takes place: think with the heart, feel with the mind... In the explanatory Japanese dictionary Kojien kokoro – knowledge, feeling and will together, a sign of the spirituality of things"*.

* Grigorieva G. Born of the beauty of Japan. M., 1993. S. 39 – 40.

Despite the fact that exoticisms denote words that are not included in the Russian system of concepts, some of them are reflected in explanatory dictionaries of the Russian language and in dictionaries of foreign words. These are the exoticisms that occur quite regularly both in original Russian and translated literature; These include most of the exotic words above. But the meaning of such exoticisms as bushido, sabi, can only be found in special dictionaries and commentaries*.

* See, for example, in the book: Akutagawa Ryunosuke. Words of a Pygmy: Stories. Memories. Essay. Letters. – Comments. M., 1992. S. 544 – 592.

The process of semantic acquisition can also occur gradually. The words that most quickly enter the system of concepts of the Russian language are those that name specific objects that came to us from other countries, especially household items. Let us remember the humorous comment that accompanies A.S. Pushkin’s description of Onegin’s outfit: “I could describe his outfit in front of the learned world, Of course, it would be bold, Describe my own business: But trousers, tailcoat, vest. All these words are not in Russian, But I see, I apologize to you, That my poor syllable could have been much less colorful with foreign words..." Pushkin, who had a brilliant sense of language, defends the right to use those borrowed words before his alleged opponents , which, although recently, have already entered the Russian lexicon as the only possible names for realities that appeared in Russia at the beginning of the 19th century*.

* The novelty of these words for the Russian language is confirmed by dictionary data. Word trousers first recorded in 1834, tailcoat – in 1806, vest - in 1803.

The process of mastering abstract concepts takes longer. In the same "Eugene Onegin" we find the French word comme il faut and English vulgar, transmitted using Latin script: commeilfaut, vulgar. Talking about Onegin’s meeting with Tatyana at a St. Petersburg ball, Pushkin describes his heroine this way: “She was leisurely, not cold, not talkative, Without a look, insolent for everyone, Without pretensions to success, Without these little antics. Without imitative undertakings... Everything was quiet, it was just in her, She seemed like the right shot Du comme il faut...(Shishkov, I’m sorry, I don’t know how to translate).” And a little lower: “No one could call her beautiful; but from head to toe No one could find in her That which is called autocratic fashion in the high London circle vulgar.(I can’t... I love this word very much, But I can’t translate it; It’s still new with us, And it’s unlikely to be honored. It would fit in an epigram...)." Both foreign words are aesthetic and ethical assessments borrowed by the Russian aristocracy from European countries in the first quarter of the 19th century ( comme il faut – something that corresponds to the norms and rules of decency; vulgar – vulgar, trivial, simple, rude, bad taste). And Tatyana’s characterization, preceding the use of the word commeilfaut and representing its almost encyclopedic interpretation, and the ironic comments with which Pushkin supplements words new to the Russian reader, allow us to assume with a reasonable degree of probability that in the first third of the 19th century both words were only part of the system of Russian concepts and had not yet fully gone through the process of semantic development*.

* This is confirmed by data from explanatory dictionaries of the 19th century, in which the word comme il faut was first recorded only in 1864, and the word vulgar – in 1837.

In our time, there is also a process of rapid development of words that most recently were exoticisms. Socio-political, socio-economic transformations in our lives have led to the semantic development of words such as businessman, broker, voucher, vice, marketing, management, mayor, city hall, rating, sponsor, supermarket and many others*.

* Some of these words have been used in Russian before, but as a means of diversifying speech.

Along with exoticisms, barbarisms are often found in our speech. Barbarisms are foreign words denoting realities, phenomena that exist in our lives and are included in the system of concepts of the Russian language. Unlike exoticisms, barbarisms can be translated into Russian using one word without any loss of meaning: good boy(English) orevoir(French), ciao(igal.) – goodbye!; sorry(French), sorry(English) - sorry, I beg your pardon; quantum tantum(lat.) – insofar as; et cetera(lat.) - and so on; cito(lat.) – urgently; ego(lat.) – I; nihil(lat.) – nothing, etc.

Barbarisms can be displayed in writing both using Russian letters and while preserving the graphics of the source language (see the examples above), and are sometimes found in double writing: de facto(Lat. “actually, in reality”) – de facto;de jure(lat. “legally, by right”) – de jure; All will be o"key – o"key(the latter version conveys the graphic appearance of one of the columns of the Moskovsky Komsomolets newspaper).

Barbarisms are not recorded in explanatory dictionaries of the Russian language. An exception is the Dictionary by D.M. Ushakov, at the end of the 4th volume of which there is an appendix “Foreign words and expressions”, which includes foreign words found in Russian texts in non-Russian spelling. Dictionaries of foreign words usually end with the same application. In addition, there are specialized reference books that contain barbarisms used (or used) in Russian literature. The most famous is the two-volume dictionary by A.M. Babkina, V.V. Shendetsova*.

* Babkin A.M., Shendetsov V.V. Dictionary of foreign language expressions and words. T. 1, 2. 2nd ed. M.; L. 1981 - 1987.

When borrowing this or that word, the Russian language rarely leaves it in the form in which it existed in the source language. This is due to differences in sound structure, grammar, and semantics between languages. Therefore, when borrowed, words change their appearance, adapt to the laws of the Russian language, and begin to live according to its norms. The adaptation of words (mastery) begins, first of all, with a change in its graphic appearance. Graphic mastery is the transmission of a foreign word in writing using the Russian alphabet, since most Western European languages ​​are based on the Latin alphabet, and the Russian language is based on the Cyrillic alphabet. For example, English meeting – Russian. Rally; German. Grossmeister - grandmaster. Some words and expressions retain their original appearance: tet-a-tet, veni, vidi, vici.

Phonetic acquisition is a change in the sound composition of a word as a result of its adaptation to new phonetic conditions. Phonetic mastery manifests itself regularly and naturally, because The articulatory base of languages ​​is different. Vowels that are alien to the Russian language can be expressed in different ways. For example, English trust – rus. trust, German Hulsa - Russian sleeve. Diphthongs are not typical for the Russian language, so they are also converted: Lat. auqūstus – Russian. August, lat. auditorium – Russian audience. Adapting to the phonetic conditions of the Russian language, foreign words are subject to reduction, deafening at the end and in the middle of the word. When mastered, the accent may also change: lat. kathedra - Russian department, English standard - Russian standard, lat. revisor - auditor.

Morphological development is the adaptation of a word to the grammatical system of the Russian language. When mastered, nouns are subject to the declension system, with the exception of indeclinable nouns. Foreign language inflections, as a rule, are cut off or replaced with Russian ones, or become part of the basis. For example, gradus – degree, metallum – metal. When borrowing, a change in gender is possible, since in other languages ​​the category of gender is not grammatically relevant, but is determined on a semantic basis: all inanimate nouns are classified as neuter. In lat. language noun in -um referred to the neuter gender, and in Russian - to the masculine gender: aquarium, forum, consultation. In Greek noun on -a were neuter, but in Russian they became feminine: theme. axiom, problem. Greek the words aloe, asphalt, analysis were feminine. Changes may also be in number: for example, German. curl, valve, English coconut, cupcake, Greek silo were n. pl. numbers. During mastery, a change in part-speech affiliation is observed. So, for example, major (French), plenum (Latin), piano (French), nocturne (French “night”), candidate (Latin “dressed in white”) were adjectives, credo (Latin “believe” ) – verb, quorum (lat.) – pronoun. Due to the specifics of the Russian verb, as a rule, only the basis and idea of ​​the action is borrowed, and is formalized according to the model of the Russian language: lieben - to love, gehen - to go.

Acquisition is a long process, so some words retain the characteristics of the original language, while creating an accent. In the process of borrowing, changes also occur in the semantics of words. The meaning of words can narrow or expand. In most cases, a word is borrowed in a specific meaning, so its semantics becomes narrower. For example, the French word la poudre had the meaning “dust, powder, gunpowder”, and was borrowed in the meaning “powder for cosmetic purposes”, lat. globus (“ball”) acquired the meaning “model of the globe.” An example of the expansion of semantics is the words: greenhouse (from the French “greenhouse for growing oranges”), which has the meaning in Russian “any greenhouse”, the word room had in Italian. language meaning “room with a fireplace”, in Russian. – any room in a residential building, holidays in lat. denoted the period from June 22 to August 23, when the Sun was in the constellation Canis, in Russian the word vacation means “a break from classes.” Semantics can change to a greater extent: Greek. diploma literally meant “a sheet folded in half”, in Russian – “document”, Lat entrant – “one who is going to leave”, in Russian – “one who enters”. Thus, when a foreign word enters the Russian language, it must obey its rules and patterns.

6. Tracing is a special type of borrowing

Tracing is called an “ecologically friendly” method of borrowing, since it allows, without destroying the integrity of the perception of the Russian lexical system, to expand its capabilities. Calques (French calgue - “copy, imitation”) are words formed according to the model of a foreign word. Tracing papers are less studied for several reasons:

1) there are comparatively fewer cripples than borrowings;

2) tracing papers are difficult to identify, since the criteria by which a particular word or combination should be recognized as the result of tracing paper are not clear.

There are several types of calques: derivational tracings, semantic tracings and semi-calques.

A derivational tracing paper is created by translating each morpheme of a foreign word: consonance - gr. symphonia; parent language - German. Urspache; peninsula - German Halbinsel, adverb – lat. Adverbum, television – television – semi-copy copy (one of the parts without translation).

Semantic tracing paper is a word with a new figurative meaning that arose under the influence of the semantics of a foreign word: shadow “illegal, not in power” (English) - shadow business, shadow economy; format “character, appearance, form” - English. The meeting was held in an updated format; high “best, elite” (English) – high fashion, high technology, shock “to shock, amaze” (English) – N. Mikhalkov’s new film shocked the jury. Linguists note that the ratio of types of cripples in different periods of language development is not the same. If in the XIX – XX centuries. derivational tracing paper prevailed: superman, cost (German), binder (German), employer, skyscraper (English); semantic tracings are noted - the highlight of the program (under the influence of French), the platform “the set of principles of a political party” - under the influence of German, then in the Russian language of our days semantic tracings predominate, and their main source is the English language.

Foreign words, entering our language, are gradually assimilated by it: they adapt to the sound system of the Russian language, obey the rules of Russian word formation and inflection, thus, to one degree or another, losing the features of their non-Russian origin.
First of all, foreign language features of the sound design of a word are usually eliminated, for example, nasal sounds in borrowings from French or combinations of sounds characteristic of the English language, etc. Then non-Russian word endings and gender forms are changed. For example, in words postman, prompter, sidewalk The sounds characteristic of the French language (nasal vowels, traced [r]) no longer sound; in the words meeting, pudding there is no English velar n, pronounced with the back of the tongue (in transcription [*ng], in addition, the first of them has lost the diphthong; the initial consonants in the words jazz, gin are pronounced with characteristic Russian articulation, although their combination for us unusual. The Latin word seminarium turned into seminaries, and then into seminar; the Greek analogos - into analog, and analogikos - into similar. The noun seukla, which has a plural meaning in Greek, began to be perceived as a singular noun in Russian, and not neuter, but feminine: beet... The German marschierep receives the Russian suffix -ova and is transformed into marching.
Accumulating word-forming affixes, borrowed words enter the grammatical system of the Russian language and are subject to the corresponding norms of inflection: they form paradigms of declensions and conjugations.
Mastering borrowed words usually leads to their semantic changes. Most foreign words in Russian lose their etymological connections with the related roots of the source language. So, we don't understand German words resort, sandwich, hairdresser as words of a complex base (resort from kurie-ren - “to treat” + Ort - “place”; hairdresser - literally “making a wig”; sandwich - “butter” and “bread”)
As a result of de-etymologization, the meanings of foreign words become unmotivated.

However, not all borrowings are equally assimilated into the Russian language: there are those that have become so Russified that they do not reveal their foreign origin ( cherry, notebook, party, hut, soup, cutlet), others retain certain features of the original language, thanks to which they stand out in the Russian vocabulary as alien words.
Among the borrowings there are also words not mastered by the Russian language, which stand out sharply against the background of Russian vocabulary. A special place among such borrowings is occupied by exoticisms - words that characterize the specific features of the life of different peoples and are used to describe non-Russian reality. Thus, when depicting the life of the peoples of the Caucasus, the words aul, saklya, dzhigit, arba etc. Exoticisms do not have Russian synonyms, so turning to them when describing national specifics is dictated by necessity.
Another group includes barbarisms, i.e. foreign words transferred to Russian soil, the use of which is individual in nature. Unlike other lexical borrowings, barbarisms are not recorded in dictionaries of foreign words, much less in dictionaries of the Russian language. Barbarisms are not mastered by the language, although over time they can become entrenched in it. Thus, almost all borrowings, before entering the permanent vocabulary, were barbarisms for some time. For example, V. Mayakovsky used the word camp as barbarism ( I'm lying - a tent in a camp), later the borrowing camping became a property of the Russian language.
Along with barbarisms are foreign inclusions in Russian vocabulary: ok, mercy, happy end, pater familias. Many of them retain non-Russian spelling; they are popular not only in ours, but also in other languages. In addition, the use of some of them has a long tradition, for example alma mater.

Rosenthal D.E., Golub I.B., Telenkova M.A. Modern Russian language.
M.: Iris-Press, 2002

When borrowing a word, the Russian language rarely assimilates it in the form in which it was in the source language. A foreign word is reshaped, adapting to the phonetic, grammatical and semantic laws and rules of the Russian language.

Phonetic development of borrowings. During phonetic acquisition, foreign sounds are replaced by one’s own, as well as the pronunciation of the sounds of a borrowed word is subordinated to the rules of pronunciation (spelling) of the Russian language. For example, the aspirated [h], which Russian phonetics does not know, is replaced by the plosive [x] or [g]: English. hockey – rus. hockey; German Herzog - Russian. Duke; Polish herb (from German Egbe) – Russian. coat of arms; German Losung on Russian soil is pronounced with a hard [l]; fr. portrait sounds not with [o] in the first syllable, but with [a] – P[A]rtret.

Phonetically unmastered vocabulary in the Russian language is not pronounced according to the laws of Russian orthoepy. Thus, in a certain style of speech, pre-stressed [o] may be preserved: p[o]et, sh[o]se, s[o]net, p[o]portret, l[o]rnet; in proper names: Sh[o]pen, M[o]em.

Some borrowed words retain the hardness of the consonant before the front vowel [e]: cough[ne], [de]lta, [re]ket. Sometimes, over time, the word adapts to Russian pronunciation, and an option arises: fo[ne]teak And fo[n"e]tika, pa[ne]l And pa[n"e]l, or the only normative pronunciation becomes with a soft consonant: shi[n"e]l. In the Russian language, semantically different pairs of words (quasi-homonyms) can arise on this basis: meter - meter. Masters of words play with this feature of borrowed vocabulary for artistic purposes. Thus, in S. Gerasimov’s film “Mothers and Daughters,” one of the Muscovite girls, talking to the heroine who came from an orphanage in the Urals, showing off in front of her, says: "And we are on the verge of punishment[se]Lyakh..." On the other hand, the hero of M. Zoshchenko’s stories, an illiterate person with pretensions to culture, says: [ Shap"en] – “Chopin”, [ part"er] – “parterre” (artistic reading).

Grammatical mastery of borrowings. During grammatical mastery, a foreign word is subject to the rules of Russian grammar: nouns, for example, acquire Russian case endings, and the gender of words often changes; so, Latin nouns in – mind (aguarium, consilium) became words not of the neuter, but of the masculine gender; words cafe, muffler, coat and others, having in fr. In our language the masculine gender has become a neuter noun. Sometimes the number is also rethought. So, the plural form. German numbers Klappen was understood as a singular form (cf.: valve – valves).

But the most significant changes during borrowing should be considered complete grammatical rethinking and lexicalization (in Russian, the transformation of a phrase into one word). Words that in the source language belong to one part of speech, and in Russian to another, are completely rethought grammatically. For example, the French adjective royal (royal) turned into the noun “grand piano” in Russian, the word “plywood” etymologically goes back to the French verb fournir. Cologne - lexicalized French phrase eau de Cologne (literally “Cologne water”); corps de ballet(French corps de ballet, etc.).

Grammatically unmastered loanwords are not inflected at all, for example coat, highway, cinema, subway; or may belong to a different gender than is determined by the phonetic structure of the word: coffee - male, tulle, shampoo - masculine (although in new editions the word coffee can already be considered as a neuter noun - see “Encyclopedia of a Young Philologist”).

In recent years, new words have emerged from mastered foreign words by truncation, thus eliminating grammatically mastered borrowings: guarantee(was: guarantee), gallant(from gallant, name of the store in Krasnoyarsk), perfume(from perfumery), pro(from professional), etc.: “ Named perfume It’s stupid, but I have to admit, the aroma is pleasant.”(D. Dontsova).

Lexical acquisition of borrowing is the semantic acquisition of a word. It can be considered lexically mastered when it names an object, a phenomenon characteristic of our Russian reality, when there is nothing left in its meaning that would indicate its foreign-language origin. For example, words such as coat(French), sport(English) baggage(French), cutlet(French), jeans(English) accountant(German), shoe(Turk.).

In addition to lexically mastered borrowed words, in texts and in colloquial speech there are words of foreign language origin, naming objects, phenomena that are not characteristic of Russian life - exoticisms, For example: lunch, mister, lord(English); burgher, Wehrmacht, waiter(German); ojan, centime(French) etc. (see EXOTISM).

It should be distinguished from exoticisms barbarisms- foreign words interspersed into the Russian text (see BARVARISMS).

Graphic development of borrowing. With such mastery, a certain graphic image of the word should be created in the Russian language. Some words can be spelled differently for a long time: tunnel - tunnel, zero - zero, dashing - dashing. The same instability of writing applies to proper names: Leipzig – Leipzig; Van Clyburn – Van Cliburn etc. Some terms do not obey the rules of Russian spelling, so there are transcription and transcribe(see also: Bulokhov V.Ya. Dictionary of spelling variants. Krasnoyarsk: RIO GOU VPO "KSPU named after V.P. Astafiev", 2004. 176 p.).

Not fully mastered graphically barbarisms, which in Russian text are transmitted in Latin script (from European languages, from others - Cyrillic).