General principles of regulation of physiological functions. Nervous and humoral regulation
The complex structure of the human body is currently the pinnacle of evolutionary transformation. Such a system needs special ways of coordinating. Humoral regulation is carried out with the help of hormones. But the nervous one is the coordination of activity with the help of the organ system of the same name.
What is the regulation of body functions
The human body has a very complex structure. From cells to organ systems, it is an interconnected system, for the normal functioning of which a clear regulatory mechanism must be created. It is carried out in two ways. The first way is the fastest. It's called neural regulation. This process is implemented by the system of the same name. There is an erroneous opinion that humoral regulation is carried out with the help of nerve impulses. However, this is not at all the case. Humoral regulation is carried out with the help of hormones that enter the fluid environment of the body.
Features of nervous regulation
This system includes the central and peripheral department. If the humoral organism is carried out with the help of chemicals, then this method is a "traffic highway", linking the body into a single whole. This process happens quite quickly. Just imagine that you touched a hot iron with your hand or went barefoot in the snow in winter. The reaction of the body will be almost instantaneous. It has the most important protective value, promotes both adaptation and survival in various conditions. The nervous system underlies the innate and acquired reactions of the body. The first are unconditioned reflexes. These include respiratory, sucking, blinking. And over time, a person develops acquired reactions. These are unconditioned reflexes.
Features of humoral regulation
Humoral regulation of the function is carried out with the help of specialized organs. They are called glands and are combined into a separate system called the endocrine system. These organs are formed by a special type of epithelial tissue and are capable of regeneration. The action of hormones is long-term and continues throughout a person's life.
What are hormones
The glands secrete hormones. Due to their special structure, these substances accelerate or normalize various physiological processes in the body. For example, at the base of the brain is the pituitary gland. It produces as a result of which the human body increases in size for more than twenty years.
Glands: features of the structure and functioning
So, humoral regulation in the body is carried out with the help of special organs - glands. They ensure the constancy of the internal environment, or homeostasis. Their action is in the nature of feedback. For example, such an important indicator for the body as the level of sugar in the blood is regulated by the hormone insulin in the upper limit and glucagon in the lower. This is the mechanism of action of the endocrine system.
Exocrine glands
Humoral regulation is carried out with the help of glands. However, depending on the structural features, these organs are combined into three groups: external (exocrine), internal (endocrine) and mixed secretion. Examples of the first group are salivary, sebaceous and lacrimal. They are characterized by the presence of their own excretory ducts. Exocrine glands secrete on the surface of the skin or in body cavities.
Endocrine glands
Endocrine glands secrete hormones into the blood. They do not have their own excretory ducts, so humoral regulation is carried out with the help of body fluids. Getting into the blood or lymph, they are carried throughout the body, come to each of its cells. And the result of this is the acceleration or deceleration of various processes. This may be growth, sexual and psychological development, metabolism, the activity of individual organs and their systems.
Hypo- and hyperfunctions of the endocrine glands
The activity of each endocrine gland has "two sides of the coin." Let's look at this with specific examples. If the pituitary gland secretes an excess amount of growth hormone, gigantism develops, and with a lack of this substance, dwarfism is observed. Both are deviations from normal development.
The thyroid gland secretes several hormones at once. These are thyroxine, calcitonin and triiodothyronine. With their insufficient number, infants develop cretinism, which manifests itself in mental retardation. If hypofunction manifests itself in adulthood, it is accompanied by swelling of the mucous membrane and subcutaneous tissue, hair loss and drowsiness. If the amount of hormones of this gland exceeds the normal limit, a person may develop Graves' disease. It manifests itself in increased excitability of the nervous system, trembling of the limbs, causeless anxiety. All this inevitably leads to emaciation and loss of vitality.
The endocrine glands also include the parathyroid, thymus, and adrenal glands. The last glands at the time of a stressful situation secrete the hormone adrenaline. Its presence in the blood ensures the mobilization of all vital forces and the ability to adapt and survive in non-standard conditions for the body. First of all, this is expressed in providing the muscular system with the necessary amount of energy. The reverse-acting hormone, which is also secreted by the adrenal glands, is called norepinephrine. It is also of great importance for the body, since it protects it from excessive excitability, loss of strength, energy, and rapid wear. This is another example of the reverse action of the human endocrine system.
Glands of mixed secretion
These include the pancreas and gonads. The principle of their work is twofold. just two types and glucagon. They, respectively, lower and increase the level of glucose in the blood. In a healthy human body, this regulation goes unnoticed. However, if this function is violated, a serious disease occurs, which is called diabetes mellitus. People with this diagnosis need artificial insulin administration. As an external secretion gland, the pancreas secretes digestive juice. This substance is secreted into the first section of the small intestine - the duodenum. Under its influence, there is a process of splitting complex biopolymers to simple ones. It is in this section that proteins and lipids break down into their constituent parts.
The gonads also secrete various hormones. These are male testosterone and female estrogen. These substances begin to act even in the course of embryonic development, sex hormones affect the formation of sex, and then form certain sexual characteristics. Like exocrine glands, they form gametes. Man, like all mammals, is a dioecious organism. Its reproductive system has a general structural plan and is represented by the gonads, their ducts and cells directly. In women, these are paired ovaries with their tracts and eggs. In men, the reproductive system consists of testes, excretory canals and sperm cells. In this case, these glands act as glands of external secretion.
Nervous and humoral regulation are closely interrelated. They work as a single mechanism. Humoral is more ancient in origin, has a long-term effect and acts on the entire body, since hormones are carried by the blood and enter every cell. And the nervous one works pointwise, at a specific time and in a specific place, according to the "here and now" principle. After changing the conditions, its action is terminated.
So, the humoral regulation of physiological processes is carried out with the help of the endocrine system. These organs are able to secrete special biologically active substances into liquid media, which are called hormones.
The mechanisms of regulation of physiological functions are traditionally divided into nervous and humoral, although in reality they form a single regulatory system that maintains homeostasis and adaptive activity of the body. These mechanisms have numerous connections both at the level of functioning of nerve centers and in the transmission of signal information to effector structures. Suffice it to say that in the implementation of the simplest reflex as an elementary mechanism of nervous regulation, the transmission of signaling from one cell to another is carried out through humoral factors - neurotransmitters. The sensitivity of sensory receptors to the action of stimuli and the functional state of neurons change under the influence of hormones, neurotransmitters, a number of other biologically active substances, as well as the simplest metabolites and mineral ions (K+, Na+, Ca-+, C1~). In turn, the nervous system can trigger or correct humoral regulation. Humoral regulation in the body is under the control of the nervous system.
Humoral mechanisms are phylogenetically older; they are present even in unicellular animals and acquire great diversity in multicellular organisms, and especially in humans.
Nervous mechanisms of regulation were formed phylogenetically and are formed gradually in human ontogeny. Such regulation is possible only in multicellular structures that have nerve cells that combine into nerve circuits and make up reflex arcs.
Humoral regulation is carried out by spreading signal molecules in body fluids according to the "everyone, everyone, everyone" principle, or the "radio communication" principle.
Nervous regulation is carried out according to the principle of "letter with an address", or "telegraph communication". Signaling is transmitted from nerve centers to strictly defined structures, for example, to precisely defined muscle fibers or their groups in a particular muscle. Only in this case purposeful, coordinated human movements are possible.
Humoral regulation, as a rule, is carried out more slowly than nervous regulation. The speed of the signal (action potential) in fast nerve fibers reaches 120 m/s, while the speed of transport of the signal molecule with the blood flow in the arteries is approximately 200 times, and in the capillaries - thousands of times less.
The arrival of a nerve impulse to an effector organ almost instantly causes a physiological effect (for example, contraction of a skeletal muscle). The response to many hormonal signals is slower. For example, the manifestation of a response to the action of thyroid hormones and the adrenal cortex occurs after tens of minutes and even hours.
Humoral mechanisms are of primary importance in the regulation of metabolic processes, the rate of cell division, the growth and specialization of tissues, puberty, and adaptation to changing environmental conditions.
The nervous system in a healthy organism influences all humoral regulation and corrects them. However, the nervous system has its own specific functions. It regulates vital processes that require quick reactions, provides the perception of signals coming from the sensory receptors of the sense organs, skin and internal organs. Regulates the tone and contractions of the skeletal muscles, which ensure the maintenance of the posture and the movement of the body in space. The nervous system provides the manifestation of such mental functions as sensation, emotions, motivation, memory, thinking, consciousness, regulates behavioral reactions aimed at achieving a useful adaptive result.
Humoral regulation is divided into endocrine and local. Endocrine regulation is carried out due to the functioning of the endocrine glands (endocrine glands), which are specialized organs that secrete hormones.
A distinctive feature of local humoral regulation is that the biologically active substances produced by the cell do not enter the bloodstream, but act on the cell producing them and its immediate environment, spreading through the intercellular fluid due to diffusion. Such regulation is subdivided into the regulation of metabolism in the cell due to metabolites, autocrinia, paracrinia, juxtacrinia, interactions through intercellular contacts. Cellular and intracellular membranes play an important role in all humoral regulation involving specific signaling molecules.
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(From the Latin word humor - “liquid”) is carried out due to substances released into the internal environment of the body (lymph, blood, tissue fluid). This is an older, compared to the nervous, system of regulation.
Examples of humoral regulation:
- adrenaline (hormone)
- histamine (tissue hormone)
- carbon dioxide in high concentration (formed during active physical work)
- causes local expansion of capillaries, more blood flows to this place
- excites the respiratory center of the medulla oblongata, breathing intensifies
Comparison of nervous and humoral regulation
- By work speed: nervous regulation is much faster: substances move along with the blood (the action occurs after 30 seconds), nerve impulses go almost instantly (tenths of a second).
- By duration of work: humoral regulation can act much longer (as long as the substance is in the blood), the nerve impulse acts for a short time.
- In terms of impact: humoral regulation operates on a larger scale, tk.
Humoral regulation
chemicals are carried by the blood throughout the body, nervous regulation acts precisely - on one organ or part of an organ.
Thus, it is advantageous to use nervous regulation for fast and precise regulation, and humoral regulation for long-term and large-scale regulation.
Relationship nervous and humoral regulation: chemicals act on all organs, including the nervous system; nerves go to all organs, including the endocrine glands.
coordination nervous and humoral regulation is carried out by the hypothalamic-pituitary system, thus, we can talk about a single neuro-humoral regulation of body functions.
Main part. The hypothalamic-pituitary system is the highest center of neuro-humoral regulation
Introduction.
The hypothalamic-pituitary system is the highest center of neuro-humoral regulation of the body. In particular, hypothalamic neurons have unique properties - to secrete hormones in response to PD and to generate PD (similar to PD when excitation occurs and spreads) in response to hormone secretion, that is, they have the properties of both secretory and nerve cells. This determines the connection of the nervous system with the endocrine system.
From the course of morphology and practical exercises in physiology, we are well aware of the location of the pituitary and hypothalamus, as well as their close relationship with each other. Therefore, we will not dwell on the anatomical organization of this structure, and go straight to the functional organization.
Main part
The main endocrine gland is the pituitary gland - the gland of glands, the conductor of humoral regulation in the body. The pituitary gland is divided into 3 anatomical and functional parts:
1. Anterior lobe or adenohypophysis - consists mainly of secretory cells that secrete tropic hormones. The work of these cells is regulated by the work of the hypothalamus.
2. Posterior lobe or neurohypophysis - consists of axons of nerve cells of the hypothalamus and blood vessels.
3. These lobes are separated by an intermediate lobe of the pituitary gland, which in humans is reduced, but nevertheless capable of producing the hormone intermedin (melanocyte-stimulating hormone). This hormone in humans is released in response to intense light stimulation of the retina and activates the cells of the black pigment layer in the eye, protecting the retina from damage.
The entire pituitary gland is regulated by the hypothalamus. The adenohypophysis is subject to the work of tropic hormones secreted by the pituitary gland - releasing factors and inhibitory factors in one nomenclature, or liberins and statins in another. Liberins or releasing factors - stimulate, and statins or inhibitory factors - inhibit the production of the corresponding hormone in the adenohypophysis. These hormones enter the anterior pituitary through the portal vessels. In the hypothalamic region, a neural network is formed around these capillaries, formed by outgrowths of nerve cells that form neurocapillary synapses on the capillaries. The outflow of blood from these vessels goes straight to the adenohypophysis, carrying hypothalamic hormones with it. The neurohypophysis has a direct neural connection with the nuclei of the hypothalamus, along the axons of the nerve cells of which hormones are transported to the posterior lobe of the pituitary gland. There they are stored in the extended axon terminals, and from there they enter the bloodstream when AP is generated by the corresponding neurons of the hypothalamus.
Regarding the regulation of the work of the posterior pituitary gland, it should be said that the hormones secreted by it are produced in the supraoptic and paraventricular nuclei of the hypothalamus, and are transported to the neurohypophysis by axonal transport in transport granules.
It is also important to note that the dependence of the pituitary gland on the hypothalamus is proved by transplanting the pituitary gland to the neck. In this case, he ceases to secrete tropic hormones.
Now let's discuss the hormones secreted by the pituitary gland.
neurohypophysis produces only 2 hormones oxytocin and ADH (antidiuretic hormone) or vasopressin (better than ADH, because this name better reflects the action of the hormone). Both hormones are synthesized in both the supraoptic and paraventricular nuclei, but each neuron synthesizes only one hormone.
ADG- the target organ is the kidneys (in very high concentrations it affects the vessels, increasing blood pressure, and reducing it in the portal system of the liver; it is important for large blood loss), with the secretion of ADH, the collecting ducts of the kidneys become permeable to water, which increases reabsorption, and with absence - reabsorption is minimal, and practically absent. Alcohol reduces the production of ADH, which is why diuresis increases, there is a loss of water, hence the so-called hangover syndrome (or in the common people - dry land). It can also be said that under conditions of hyperosmolarity (when the salt concentration in the blood is high), the production of ADH is stimulated, which ensures minimal water loss (concentrated urine is formed). Conversely, under conditions of hypoosmolarity, ADH increases diuresis (diluted urine is formed). Therefore, we can say about the presence of osmo- and baroreceptors that control osmotic pressure and blood pressure (arter.pressure). Osmoreceptors are probably located in the hypothalamus itself, the neurohypophysis, and the portal vessels of the liver. Baroreceptors are found in the carotid artery and aortic bulb, as well as in the thoracic region and in the atrium, where pressure is minimal. Regulate blood pressure in horizontal and vertical positions.
Pathology. In violation of the secretion of ADH, diabetes insipidus develops - a large amount of urination, and the urine is not sweet in taste. Previously, they really tasted urine and made a diagnosis: if it was sweet, it was diabetes, and if not, it was diabetes insipidus.
Oxytocin- target organs - myometrium and myoepithelium of the mammary gland.
1. Myoepithelium of the mammary gland: after childbirth, milk begins to be secreted within 24 hours. The nipples of the breast are strongly irritated during the act of sucking. The irritation goes to the brain, where the release of oxytocin, which affects the myoepithelium of the mammary gland, is stimulated. This is a muscular epithelium, located paraalveolarly, and during contraction squeezes milk out of the mammary gland. Lactation in the presence of the baby stops more slowly than in his absence.
2. Myometrium: when the cervix and vagina are irritated, the production of oxytocin is stimulated, which causes the myometrium to contract, pushing the fetus to the cervix, from the mechanoreceptors of which the irritation again enters the brain and stimulates even greater production of oxytocin. This process in the limit goes into childbirth.
An interesting fact is that oxytocin is also released in men, but its role is not clear. Perhaps it stimulates the muscle that lifts the testicle during ejaculation.
Adenohypophysis. Let us immediately point out the pathological moment in the phylogenesis of the adenohypophysis. In embryogenesis, it is laid in the region of the primary oral cavity, and the replacement is shifted to the Turkish saddle. This can lead to the fact that particles of nervous tissue may remain on the path of movement, which during life can begin to develop as ectoderm, and give rise to tumor processes in the head area. The adenohypophysis itself has the origin of the glandular epithelium (reflected in the title).
Adenohypophysis secretes 6 hormones(reflected in the table).
Glandotropic hormones are hormones whose target organs are endocrine glands. The release of these hormones stimulates the activity of the glands.
Gonadotropic hormones- hormones that stimulate the work of the gonads (genital organs). FSH stimulates ovarian follicle maturation in women and sperm maturation in men. And LH (lutein - a pigment belonging to the group of oxygen-containing carotenoids - xanthophylls; xanthos - yellow) causes ovulation and the formation of a corpus luteum in women, and in men it stimulates the synthesis of testosterone in the interstitial Leydig cells.
Effector hormones- affect the whole organism as a whole or its systems. Prolactin involved in lactation, other functions are likely present but not known in humans.
secretion growth hormone cause the following factors: fasting hypoglycemia, certain types of stress, physical work. The hormone is released during deep sleep, and in addition, the pituitary gland occasionally secretes large amounts of this hormone in the absence of stimulation. The growth of the hormone wags indirectly, causing the formation of liver hormones - somatomedins. They affect the bone and cartilage tissue, contributing to the absorption of inorganic ions. The main one is somatomedin C, stimulating protein synthesis in all cells of the body. The hormone affects the metabolism directly, mobilizing fatty acids from fat reserves, promoting the entry of additional energy material into the blood. I draw the attention of girls to the fact that the production of somatotropin is stimulated by physical activity, and somatotropin has a lipomobilizing effect. On carbohydrate metabolism, GH has 2 opposite effects. One hour after the administration of growth hormone, the concentration of glucose in the blood drops sharply (insulin-like action of somatomedin C), but then the concentration of glucose begins to increase as a result of the direct action of GH on adipose tissue and glycogen. At the same time, inhibiting the uptake of glucose by cells. Thus, there is a diabetogenic effect. Hypofunction causes normal dwarfism, hyperfunction gigantism in children, and acromegaly in adults.
The regulation of the secretion of hormones by the pituitary gland, as it turned out, is more complicated than expected. Previously, it was believed that each hormone has its own liberin and statin.
But it turned out that the secret of some hormones is stimulated only by liberin, the secret of the other two by liberin alone (see table 17.2).
Hypothalamic hormones are synthesized through the occurrence of AP on the neurons of the nuclei. The strongest APs come from the midbrain and limbic system, in particular the hippocampus and amygdala, via noradrenergic, adrenergic, and serotonergic neurons. This allows you to integrate external and internal influences and emotional state with neuroendocrine regulation.
Conclusion
It remains only to say that such a complex system should work like clockwork. And the slightest failure can lead to disruption of the entire body. It is not for nothing that they say: "All diseases are from nerves."
References
1. Ed. Schmidt, Human Physiology, 2nd volume, p.389
2. Kositsky, human physiology, p.183
mybiblioteka.su - 2015-2018. (0.097 sec)
Humoral mechanisms of regulation of the physiological functions of the body
In the process of evolution, the humoral mechanisms of regulation were the first to form. They arose at the stage when blood and circulation appeared. Humoral regulation (from Latin humor- liquid), this is a mechanism for coordinating the vital processes of the body, carried out through liquid media - blood, lymph, interstitial fluid and cytoplasm of the cell with the help of biologically active substances. Hormones play an important role in humoral regulation. In highly developed animals and humans, humoral regulation is subordinated to nervous regulation, together with which they constitute a single system of neurohumoral regulation that ensures the normal functioning of the body.
The body fluids are:
- extravascular (intracellular and interstitial fluid);
- intravascular (blood and lymph)
- specialized (cerebrospinal fluid - cerebrospinal fluid in the ventricles of the brain, synovial fluid - lubrication of articular bags, liquid media of the eyeball and inner ear).
Under the control of hormones are all the basic processes of life, all stages of individual development, all types of cellular metabolism.
The following biologically active substances are involved in humoral regulation:
- Vitamins, amino acids, electrolytes, etc., coming with food;
- hormones produced by the endocrine glands;
- formed in the process of metabolism of CO2, amines and mediators;
- tissue substances - prostaglandins, kinins, peptides.
Hormones. The most important specialized chemical regulators are hormones. They are produced in the endocrine glands (endocrine glands, from the Greek. endo- inside crino- highlight).
Endocrine glands are of two types:
- with a mixed function - internal and external secretion, this group includes the sex glands (gonads) and the pancreas;
- with the function of organs of only internal secretion, this group includes the pituitary, pineal, adrenal, thyroid and parathyroid glands.
The transfer of information and regulation of the activity of the body is carried out by the central nervous system with the help of hormones. The central nervous system exerts its influence on the endocrine glands through the hypothalamus, in which there are regulatory centers and special neurons that produce hormone mediators - releasing hormones, with the help of which the activity of the main endocrine gland, the pituitary gland, is regulated. The resulting optimal concentration of hormones in the blood is called hormonal status .
Hormones are produced in secretory cells. They are stored in granules of intracellular organelles separated from the cytoplasm by a membrane. According to the chemical structure, protein (derivatives of proteins, polypeptides), amine (derivatives of amino acids) and steroid (derivatives of cholesterol) hormones are distinguished.
According to the functional basis, hormones are distinguished:
- effector- act directly on target organs;
- tropic- are produced in the pituitary gland and stimulate the synthesis and release of effector hormones;
—releasing hormones (liberins and statins), they are secreted directly by the cells of the hypothalamus and regulate the synthesis and secretion of tropic hormones. Through releasing hormones, they communicate between the endocrine and central nervous systems.
All hormones have the following properties:
- strict specificity of action (it is associated with the presence in the target organs of highly specific receptors, special proteins that hormones bind to);
- remoteness of action (target organs are far from the place where hormones are formed)
The mechanism of action of hormones. It is based on: stimulation or inhibition of the catalytic activity of enzymes; changes in the permeability of cell membranes. There are three mechanisms: membrane, membrane-intracellular, intracellular (cytosolic.)
Membrane- ensures the binding of hormones to the cell membrane and at the site of binding changes its permeability for glucose, amino acids and some ions. For example, the pancreatic hormone insulin increases the transport of glucose through the membranes of liver and muscle cells, where glucagon is synthesized from glucose (Fig **)
Membrane-intracellular. Hormones do not penetrate the cell, but affect the exchange through intracellular chemical mediators. Protein-peptide hormones and amino acid derivatives have this effect. Cyclic nucleotides act as intracellular chemical mediators: cyclic 3',5'-adenosine monophosphate (cAMP) and cyclic 3',5'-guanosine monophosphate (cGMP), as well as prostaglandins and calcium ions (Fig. **).
Hormones influence the formation of cyclic nucleotides through the enzymes adenylate cyclase (for cAMP) and guanylate cyclase (for cGMP). Adeylate cyclase is built into the cell membrane and consists of 3 parts: receptor (R), conjugating (N), catalytic (C).
The receptor part includes a set of membrane receptors that are located on the outer surface of the membrane. The catalytic part is an enzymatic protein, i.e. adenylate cyclase itself, which converts ATP to cAMP. The mechanism of action of adenylate cyclase is as follows. After the hormone binds to the receptor, a hormone-receptor complex is formed, then the N-protein-GTP (guanosine triphosphate) complex is formed, which activates the catalytic part of adenylate cyclase. The conjugating part is represented by a special N-protein located in the lipid layer of the membrane. Activation of adenylate cyclase leads to the formation of cAMP inside the cell from ATP.
Under the action of cAMP and cGMP, protein kinases are activated, which are in the cytoplasm of the cell in an inactive state (Fig. **)
In turn, activated protein kinases activate intracellular enzymes, which, acting on DNA, are involved in the processes of gene transcription and the synthesis of the necessary enzymes.
Intracellular (cytosolic) mechanism action is characteristic of steroid hormones, which have a smaller molecular size than protein hormones. In turn, they are related to lipophilic substances according to their physicochemical properties, which allows them to easily penetrate the lipid layer of the plasma membrane.
Having penetrated into the cell, the steroid hormone interacts with a specific receptor protein (R) located in the cytoplasm, forming a hormone-receptor complex (GRa). This complex in the cytoplasm of the cell undergoes activation and penetrates through the nuclear membrane to the chromosomes of the nucleus, interacting with them. In this case, gene activation occurs, accompanied by the formation of RNA, which leads to increased synthesis of the corresponding enzymes. In this case, the receptor protein serves as an intermediary in the action of the hormone, but it acquires these properties only after it is combined with the hormone.
Along with a direct effect on the enzyme systems of tissues, the action of hormones on the structure and functions of the body can be carried out in more complex ways with the participation of the nervous system.
Humoral regulation and life processes
In this case, hormones act on interoreceptors (chemoreceptors) located in the walls of blood vessels. Irritation of chemoreceptors is the beginning of a reflex reaction that changes the functional state of the nerve centers.
The physiological action of hormones is very diverse. They have a pronounced effect on metabolism, differentiation of tissues and organs, growth and development. Hormones are involved in the regulation and integration of many body functions, adapting it to changing conditions of the internal and external environment, and maintain homeostasis.
human biology
Textbook for grade 8
Humoral regulation
A variety of life-support processes are constantly taking place in the human body. So, during the period of wakefulness, all organ systems function simultaneously: a person moves, breathes, blood flows through his vessels, digestion processes take place in the stomach and intestines, thermoregulation is carried out, etc. A person perceives all changes occurring in the environment, reacts to them. All these processes are regulated and controlled by the nervous system and glands of the endocrine apparatus.
Humoral regulation (from Latin "humor" - liquid) - a form of regulation of the body's activity, inherent in all living things, is carried out with the help of biologically active substances - hormones (from the Greek "gormao" - excite), which are produced by special glands. They are called endocrine glands or endocrine glands (from the Greek "endon" - inside, "krineo" - to secrete). The hormones they secrete enter directly into the tissue fluid and into the blood. The blood carries these substances throughout the body. Once in organs and tissues, hormones have a certain effect on them, for example, they affect tissue growth, the rhythm of contraction of the heart muscle, cause narrowing of the lumen of blood vessels, etc.
Hormones affect strictly defined cells, tissues or organs. They are very active, acting even in negligible amounts. However, hormones are rapidly destroyed, so they must enter the blood or tissue fluid as needed as needed.
Usually, the endocrine glands are small: from fractions of a gram to several grams.
The most important endocrine gland is the pituitary gland, located under the base of the brain in a special recess of the skull - the Turkish saddle and connected to the brain by a thin leg. The pituitary gland is divided into three lobes: anterior, middle and posterior. Hormones are produced in the anterior and middle lobes, which, entering the bloodstream, reach other endocrine glands and control their work. Two hormones produced in the neurons of the diencephalon enter the posterior lobe of the pituitary gland along the stalk. One of these hormones regulates the volume of urine produced, and the second enhances the contraction of smooth muscles and plays a very important role in the process of childbirth.
The thyroid gland is located on the neck in front of the larynx. It produces a number of hormones that are involved in the regulation of growth processes, tissue development. They increase the intensity of metabolism, the level of oxygen consumption by organs and tissues.
The parathyroid glands are located on the posterior surface of the thyroid gland. There are four of these glands, they are very small, their total mass is only 0.1-0.13 g. The hormone of these glands regulates the content of calcium and phosphorus salts in the blood, with a lack of this hormone, the growth of bones and teeth is disturbed, and the excitability of the nervous system increases.
Paired adrenal glands are located, as their name implies, above the kidneys. They secrete several hormones that regulate the metabolism of carbohydrates, fats, affect the content of sodium and potassium in the body, and regulate the activity of the cardiovascular system.
The release of adrenal hormones is especially important in cases where the body is forced to work under conditions of mental and physical stress, i.e. under stress: these hormones enhance muscle work, increase blood glucose (to ensure increased energy costs of the brain), increase blood flow in the brain and other vital organs, increase the level of systemic blood pressure, increase cardiac activity.
Some glands in our body perform a dual function, that is, they act simultaneously as glands of internal and external - mixed - secretion. These are, for example, the sex glands and the pancreas. The pancreas secretes digestive juice that enters the duodenum; at the same time, its individual cells function as endocrine glands, producing the hormone insulin, which regulates the metabolism of carbohydrates in the body. During digestion, carbohydrates are broken down into glucose, which is absorbed from the intestines into the blood vessels. A decrease in insulin production leads to the fact that most of the glucose cannot penetrate from the blood vessels further into the tissues of the organs. As a result, the cells of various tissues are left without the most important source of energy - glucose, which is eventually excreted from the body with urine. This disease is called diabetes. What happens when the pancreas produces too much insulin? Glucose is very quickly consumed by various tissues, primarily muscles, and the blood sugar content drops to a dangerously low level. As a result, the brain lacks “fuel”, the person falls into the so-called insulin shock and loses consciousness. In this case, it is necessary to quickly introduce glucose into the blood.
The sex glands form sex cells and produce hormones that regulate the growth and maturation of the body, the formation of secondary sexual characteristics. In men, this is the growth of mustaches and beards, coarsening of the voice, a change in physique, in women - a high voice, roundness of body shapes. Sex hormones determine the development of the genital organs, the maturation of germ cells, in women they control the phases of the sexual cycle, the course of pregnancy.
The structure of the thyroid gland
The thyroid gland is one of the most important organs of internal secretion. The description of the thyroid gland was given back in 1543 by A. Vesalius, and it received its name more than a century later - in 1656.
Modern scientific ideas about the thyroid gland began to take shape by the end of the 19th century, when the Swiss surgeon T. Kocher in 1883 described signs of mental retardation (cretinism) in a child that developed after the removal of this organ.
In 1896, A. Bauman established a high content of iodine in iron and drew the attention of researchers to the fact that even the ancient Chinese successfully treated cretinism with the ashes of sea sponges containing a large amount of iodine. The thyroid gland was first subjected to experimental study in 1927. Nine years later, the concept of its intrasecretory function was formulated.
It is now known that the thyroid gland consists of two lobes connected by a narrow isthmus. Otho is the largest endocrine gland. In an adult, its mass is 25-60 g; it is located in front and on the sides of the larynx. The tissue of the gland consists mainly of many cells - thyrocytes, which combine into follicles (vesicles). The cavity of each such vesicle is filled with the product of thyrocyte activity - a colloid. Blood vessels adjoin the follicles from the outside, from where the starting substances for the synthesis of hormones enter the cells. It is the colloid that allows the body to do without iodine for some time, which usually comes with water, food, and inhaled air. However, with prolonged iodine deficiency, hormone production is disrupted.
The main hormonal product of the thyroid gland is thyroxine. Another hormone, triiodtyranium, is produced only in small quantities by the thyroid gland. It is formed mainly from thyroxine after the elimination of one iodine atom from it. This process occurs in many tissues (especially in the liver) and plays an important role in maintaining the hormonal balance of the body, since triiodothyronine is much more active than thyroxine.
Diseases associated with impaired functioning of the thyroid gland can occur not only with changes in the gland itself, but also with a lack of iodine in the body, as well as diseases of the anterior pituitary gland, etc.
With a decrease in the functions (hypofunction) of the thyroid gland in childhood, cretinism develops, characterized by inhibition in the development of all body systems, short stature, and dementia. In an adult with a lack of thyroid hormones, myxedema occurs, in which edema, dementia, decreased immunity, and weakness are observed. This disease responds well to treatment with thyroid hormone preparations. With increased production of thyroid hormones, Graves' disease occurs, in which excitability, metabolic rate, heart rate increase sharply, bulging eyes (exophthalmos) develop and weight loss occurs. In those geographic areas where water contains little iodine (usually found in the mountains), the population often has goiter - a disease in which the secreting tissue of the thyroid gland grows, but cannot, in the absence of the required amount of iodine, synthesize full-fledged hormones. In such areas, the consumption of iodine by the population should be increased, which can be ensured, for example, by the use of table salt with mandatory small additions of sodium iodide.
A growth hormone
For the first time, an assumption about the release of a specific growth hormone by the pituitary gland was made in 1921 by a group of American scientists. In the experiment, they were able to stimulate the growth of rats to twice their normal size by daily administration of an extract of the pituitary gland. In its pure form, growth hormone was isolated only in the 1970s, first from the pituitary gland of a bull, and then from horses and humans. This hormone does not affect one particular gland, but the entire body.
Human height is a variable value: it increases up to 18-23 years old, remains unchanged until about 50 years old, and then decreases by 1-2 cm every 10 years.
In addition, growth rates vary from person to person. For a “conditional person” (this term is adopted by the World Health Organization when defining various parameters of life), the average height is 160 cm for women and 170 cm for men. But a person below 140 cm or above 195 cm is already considered very low or very high.
With a lack of growth hormone in children, pituitary dwarfism develops, and with an excess - pituitary gigantism. The tallest pituitary giant whose height was accurately measured was the American R. Wadlow (272 cm).
If an excess of this hormone is observed in an adult, when normal growth has already stopped, acromegaly disease occurs, in which the nose, lips, fingers and toes, and some other parts of the body grow.
Test your knowledge
- What is the essence of humoral regulation of processes occurring in the body?
- What glands are endocrine glands?
- What are the functions of the adrenal glands?
- List the main properties of hormones.
- What is the function of the thyroid gland?
- What glands of mixed secretion do you know?
- Where do the hormones secreted by the endocrine glands go?
- What is the function of the pancreas?
- List the functions of the parathyroid glands.
Think
What can lead to a lack of hormones secreted by the body?
The direction of the process in humoral regulation
Endocrine glands secrete hormones directly into the blood - biolo! ic active substances. Hormones regulate metabolism, growth, development of the body and the functioning of its organs.
Nervous and humoral regulation
Nervous regulation carried out with the help of electrical impulses going through the nerve cells. Compared to humoral
- going faster
- more accurate
- requires a lot of energy
- more evolutionarily young.
Humoral regulation vital processes (from the Latin word humor - “liquid”) is carried out due to substances released into the internal environment of the body (lymph, blood, tissue fluid).
Humoral regulation can be carried out with the help of:
- hormones- biologically active (acting in a very small concentration) substances secreted into the blood by endocrine glands;
- other substances. For example, carbon dioxide
- causes local expansion of capillaries, more blood flows to this place;
- excites the respiratory center of the medulla oblongata, breathing intensifies.
All glands of the body are divided into 3 groups
1) Endocrine glands ( endocrine) do not have excretory ducts and secrete their secrets directly into the blood. The secrets of the endocrine glands are called hormones, they have biological activity (act in microscopic concentration). For example: thyroid gland, pituitary gland, adrenal glands.
2) The glands of external secretion have excretory ducts and secrete their secrets NOT into the blood, but into any cavity or onto the surface of the body. For example, liver, lacrimal, salivary, sweat.
3) Glands of mixed secretion carry out both internal and external secretion. For example
- the pancreas secretes insulin and glucagon into the blood, and not into the blood (in the duodenum) - pancreatic juice;
- genital glands secrete sex hormones into the blood, and not into the blood - germ cells.
MORE INFORMATION: Humoral regulation, Types of glands, Types of hormones, timing and mechanisms of their action, Maintenance of blood glucose concentration
TASKS PART 2: Nervous and humoral regulation
Tests and assignments
Establish a correspondence between the organ (organ department) involved in the regulation of the life of the human body and the system to which it belongs: 1) nervous, 2) endocrine.
A) a bridge
B) pituitary gland
B) pancreas
D) spinal cord
D) cerebellum
Establish the sequence in which the humoral regulation of respiration is carried out during muscular work in the human body
1) accumulation of carbon dioxide in tissues and blood
2) excitation of the respiratory center in the medulla oblongata
3) impulse transmission to the intercostal muscles and diaphragm
4) strengthening of oxidative processes during active muscular work
5) inhalation and air flow into the lungs
Establish a correspondence between the process that occurs during human breathing and the way it is regulated: 1) humoral, 2) nervous
A) excitation of nasopharyngeal receptors by dust particles
B) slowing down breathing when immersed in cold water
C) a change in the rhythm of breathing with an excess of carbon dioxide in the room
D) respiratory failure when coughing
D) a change in the rhythm of breathing with a decrease in the content of carbon dioxide in the blood
1. Establish a correspondence between the characteristics of the gland and the type to which it belongs: 1) internal secretion, 2) external secretion. Write the numbers 1 and 2 in the correct order.
A) have excretory ducts
B) produce hormones
C) provide regulation of all vital functions of the body
D) secrete enzymes into the stomach
D) excretory ducts go to the surface of the body
E) the substances produced are released into the blood
2. Establish a correspondence between the characteristics of the glands and their type: 1) external secretion, 2) internal secretion.
Humoral regulation of the body
Write the numbers 1 and 2 in the correct order.
A) produce digestive enzymes
B) secrete into the body cavity
B) secrete chemically active substances - hormones
D) participate in the regulation of the vital processes of the body
D) have excretory ducts
Establish a correspondence between the glands and their types: 1) external secretion, 2) internal secretion. Write the numbers 1 and 2 in the correct order.
A) epiphysis
B) pituitary gland
B) adrenal gland
D) salivary
D) liver
E) cells of the pancreas that produce trypsin
Establish a correspondence between an example of the regulation of the work of the heart and the type of regulation: 1) humoral, 2) nervous
A) increased heart rate under the influence of adrenaline
B) changes in the work of the heart under the influence of potassium ions
C) changes in heart rate under the influence of the autonomic system
D) weakening of the activity of the heart under the influence of the parasympathetic system
Establish a correspondence between the gland in the human body and its type: 1) internal secretion, 2) external secretion
A) dairy
B) thyroid
B) liver
D) sweat
D) pituitary gland
E) adrenal glands
1. Establish a correspondence between the sign of the regulation of functions in the human body and its type: 1) nervous, 2) humoral. Write the numbers 1 and 2 in the correct order.
A) is delivered to the organs by blood
B) high speed of response
B) is more ancient
D) is carried out with the help of hormones
D) is associated with the activity of the endocrine system
2. Establish a correspondence between the characteristics and types of regulation of body functions: 1) nervous, 2) humoral. Write down the numbers 1 and 2 in the order corresponding to the letters.
A) turns on slowly and lasts a long time
B) the signal propagates along the structures of the reflex arc
B) is carried out by the action of a hormone
D) the signal propagates with the bloodstream
D) turns on quickly and acts briefly
E) evolutionarily older regulation
Choose one, the most correct option. Which of the following glands secrete their products through special ducts into the cavities of the organs of the body and directly into the blood
1) sebaceous
2) sweat
3) adrenal glands
4) sexual
Establish a correspondence between the gland of the human body and the type to which it belongs: 1) internal secretion, 2) mixed secretion, 3) external secretion
A) pancreas
B) thyroid
B) lacrimal
D) sebaceous
D) sexual
E) adrenal gland
Choose three options. In what cases is humoral regulation carried out?
1) excess carbon dioxide in the blood
2) the body's reaction to a green traffic light
3) excess glucose in the blood
4) the reaction of the body to a change in the position of the body in space
5) release of adrenaline during stress
Establish a correspondence between examples and types of respiratory regulation in humans: 1) reflex, 2) humoral. Write down the numbers 1 and 2 in the order corresponding to the letters.
A) stop breathing on inspiration when entering cold water
B) an increase in the depth of breathing due to an increase in the concentration of carbon dioxide in the blood
C) cough when food enters the larynx
D) a slight delay in breathing due to a decrease in the concentration of carbon dioxide in the blood
D) change in the intensity of breathing depending on the emotional state
E) spasm of cerebral vessels due to a sharp increase in the concentration of oxygen in the blood
Choose three endocrine glands.
1) pituitary gland
2) sexual
3) adrenal glands
4) thyroid
5) gastric
6) dairy
Choose three options. Humoral effects on physiological processes in the human body
1) carried out with the help of chemically active substances
2) associated with the activity of the glands of external secretion
3) spread more slowly than nerve
4) occur with the help of nerve impulses
5) are controlled by the medulla oblongata
6) carried out through the circulatory system
© D.V. Pozdnyakov, 2009-2018
Nervous regulation is carried out by the nervous system, the brain and spinal cord through the nerves that are supplied to all organs of our body. The body is constantly affected by certain stimuli. The body responds to all these stimuli with a certain activity or, as it is customary to create, the body functions adapt to constantly changing environmental conditions. Thus, a decrease in air temperature is accompanied not only by a narrowing of blood vessels, but also by an increase in metabolism in cells and tissues and, consequently, an increase in heat generation. Due to this, a certain balance is established between heat transfer and heat generation, hypothermia of the body does not occur, and the body temperature remains constant. Food irritation of the taste buds of the mouth strips causes the separation of saliva and other digestive juices. under the influence of which the digestion of food occurs. Thanks to this, the necessary substances enter the cells and tissues, and a certain balance is established between dissimilation and assimilation. According to this principle, the regulation of other functions of the body occurs.
Nervous regulation is reflex in nature. Various stimuli are perceived by receptors. The resulting excitation from the receptors through the sensory nerves is transmitted to the central nervous system, and from there through the motor nerves to the organs that carry out a certain activity. Such responses of the body to stimuli carried out through the central nervous system. called reflexes. The path along which excitation is transmitted during a reflex is called the reflex arc. Reflexes are varied. I.P. Pavlov divided all reflexes into unconditional and conditional. Unconditioned reflexes are congenital reflexes that are inherited. An example of such reflexes are vasomotor reflexes (constriction or expansion of blood vessels in response to skin irritation with cold or heat), salivation reflex (saliva when the taste buds are irritated by food) and many others.
Conditioned reflexes are acquired reflexes, they are developed throughout the life of an animal or person. These reflexes occur
only under certain conditions and can disappear. An example of conditioned reflexes is the separation of saliva at the sight of food, when smelling food, and in a person even when talking about it.
Humoral regulation (Humor - liquid) is carried out through the blood and other liquid and, constituting the internal environment of the body, various chemicals that are produced in the body itself or come from the external environment. Examples of such substances are hormones secreted by the endocrine glands, and vitamins that enter the body with food. Chemical substances are carried by the blood throughout the body and affect various functions, in particular the metabolism in cells and tissues. Moreover, each substance affects a certain process that occurs in a particular organ.
Nervous and humoral mechanisms of regulation of functions are interconnected. Thus, the nervous system exerts a regulating influence on the organs not only directly through the nerves, but also through the endocrine glands, changing the intensity of the formation of hormones in these organs and their entry into the blood.
In turn, many hormones and other substances affect the nervous system.
In a living organism, the nervous and humoral regulation of various functions is carried out according to the principle of self-regulation, i.e. automatically. According to this principle of regulation, blood pressure, the constancy of the composition and physico-chemical properties of blood, and body temperature are maintained at a certain level. metabolism, the activity of the heart, respiratory and other organ systems during physical work, etc. change in a strictly coordinated manner.
Due to this, certain relatively constant conditions are maintained in which the activity of the cells and tissues of the body proceeds, or in other words, the constancy of the internal environment is maintained.
It should be noted that in humans, the nervous system plays a leading role in the regulation of the vital activity of the body.
Thus, the human body is a single, integral, complex, self-regulating and self-developing biological system with certain reserve capabilities. Wherein
know that the ability to perform physical work can increase many times, but up to a certain limit. Whereas mental activity actually has no restrictions in its development.
Systematic muscular activity allows, by improving physiological functions, to mobilize the reserves of the body, the existence of which many do not even know. It should be noted that there is a reverse process, a decrease in the functional capabilities of the body and accelerated aging with a decrease in physical activity.
In the course of physical exercises, the higher nervous activity and the functions of the central nervous system are improved. neuromuscular. cardiovascular, respiratory, excretory and other systems, metabolism and energy, as well as the system of their neurohumoral regulation.
The human body, using the properties of self-regulation of internal processes under external influence, realizes the most important property - adaptation to changing external conditions, which is a determining factor in the ability to develop physical qualities and motor skills during training.
Let us consider in more detail the nature of physiological changes in the process of training.
Physical activity leads to diverse changes in metabolism, the nature of which depends on the duration, power of work and the number of muscles involved. During exercise, catabolic processes, mobilization and use of energy substrates predominate, and intermediate metabolic products accumulate. The rest period is characterized by the predominance of anabolic processes, the accumulation of a reserve of nutrients, and increased protein synthesis.
The recovery rate depends on the magnitude of the changes that occur during operation, that is, on the magnitude of the load.
During the rest period, the metabolic changes that occurred during muscle activity are eliminated. If during physical activity catabolic processes, mobilization and use of energy substrates predominate, there is an accumulation of intermediate metabolic products, then the rest period is characterized by the predominance of anabolic processes, the accumulation of a reserve of nutrients, and increased protein synthesis.
In the post-working period, the intensity of aerobic oxidation increases, oxygen consumption is increased, i.e. oxygen debt is eliminated. The substrate for oxidation is the intermediate metabolic products formed during muscle activity, lactic acid, ketone bodies, keto acids. Carbohydrate reserves during physical work, as a rule, are significantly reduced, so fatty acids become the main substrate for oxidation. Due to the increased use of lipids during the recovery period, the respiratory quotient decreases.
The recovery period is characterized by increased protein biosynthesis, which is inhibited during physical work, and the formation and excretion of end products of protein metabolism (urea, etc.) from the body also increases.
The recovery rate depends on the magnitude of the changes that occur during operation, i.e. on the magnitude of the load, which is schematically shown in Fig. 1
Fig.1 Scheme of the processes of expenditure and recovery of sources
energy during muscular activity of military intensity
Recovery of changes that occur under the influence of loads of low and medium intensity is slower than after loads of increased and extreme intensity, which is explained by deeper changes during the period of work. After increased intensity loads, the observed metabolic rate, substances not only reaches the initial level, but also exceeds it. This increase above the initial level is called over recovery (super compensation). It is registered only when the load exceeds a certain level in value, i.e. when the resulting changes in metabolism affect the genetic apparatus of the cell. The severity of over-recovery and its duration are directly dependent on the intensity of the load.
The phenomenon of overpowering is an important mechanism of adaptation (of an organ) to changing conditions of functioning and is important for understanding the biochemical foundations of sports training. It should be noted that as a general biological pattern, it extends not only to the accumulation of energy material, but also to the synthesis of proteins, which, in particular, manifests itself in the form of working hypertrophy of skeletal muscles, the heart muscle. After an intense load, the synthesis of a number of enzymes (enzyme induction) increases, the concentration of creatine phosphate, myoglobin increases, and a number of other changes occur.
It has been established that active muscular activity causes an increase in the activity of the cardiovascular, respiratory and other body systems. In any human activity, all organs and systems of the body act in concert, in close unity. This relationship is carried out with the help of the nervous system and humoral (fluid) regulation.
The nervous system regulates the activity of the body through bioelectric impulses. The main nervous processes are excitation and inhibition that occur in nerve cells. Excitation- the active state of nerve cells, when they transmit silt, they themselves direct nerve impulses to other cells: nerve, muscle, glandular and others. Braking- the state of nerve cells, when their activity is aimed at recovery. Sleep, for example, is a state of the nervous system, when the vast majority of nerve cells of the central nervous system are inhibited.
Humoral regulation is carried out through the blood by means of special chemicals (hormones) secreted by the endocrine glands, the concentration ratio CO2 and O2 through other mechanisms. For example, in the pre-start state, when intense physical activity is expected, the endocrine glands (adrenal glands) secrete a special hormone, adrenaline, into the blood, which helps to enhance the activity of the cardiovascular system.
Humoral and nervous regulation are carried out in unity. The leading role is assigned to the central nervous system, the brain, which is, as it were, the central headquarters for controlling the vital activity of the organism.
STRUCTURE, FUNCTIONS
A person has to constantly regulate physiological processes in accordance with his own needs and changes in the environment. For the implementation of constant regulation of physiological processes, two mechanisms are used: humoral and nervous.
The neurohumoral control model is based on the principle of a two-layer neural network. The role of formal neurons in the first layer in our model is played by receptors. The second layer consists of one formal neuron - the heart center. Its input signals are the output signals of the receptors. The output value of the neurohumoral factor is transmitted along the single axon of the formal neuron of the second layer.
The nervous, or rather the neuro-humoral control system of the human body is the most mobile and responds to the influence of the external environment within fractions of a second. The nervous system is a network of living fibers interconnected with each other and with other types of cells, for example, sensory receptors (receptors of the organs of smell, touch, vision, etc.), muscle, secretory cells, etc. Between all these cells there is no direct connection, since they are always separated by small spatial gaps, which are called synaptic clefts. Cells, whether nerve or otherwise, communicate with each other by transmitting a signal from one cell to another. If the signal is transmitted through the cell itself due to the difference in the concentrations of sodium and potassium ions, then signal transmission between cells occurs by ejection of organic matter into the synaptic cleft, which enters into contact with the receptors of the host cell located on the other side of the synaptic cleft. In order to eject the substance into the synaptic cleft, the nerve cell forms a vesicle (a sheath of glycoproteins) containing 2000-4000 molecules of organic matter (for example, acetylcholine, adrenaline, norepinephrine, dopamine, serotonin, gamma-aminobutyric acid, glycine and glutamate, etc. ). A glycoprotein complex is also used as receptors for one or another organic substance in the receiving cell.
Humoral regulation is carried out with the help of chemicals that come from various organs and tissues of the body into the blood and are carried by it throughout the body. Humoral regulation is an ancient form of interaction between cells and organs.
Nervous regulation of physiological processes consists in the interaction of body organs with the help of the nervous system. Nervous and humoral regulation of body functions are mutually related, form a single mechanism of neuro-humoral regulation of body functions.
The nervous system plays an important role in the regulation of body functions. It ensures the coordinated work of cells, tissues, organs and their systems. The body functions as a whole. Thanks to the nervous system, the body communicates with the external environment. The activity of the nervous system underlies feelings, learning, memory, speech and thinking - mental processes by which a person not only cognizes the environment, but can also actively change it.
The nervous system is divided into two parts: central and peripheral. The resurrection of the central nervous system includes the brain and spinal cord, formed by nervous tissue. The structural unit of the nervous tissue is a nerve cell - a neuron. A neuron consists of a body and processes. The body of a neuron can be of various shapes. The neuron has a nucleus, short, thick processes (dendrites) strongly branching near the body, and a long axon process (up to 1.5 m). Axons form nerve fibers.
The bodies of neurons form the gray matter of the brain and spinal cord, and the clusters of their processes form the white matter.
Nerve cell bodies outside the central nervous system form ganglions. Nerve nodes and nerves (accumulations of long processes of nerve cells covered with a sheath) form the peripheral nervous system.
The spinal cord is located in the spinal canal.
It is a long white cord about 1 cm in diameter. A narrow spinal canal runs through the center of the spinal cord and is filled with cerebrospinal fluid. There are two deep longitudinal grooves on the anterior and posterior surfaces of the spinal cord. They divide it into right and left halves. The central part of the spinal cord is formed by gray matter, which consists of intercalary and motor neurons. Surrounding the gray matter is white matter, formed by long processes of neurons. They go up or down along the spinal cord, forming ascending and descending pathways. 31 pairs of mixed spinal nerves leave the spinal cord, each of which begins with two roots: anterior and posterior. The posterior roots are the axons of sensory neurons. Accumulations of the bodies of these neurons form the spinal nodes. The anterior roots are the axons of motor neurons. The spinal cord performs 2 main functions: reflex and conduction.
The reflex function of the spinal cord provides movement. Reflex arcs pass through the spinal cord, with which the contraction of the skeletal muscles of the body is associated. The white matter of the spinal cord provides communication and coordinated work of all parts of the central nervous system, performing a conductive function. The brain regulates the functioning of the spinal cord.
The brain is located in the cranial cavity. It includes the departments: medulla oblongata, pons, cerebellum, midbrain, diencephalon and cerebral hemispheres. White matter forms the pathways of the brain. They connect the brain with the spinal cord, parts of the brain with each other.
Thanks to the pathways, the entire central nervous system functions as a single whole. The gray matter in the form of nuclei is located inside the white matter, forms the cortex, covering the hemispheres of the brain and cerebellum.
The medulla oblongata and the bridge - a continuation of the spinal cord, perform reflex and conductive functions. The nuclei of the medulla oblongata and the bridge regulate digestion, respiration, and cardiac activity. These departments regulate chewing, swallowing, sucking, protective reflexes: vomiting, sneezing, coughing.
The cerebellum is located above the medulla oblongata. Its surface is formed by gray matter - the bark, under which there are nuclei in the white matter. The cerebellum is connected to many parts of the central nervous system. The cerebellum regulates motor acts. When the normal activity of the cerebellum is disturbed, people lose the ability to precisely coordinated movements, maintaining the balance of the body.
In the midbrain there are nuclei that send nerve impulses to the skeletal muscles that maintain their tension - tone. In the midbrain, there are reflex arcs of orienting reflexes to visual and sound stimuli. The medulla oblongata, pons, and midbrain form the brainstem. 12 pairs of cranial nerves depart from it. Nerves connect the brain with the sense organs, muscles and glands located on the head. One pair of nerves - the vagus nerve - connects the brain with internal organs: the heart, lungs, stomach, intestines, etc. Through the diencephalon, impulses come to the cerebral cortex from all receptors (visual, auditory, skin, taste).
Walking, running, swimming are connected with the diencephalon. Its nuclei coordinate the work of various internal organs. The diencephalon regulates metabolism, food and water intake, and maintaining a constant body temperature.
The part of the peripheral nervous system that regulates the work of skeletal muscles is called the somatic (Greek, "soma" - body) nervous system. The part of the nervous system that regulates the activity of internal organs (heart, stomach, various glands) is called the autonomic or autonomic nervous system. The autonomic nervous system regulates the functioning of organs, precisely adapting their activity to environmental conditions and the body's own needs.
The vegetative reflex arc consists of three links: sensitive, intercalary and executive. The autonomic nervous system is divided into sympathetic and parasympathetic divisions. The sympathetic autonomic nervous system is connected to the spinal cord, where the bodies of the first neurons are located, the processes of which end in the ganglions of two sympathetic chains located on both sides in front of the spine. In the sympathetic ganglions are the bodies of the second neurons, the processes of which directly innervate the working organs. The sympathetic nervous system enhances metabolism, increases the excitability of most tissues, and mobilizes the body's forces for vigorous activity.
The parasympathetic part of the autonomic nervous system is formed by several nerves extending from the medulla oblongata and from the lower spinal cord. The parasympathetic nodes, where the bodies of the second neurons are located, are located in the organs whose activity they influence. Most organs are innervated by both the sympathetic and parasympathetic nervous systems. The parasympathetic nervous system contributes to the restoration of spent energy reserves, regulates the vital activity of the body during sleep.
The cerebral cortex forms folds, furrows, convolutions. The folded structure increases the surface of the cortex and its volume, and hence the number of neurons that form it. The cortex is responsible for the perception of all information entering the brain (visual, auditory, tactile, gustatory), for managing all complex muscle movements. It is with the functions of the cortex that mental and speech activity and memory are connected.
The cerebral cortex consists of four lobes: frontal, parietal, temporal and occipital. In the occipital lobe are the visual areas responsible for the perception of visual signals. The auditory areas responsible for the perception of sounds are located in the temporal lobes. The parietal lobe is a sensitive center that receives information from the skin, bones, joints, and muscles. The frontal lobe of the brain is responsible for programming behavior and managing work activities. The development of the frontal areas of the cortex is associated with a high level of human psychic abilities in comparison with animals. The human brain contains structures that animals do not have - the speech center. In humans, there is a specialization of the hemispheres - many higher functions of the brain are performed by one of them. Right-handed people have auditory and motor speech centers in the left hemisphere. They provide the perception of oral and the formation of oral and written speech.
The left hemisphere is responsible for the implementation, mathematical operations and the process of thinking. The right hemisphere is responsible for recognizing people by voice and for perceiving music, recognizing human faces and is responsible for musical and artistic creativity - it participates in the processes of figurative thinking.
The central nervous system constantly controls the work of the heart through nerve impulses. Inside the cavities of the heart itself and in. the walls of large vessels are nerve endings - receptors that perceive pressure fluctuations in the heart and blood vessels. Impulses from the receptors cause reflexes that affect the work of the heart. There are two types of nerve influences on the heart: some are inhibitory (reducing the frequency of heart contractions), others are accelerating.
Impulses are transmitted to the heart along the nerve fibers from the nerve centers located in the medulla oblongata and spinal cord.
Influences that weaken the work of the heart are transmitted through the parasympathetic nerves, and those that enhance its work are transmitted through the sympathetic. The activity of the heart is also under the influence of humoral regulation. Adrenaline is a hormone of the adrenal glands, even in very small doses, it enhances the work of the heart. So, pain causes the release of adrenaline into the blood in the amount of several micrograms, which significantly changes the activity of the heart. In practice, adrenaline is sometimes injected into a stopped heart to force it to contract. An increase in the content of potassium salts in the blood depresses, and calcium enhances the work of the heart. The substance that inhibits the work of the heart is acetylcholine. The heart is sensitive even to a dose of 0.0000001 mg, which clearly slows down its rhythm. Nervous and humoral regulation together provide a very precise adaptation of the activity of the heart to environmental conditions.
Consistency, rhythmic contractions and relaxation of the respiratory muscles are due to the impulses coming to them through the nerves from the respiratory center of the medulla oblongata. THEM. Sechenov in 1882 found that approximately every 4 seconds, excitations automatically arise in the respiratory center, providing an alternation of inhalation and exhalation.
The respiratory center changes the depth and frequency of respiratory movements, ensuring the optimal content of gases in the blood.
The humoral regulation of respiration consists in the fact that an increase in the concentration of carbon dioxide in the blood excites the respiratory center - the frequency and depth of respiration increase, and a decrease in CO2 lowers the excitability of the respiratory center - the frequency and depth of respiration decrease.
Many physiological functions of the body are regulated by hormones. Hormones are highly active substances produced by endocrine glands. Endocrine glands do not have excretory ducts. Each secretory cell of the gland with its surface is in contact with the wall of the blood vessel. This allows hormones to penetrate directly into the blood. Hormones are produced in small quantities, but remain active for a long time and are carried throughout the body with the bloodstream.
The pancreatic hormone, insulin, plays an important role in regulating metabolism. An increase in blood glucose serves as a signal for the release of new portions of insulin. Under its influence, the use of glucose by all tissues of the body increases. Part of the glucose is converted into a reserve substance glycogen, which is deposited in the liver and muscles. Insulin in the body is destroyed quite quickly, so its intake into the blood must be regular.
Thyroid hormones, the main one being thyroxine, regulate metabolism. The level of oxygen consumption by all organs and tissues of the body depends on their amount in the blood. Increasing the production of thyroid hormones leads to an increase in metabolic rate. This is manifested in an increase in body temperature, a more complete assimilation of food products, an increase in the breakdown of proteins, fats, carbohydrates, and in the rapid and intensive growth of the body. A decrease in the activity of the thyroid gland leads to myxedema: oxidative processes in the tissues decrease, the temperature drops, obesity develops, and the excitability of the nervous system decreases. With an increase in the activity of the thyroid gland, the level of metabolic processes increases: the heart rate, blood pressure, excitability of the nervous system increase. The person becomes irritable and gets tired quickly. These are signs of Graves' disease.
Adrenal hormones are paired glands located on the upper surface of the kidneys. They consist of two layers: outer - cortical and inner - medulla. The adrenal glands produce a number of hormones. Hormones of the cortical layer regulate the exchange of sodium, potassium, proteins, carbohydrates. The medulla produces the hormone norepinephrine and adrenaline. These hormones regulate the metabolism of carbohydrates and fats, the activity of the cardiovascular system, skeletal muscles and muscles of internal organs. The production of adrenaline is important for the emergency preparation of the body's responses to a critical situation with a sudden increase in physical or mental stress. Adrenaline provides an increase in blood sugar, increased cardiac activity and muscle performance.
Hormones of the hypothalamus and pituitary gland. The hypothalamus is a special part of the diencephalon, and the pituitary gland is a cerebral appendage located on the lower surface of the brain. The hypothalamus and pituitary gland form a single hypothalamic-pituitary system, and their hormones are called neurohormones. It ensures the constancy of the composition of the blood and the necessary level of metabolism. The hypothalamus regulates the functions of the pituitary gland, which controls the activity of other endocrine glands: thyroid, pancreas, genital, adrenal glands. The work of this system is based on the principle of feedback, an example of a close combination of the nervous and humoral methods of regulating the functions of our body.
Sex hormones are produced by the gonads, which also perform the function of the glands of external secretion.
Male sex hormones regulate the growth and development of the body, the emergence of secondary sexual characteristics - the growth of a mustache, the development of characteristic hairiness of other parts of the body, a coarsening of the voice, and a change in physique.
Female sex hormones regulate the development of secondary sexual characteristics in women - a high voice, rounded body shapes, the development of the mammary glands, control the sexual cycles, the course of pregnancy and childbirth. Both types of hormones are produced by both men and women.
STRUCTURE, FUNCTIONS
A person has to constantly regulate physiological processes in accordance with his own needs and changes in the environment. For the implementation of constant regulation of physiological processes, two mechanisms are used: humoral and nervous.
The neurohumoral control model is based on the principle of a two-layer neural network. The role of formal neurons in the first layer in our model is played by receptors. The second layer consists of one formal neuron - the heart center. Its input signals are the output signals of the receptors. The output value of the neurohumoral factor is transmitted along the single axon of the formal neuron of the second layer.
Male sex hormones regulate the growth and development of the body, the emergence of secondary sexual characteristics - the growth of a mustache, the development of characteristic hairiness of other parts of the body, a coarsening of the voice, and a change in physique.
Female sex hormones regulate the development of secondary sexual characteristics in women - a high voice, rounded body shapes, the development of the mammary glands, control the sexual cycles, the course of pregnancy and childbirth. Both types of hormones are produced by both men and women.
organism
Regulation of the functions of cells, tissues and organs, the relationship between them, i.e. the integrity of the organism, and the unity of the organism and the external environment is carried out by the nervous system and the humoral pathway. In other words, we have two mechanisms of regulation of functions - nervous and humoral.
Nervous regulation is carried out by the nervous system, the brain and spinal cord through the nerves that are supplied to all organs of our body. The body is constantly affected by certain stimuli. The body responds to all these stimuli with a certain activity or, as it is customary to create, the body functions adapt to constantly changing environmental conditions. Thus, a decrease in air temperature is accompanied not only by a narrowing of blood vessels, but also by an increase in metabolism in cells and tissues and, consequently, an increase in heat generation. Due to this, a certain balance is established between heat transfer and heat generation, hypothermia of the body does not occur, and the body temperature remains constant. Food irritation of the taste buds of the mouth strips causes the separation of saliva and other digestive juices. under the influence of which the digestion of food occurs. Thanks to this, the necessary substances enter the cells and tissues, and a certain balance is established between dissimilation and assimilation. According to this principle, the regulation of other functions of the body occurs.
Nervous regulation is reflex in nature. Various stimuli are perceived by receptors. The resulting excitation from the receptors through the sensory nerves is transmitted to the central nervous system, and from there through the motor nerves to the organs that carry out a certain activity. Such responses of the body to stimuli carried out through the central nervous system. called reflexes. The path along which excitation is transmitted during a reflex is called the reflex arc. Reflexes are varied. I.P. Pavlov divided all reflexes into unconditional and conditional. Unconditioned reflexes are congenital reflexes that are inherited. An example of such reflexes are vasomotor reflexes (constriction or expansion of blood vessels in response to skin irritation with cold or heat), salivation reflex (saliva when the taste buds are irritated by food) and many others.
Conditioned reflexes are acquired reflexes, they are developed throughout the life of an animal or person. These reflexes occur
only under certain conditions and can disappear. An example of conditioned reflexes is the separation of saliva at the sight of food, when smelling food, and in a person even when talking about it.
Humoral regulation (Humor - liquid) is carried out through the blood and other liquid and, constituting the internal environment of the body, various chemicals that are produced in the body itself or come from the external environment. Examples of such substances are hormones secreted by the endocrine glands, and vitamins that enter the body with food. Chemical substances are carried by the blood throughout the body and affect various functions, in particular the metabolism in cells and tissues. Moreover, each substance affects a certain process that occurs in a particular organ.
Nervous and humoral mechanisms of regulation of functions are interconnected. Thus, the nervous system exerts a regulating influence on the organs not only directly through the nerves, but also through the endocrine glands, changing the intensity of the formation of hormones in these organs and their entry into the blood.
In turn, many hormones and other substances affect the nervous system.
In a living organism, the nervous and humoral regulation of various functions is carried out according to the principle of self-regulation, i.e. automatically. According to this principle of regulation, blood pressure, the constancy of the composition and physico-chemical properties of blood, and body temperature are maintained at a certain level. metabolism, the activity of the heart, respiratory and other organ systems during physical work, etc. change in a strictly coordinated manner.
Due to this, certain relatively constant conditions are maintained in which the activity of the cells and tissues of the body proceeds, or in other words, the constancy of the internal environment is maintained.
It should be noted that in humans, the nervous system plays a leading role in the regulation of the vital activity of the body.
Thus, the human body is a single, integral, complex, self-regulating and self-developing biological system with certain reserve capabilities. Wherein
know that the ability to perform physical work can increase many times, but up to a certain limit. Whereas mental activity actually has no restrictions in its development.
Systematic muscular activity allows, by improving physiological functions, to mobilize the reserves of the body, the existence of which many do not even know. It should be noted that there is a reverse process, a decrease in the functional capabilities of the body and accelerated aging with a decrease in physical activity.
In the course of physical exercises, the higher nervous activity and the functions of the central nervous system are improved. neuromuscular. cardiovascular, respiratory, excretory and other systems, metabolism and energy, as well as the system of their neurohumoral regulation.
The human body, using the properties of self-regulation of internal processes under external influence, realizes the most important property - adaptation to changing external conditions, which is a determining factor in the ability to develop physical qualities and motor skills during training.
Let us consider in more detail the nature of physiological changes in the process of training.
Physical activity leads to diverse changes in metabolism, the nature of which depends on the duration, power of work and the number of muscles involved. During exercise, catabolic processes, mobilization and use of energy substrates predominate, and intermediate metabolic products accumulate. The rest period is characterized by the predominance of anabolic processes, the accumulation of a reserve of nutrients, and increased protein synthesis.
The recovery rate depends on the magnitude of the changes that occur during operation, that is, on the magnitude of the load.
During the rest period, the metabolic changes that occurred during muscle activity are eliminated. If during physical activity catabolic processes, mobilization and use of energy substrates predominate, there is an accumulation of intermediate metabolic products, then the rest period is characterized by the predominance of anabolic processes, the accumulation of a reserve of nutrients, and increased protein synthesis.
In the post-working period, the intensity of aerobic oxidation increases, oxygen consumption is increased, i.e. oxygen debt is eliminated. The substrate for oxidation is the intermediate metabolic products formed during muscle activity, lactic acid, ketone bodies, keto acids. Carbohydrate reserves during physical work, as a rule, are significantly reduced, so fatty acids become the main substrate for oxidation. Due to the increased use of lipids during the recovery period, the respiratory quotient decreases.
The recovery period is characterized by increased protein biosynthesis, which is inhibited during physical work, and the formation and excretion of end products of protein metabolism (urea, etc.) from the body also increases.
The recovery rate depends on the magnitude of the changes that occur during operation, i.e. on the magnitude of the load, which is schematically shown in Fig. 1
Fig.1 Scheme of the processes of expenditure and recovery of sources
energy during muscular activity of military intensity
Recovery of changes that occur under the influence of loads of low and medium intensity is slower than after loads of increased and extreme intensity, which is explained by deeper changes during the period of work. After increased intensity loads, the observed metabolic rate, substances not only reaches the initial level, but also exceeds it. This increase above the initial level is called super recovery (super compensation). It is registered only when the load exceeds a certain level in value, i.e. when the resulting changes in metabolism affect the genetic apparatus of the cell. The severity of over-recovery and its duration are directly dependent on the intensity of the load.
The phenomenon of overpowering is an important mechanism of adaptation (of an organ) to changing conditions of functioning and is important for understanding the biochemical foundations of sports training. It should be noted that as a general biological pattern, it extends not only to the accumulation of energy material, but also to the synthesis of proteins, which, in particular, manifests itself in the form of working hypertrophy of skeletal muscles, the heart muscle. After an intense load, the synthesis of a number of enzymes (enzyme induction) increases, the concentration of creatine phosphate, myoglobin increases, and a number of other changes occur.
It has been established that active muscular activity causes an increase in the activity of the cardiovascular, respiratory and other body systems. In any human activity, all organs and systems of the body act in concert, in close unity. This relationship is carried out with the help of the nervous system and humoral (fluid) regulation.
The nervous system regulates the activity of the body through bioelectric impulses. The main nervous processes are excitation and inhibition that occur in nerve cells. Excitation- the active state of nerve cells, when they transmit silt, they themselves direct nerve impulses to other cells: nerve, muscle, glandular and others. Braking- the state of nerve cells, when their activity is aimed at recovery. Sleep, for example, is a state of the nervous system, when the vast majority of nerve cells of the central nervous system are inhibited.
Humoral regulation is carried out through the blood by means of special chemicals (hormones) secreted by the endocrine glands, the concentration ratio CO2 and O2 through other mechanisms. For example, in the pre-start state, when intense physical activity is expected, the endocrine glands (adrenal glands) secrete a special hormone, adrenaline, into the blood, which helps to enhance the activity of the cardiovascular system.
Humoral and nervous regulation are carried out in unity. The leading role is assigned to the central nervous system, the brain, which is, as it were, the central headquarters for controlling the vital activity of the organism.
2.10.1. Reflex nature and reflex mechanisms of motor activity
The nervous system operates on the principle of a reflex. Inherited reflexes, inherent in the nervous system from birth, in its structure, in the connections between nerve cells, are called unconditioned reflexes. Combining in long chains, unconditioned reflexes are the basis of instinctive behavior. In humans and in higher animals, behavior is based on conditioned reflexes developed in the process of life on the basis of unconditioned reflexes.
Sports and labor activity of a person, including the mastery of motor skills, is carried out according to the principle of the relationship of conditioned reflexes and dynamic stereotypes with unconditioned reflexes.
To perform clear purposeful movements, it is necessary to continuously receive signals to the central nervous system about the functional state of the muscles, about the degree of their contraction, tension and relaxation, about the posture of the body, about the position of the joints and the angle of bend in them.
All this information is transmitted from the receptors of the sensory systems and especially from the receptors of the motor sensory system, from the so-called proprioreceptors, which are located in muscle tissue, fascia, articular bags and tendons.
From these receptors, by the feedback principle and by the reflex mechanism, the CNS receives complete information about the performance of a given motor action and about its comparison with a given program.
Each, even the simplest movement, needs constant correction, which is provided by information coming from proprioceptors and other sensory systems. With repeated repetition of a motor action, impulses from receptors reach the motor centers in the central nervous system, which accordingly change their impulses going to the muscles in order to improve the movement being learned.
Thanks to such a complex reflex mechanism, motor activity is improved.
Motor skill education
A motor skill is a form of motor actions developed according to the mechanism of a conditioned reflex as a result of appropriate systematic exercises.
The process of forming a motor skill sequentially goes through three phases: generalization, concentration, automation.
Generalization phase It is characterized by the expansion and intensification of the excitatory process, as a result of which extra muscle groups are involved in the work, and the tension of the working muscles turns out to be unreasonably large. In this phase, movements are constrained, uneconomical, poorly coordinated and inaccurate.
The generalization phase changes concentration phase, when excessive excitation, due to differentiated inhibition, is concentrated in the right areas of the brain. Excessive intensity of movements disappears, they become accurate, economical, performed freely, without tension, stably.
IN automation phase the skill is refined and consolidated, the performance of individual movements becomes, as it were, automatic, and active control of consciousness is not required, which can be switched to the environment, the search for a solution, etc. An automated skill is distinguished by high accuracy and stability in the execution of all its constituent movements.
Automation of skills makes it possible to perform several motor actions simultaneously.
Various analyzers are involved in the formation of a motor skill: motor (proprioceptive), vestibular, auditory, visual, tactile.
2.10.3 Aerobic, anaerobic processes
In order for muscle work to continue, it is necessary that the rate of ATP resynthesis correspond to its consumption. There are three ways of resynthesis (replenishment of ATP consumed during operation):
· aerobic (respiratory phosphorylation);
· anaerobic mechanisms;
· creatine phosphate and anaerobic glycolysis.
Practically in any work (performing physical exercises), energy supply is carried out due to the functioning of all three mechanisms of ATP resynthesis. In connection with these differences, all types of physical exercises (physical work) were divided into two types. One of them - aerobic work (performance) includes exercises performed mainly due to aerobic energy supply mechanisms: ATP resynthesis is carried out by respiratory phosphorylation during the oxidation of various substrates with the participation of oxygen entering the muscle cell. The second type of work is anaerobic work (productivity), this type of work includes exercises, the performance of which is critically dependent on the anaerobic mechanisms of ATP resynthesis in muscles. Sometimes a mixed type of work is distinguished (aerobic-anaerobic), when both aerobic and anaerobic mechanisms of energy supply make a significant contribution.
GENERAL CHARACTERISTICS OF HUMORAL REGULATION
Humoral regulation- this is a kind of biological regulation, in which information is transmitted using biologically active chemicals that are carried throughout the body by blood or lymph, as well as by diffusion in the intercellular fluid.
Differences between humoral and nervous regulation:
1 The carrier of information in humoral regulation is a chemical substance, in nervous regulation it is a nerve impulse. 2 The transfer of humoral regulation is carried out by the flow of blood, lymph, by diffusion: nervous - with the help of nerve conductors.
3 The humoral signal propagates more slowly (blood flow velocity in capillaries is 0.03 cm/s) than the nerve signal (nerve transmission velocity is 120 m/s).
4 The humoral signal does not have such an exact addressee (it works on the principle of "everyone, everyone, everyone who responds"), as a nerve signal (for example, a nerve impulse is transmitted to the muscle of the finger). However, this difference is not significant, because cells have different sensitivity to chemicals Therefore, chemicals act on strictly defined cells, namely those that are able to perceive this information.Cells with such a high sensitivity to the humoral factor are called target cells.
5 Humoral regulation is used to provide reactions that do not require high speed and accuracy of execution.
6 Humoral regulation, like nervous regulation, is carried out by a closed regulation circuit, in which all its elements are interconnected (Fig. 6.1). In the circuit of humoral regulation, there is no (as an independent structure) a tracking device (SP), since its functions are performed by endocrine cell membrane receptors.
7 Humoral factors that enter the blood or lymph diffuse into the intercellular fluid, and therefore their action can spread to nearby organ cells, that is, their influence is local. They can also have a distant effect, extending to target cells from a distance.
Among biologically active substances, hormones play the main role in the regulation. Local regulation can also be carried out due to metabolites formed in all tissues of the body, especially during their intense activity.
Hormones are divided into real and tissue (Fig. 6.2), real hormones produced by endocrine glands and specialized cells. Real hormones interact with cells, which are called "targets", and thus affect the functions of the body.
tissue hormones produced by unspecialized cells different kind. They are involved in the local regulation of visceral functions.
Signaling, transmitted by hormones to target cells, can be carried out in three ways:
1 Real hormones act at a distance (distant) since endocrine glands or endocrine cells secrete hormones into the blood, which they are transported to target cells, so such a signaling system
RICE. 6.1.
RICE. 6.2.
called endocrine signaling (for example, hormones of the thyroid gland, adenohypophysis, adrenal glands and many others).
2 Tissue hormones can act through the interstitial fluid on target cells that are located nearby. - It's a system paracrine signaling (for example, the tissue hormone histamine, which is secreted by enterochromaffin cells of the gastric mucosa, acts on the parietal cells of the gastric glands).
3 Some hormones can regulate the activity of those cells that produce them - this is a system augrocrine signaling (for example, the hormone insulin regulates its production by the beta cells of the pancreatic islets).
According to the chemical structure, hormones are divided into three groups:
1 Proteins and polypeptides (hormones of the hypothalamus, pituitary gland, pancreas, etc.)- This is the most numerous group of hormones: they are water-soluble and circulate in the plasma in a free state; synthesized in endocrine cells and stored in secretory granules in the cytoplasm; enter the bloodstream by exocytosis, the concentration in the blood is in the range of 10-12-10-10 mol / l;
In Amino acids and their derivatives. These include;
Hormones of the adrenal medulla - catecholamines (adrenaline, norepinephrine), which are water-soluble and derivatives of the amino acid tyrosine; secreted and stored in the cytoplasm in secretory granules; in the blood circulate in a free state: plasma concentration of adrenaline - 2 10-10 mol / l. norepinephrine - 13 10-10 mol / l;
Thyroid hormones - thyroxine, triiodothyronine; they are fat soluble. These are the only substances in the body that contain iodine and are produced by follicular cells; secreted into the blood by simple diffusion: most of them are transported by the blood in a bound state with a transport protein - thyroxin-binding globulin; plasma concentration of thyroid hormones - 10-6 mol / l.
3 Steroid hormones (hormones of the adrenal cortex and gonads) are derivatives of cholesterol and are fat-soluble; have high lipid solubility and easily diffuse through cell membranes. In plasma, they circulate in a bound state with transport proteins - steroid-binding globulins; plasma concentration -10-9 mol / l.
The latency period of hormones- the interval between the triggering stimulus and the reaction involving hormones - can last from a few seconds, minutes, hours or days. Thus, the secretion of milk by the mammary glands can occur within a few seconds after the introduction of the hormone oxytocin; metabolic reactions to thyroxine are observed after 3 days.
inactivation hormones occurs predominantly in the liver and kidneys through enzymatic mechanisms such as hydrolysis, oxidation, hydroxylation, decarboxylation, and others. The excretion of some hormones from the body with urine or feces is negligible (
With the physiological regulation of the body, functions are carried out at an optimal level for normal performance, support for homeostatic conditions with metabolic processes. Its goal is to ensure that the body is always adapted to changing environmental conditions.
In the human body, regulatory activity is represented by the following mechanisms:
- nervous regulation;
The work of nervous and humoral regulation is joint, they are closely related to each other. Chemical compounds that regulate the body affect neurons with a complete change in their state. Hormonal compounds secreted in the respective glands also affect NS. And the functions of the glands that produce hormones are controlled by the NS, the significance of which, with the support of the regulatory function for the body, is enormous. The humoral factor is part of the neurohumoral regulation.
Regulation examples
The clarity of regulation will show an example of how the osmotic pressure of the blood changes when a person is thirsty. This type of pressure increases due to a lack of moisture within the body. This leads to irritation of osmotic receptors. The resulting excitement is transmitted through the nerve pathways to the central nervous system. From it, many impulses enter the pituitary gland, stimulation occurs with the release of antidiuretic pituitary hormone into the bloodstream. In the bloodstream, the hormone penetrates to the curved renal canals, and there is an increase in the reabsorption of moisture from the glomerular ultrafiltrate (primary urine) into the bloodstream. The result of this is a decrease in urine excreted with water, and the restoration of the osmotic pressure of the body that has deviated from the normal values.
With an excessive glucose level of blood flow, the nervous system stimulates the functions of the introsecretory region of the endocrine organ that produces the insulin hormone. Already in the bloodstream, the intake of insulin hormone has increased, unnecessary glucose, due to its influence, passes to the liver, muscles in the form of glycogen. Strengthened physical work contributes to an increase in glucose consumption, its volume in the bloodstream decreases, and the functions of the adrenal glands are strengthened. Adrenaline hormone is responsible for the conversion of glycogen to glucose. Thus, the nervous regulation affecting the intrasecretory glands stimulates or inhibits the functions of important active biological compounds.
Humoral regulation of the vital functions of the body, in contrast to the nervous regulation, when transferring information, uses a different fluid environment of the body. Signal transmission is carried out using chemical compounds:
- hormonal;
- mediator;
- electrolyte and many others.
Humoral regulation, as well as nervous regulation, contains some differences.
- there is no specific address. The flow of biosubstances is delivered to different cells of the body;
- information is delivered at a low speed, which is comparable to the flow velocity of bioactive media: from 0.5-0.6 to 4.5-5 m/s;
- action is long.
The nervous regulation of vital functions in the human body is carried out with the help of the central nervous system and the PNS. Signal transmission is carried out using numerous pulses.
This regulation is characterized by its differences.
- there is a specific address for signal delivery to a specific organ, tissue;
- information is delivered at high speed. Pulse speed ─ up to 115-119 m/s;
- short-term action.
Humoral regulation
The humoral mechanism is an ancient form of interaction that has evolved over time. In humans, there are several different options for implementing this mechanism. A non-specific variant of regulation is local.
Local cellular regulation is carried out by three methods, their basis is the transfer of signals by compounds in the border of a single organ or tissue using:
- creative cellular communication;
- simple types of metabolite;
- active biological compounds.
Thanks to the creative connection, an intercellular information exchange takes place, which is necessary for the directed adjustment of the intracellular synthesis of protein molecules with other processes for the transformation of cells into tissues, differentiation, development with growth, and, as a result, the performance of the functions of the cells contained in the tissue as an integral multicellular system.
A metabolite is a product of metabolic processes, it can act autocrine, that is, change the cellular performance, through which it is released, or paracrine, that is, change the cellular work, where the cell is located at the border of the same tissue, reaching it through the intracellular fluid. For example, with the accumulation of lactic acid during physical work, the vessels that bring blood to the muscles expand, the oxygen saturation of the muscle increases, however, the strength of muscle contractility decreases. This is how humoral regulation works.
Hormones located in tissues are also biologically active compounds - products of cell metabolism, but have a more complex chemical structure. They are presented:
- biogenic amines;
- kinins;
- angiotensins;
- prostaglandins;
- endothelium and other compounds.
These compounds change the following biophysical cellular properties:
- membrane permeability;
- setting up energy metabolic processes;
- membrane potential;
- enzymatic reactions.
They also contribute to the formation of secondary mediators and change tissue blood supply.
BAS (biologically active substances) regulate cells with the help of special cell-membrane receptors. Biologically active substances also modulate regulatory influences, since they change cellular sensitivity to nervous and hormonal influences by changing the number of cellular receptors and their similarity to various information-carrying molecules.
BAS, formed in different tissues, act autocrine and paracrine, but are able to penetrate into the blood and act systemically. Some of them (kinins) are formed from precursors in the blood plasma, so these substances, when acting locally, even cause a widespread effect similar to hormonal.
Physiological adjustment of body functions is carried out through the well-coordinated interaction of the NS and the humoral system. Nervous regulation and humoral regulation combine the functions of the body for its full functionality, and the human body works as a whole.
The interaction of the human body with environmental conditions is carried out with the help of an active NS, the performance of which is determined by reflexes.
Every organism, whether unicellular or multicellular, is a single entity. All his organs are closely connected with each other and are controlled by a common, precise, well-coordinated mechanism. The higher the organism is developed, the more complex and finer it is arranged, the more important the nervous system is for it. But in the body there is also the so-called humoral regulation and coordination of the work of individual organs and physiological systems. It is carried out with the help of special highly active chemicals that accumulate in the blood and tissues during the life of the body.
Cells, tissues, organs secrete the products of their metabolism, the so-called metabolites, into the surrounding tissue fluid. In many cases, these are the simplest chemical compounds, the end products of successive internal transformations that take place in living matter. Figuratively speaking, this is "production waste". But often such wastes have extraordinary activity and are capable of causing a whole chain of new physiological processes, the formation of new chemical compounds and specific substances.
Among the more complex products of metabolism are hormones secreted into the blood by the endocrine glands (adrenal glands, pituitary gland, thyroid gland, gonads, etc.), and mediators - transmitters of nervous excitation. These are powerful chemicals, usually of a rather complex composition, involved in the vast majority of life processes. They have the most decisive influence on various aspects of the body's activity: they affect mental activity, worsen or improve mood, stimulate physical and mental performance, stimulate sexual activity. Love, conception, fetal development, growth, maturation, instincts, emotions, health, diseases pass in our lives under the sign of the endocrine system.
Extracts from the endocrine glands and chemically pure preparations of hormones artificially obtained in the laboratory are used in the treatment of various diseases. Insulin, cortisone, thyroxine, sex hormones are sold in pharmacies. Purified and synthetic hormonal preparations bring great benefits to people. The doctrine of physiology, pharmacology and pathology of the organs of internal secretion has become in recent years one of the most important sections of modern biology.
But in a living organism, the cells of the endocrine glands release into the blood not a chemically pure hormone, but complexes of substances containing complex metabolic products (protein, lipid, carbohydrate), closely related to the active principle and enhancing or weakening its action.
All these non-specific substances take an active part in the harmonious regulation of the vital functions of the organism. Entering the blood, lymph, tissue fluid, they play an important role in the humoral regulation of physiological processes through liquid media.
Humoral regulation is closely related to the nervous one and together with it forms a single neurohumoral mechanism of the body's regulatory adaptations. Nervous and humoral factors are so closely intertwined with each other that any opposition between them is unacceptable, just as it is unacceptable to divide the processes of regulation and coordination of functions in the body into autonomous ionic, vegetative, animal components. All these types of regulation are so closely related to each other that the violation of one of them, as a rule, disorganizes the others.
In the early stages of evolution, when the nervous system is absent, the relationship between individual cells and even organs is carried out in a humoral way. But as the nervous apparatus develops, as it improves at the highest levels of physiological development, the humoral system becomes more and more subordinate to the nervous system.
Features of nervous and humoral regulation
The mechanisms of regulation of physiological functions are traditionally divided into nervous and humoral, although in reality they form a single regulatory system that maintains homeostasis and adaptive activity of the body. These mechanisms have numerous connections both at the level of functioning of nerve centers and in the transmission of signal information to effector structures. Suffice it to say that during the implementation of the simplest reflex as an elementary mechanism of nervous regulation, the transmission of signaling from one cell to another is carried out through humoral factors - neurotransmitters. The sensitivity of sensory receptors to the action of stimuli and the functional state of neurons change under the influence of hormones, neurotransmitters, a number of other biologically active substances, as well as the simplest metabolites and mineral ions (K + , Na + , Ca -+ , C1~). In turn, the nervous system can trigger or correct humoral regulation. Humoral regulation in the body is under the control of the nervous system.
Humoral mechanisms are phylogenetically older; they are present even in unicellular animals and acquire great diversity in multicellular organisms, and especially in humans.
Nervous mechanisms of regulation were formed phylogenetically and are formed gradually in human ontogeny. Such regulation is possible only in multicellular structures that have nerve cells that combine into nerve circuits and make up reflex arcs.
Humoral regulation is carried out by spreading signal molecules in body fluids according to the "everyone, everyone, everyone" principle, or the "radio communication" principle.
Nervous regulation is carried out according to the principle of "letter with an address", or "telegraph communication". Signaling is transmitted from nerve centers to strictly defined structures, for example, to precisely defined muscle fibers or their groups in a particular muscle. Only in this case purposeful, coordinated human movements are possible.
Humoral regulation, as a rule, is carried out more slowly than nervous regulation. The speed of the signal (action potential) in fast nerve fibers reaches 120 m/s, while the speed of transport of the signal molecule with the blood flow in the arteries is approximately 200 times, and in the capillaries - thousands of times less.
The arrival of a nerve impulse to an effector organ almost instantly causes a physiological effect (for example, contraction of a skeletal muscle). The response to many hormonal signals is slower. For example, the manifestation of a response to the action of thyroid hormones and the adrenal cortex occurs after tens of minutes and even hours.
Humoral mechanisms are of primary importance in the regulation of metabolic processes, the rate of cell division, the growth and specialization of tissues, puberty, and adaptation to changing environmental conditions.
The nervous system in a healthy organism influences all humoral regulation and corrects them. However, the nervous system has its own specific functions. It regulates vital processes that require quick reactions, provides the perception of signals coming from the sensory receptors of the sense organs, skin and internal organs. Regulates the tone and contractions of the skeletal muscles, which ensure the maintenance of the posture and the movement of the body in space. The nervous system provides the manifestation of such mental functions as sensation, emotions, motivation, memory, thinking, consciousness, regulates behavioral reactions aimed at achieving a useful adaptive result.
Humoral regulation is divided into endocrine and local. Endocrine regulation is carried out due to the functioning of the endocrine glands (endocrine glands), which are specialized organs that secrete hormones.
A distinctive feature of local humoral regulation is that the biologically active substances produced by the cell do not enter the bloodstream, but act on the cell producing them and its immediate environment, spreading through the intercellular fluid due to diffusion. Such regulation is subdivided into the regulation of metabolism in the cell due to metabolites, autocrinia, paracrinia, juxtacrinia, interactions through intercellular contacts. Cellular and intracellular membranes play an important role in all humoral regulation involving specific signaling molecules.
1. General properties of hormones Hormones are biologically active substances that are synthesized in small quantities in specialized cells of the endocrine system and are delivered through circulating fluids (for example, blood) to target cells, where they exert their regulatory effect.
Hormones, like other signaling molecules, share some common properties.
1) are released from the cells that produce them into the extracellular space;
2) are not structural components of cells and are not used as an energy source;
3) are able to specifically interact with cells that have receptors for a given hormone;
4) have a very high biological activity - effectively act on cells at very low concentrations (about 10 -6 -10 -11 mol/l).
2. Mechanisms of action of hormones Hormones affect target cells.
Target cells are cells that specifically interact with hormones using special receptor proteins. These receptor proteins are located on the outer membrane of the cell, or in the cytoplasm, or on the nuclear membrane and other organelles of the cell.
Biochemical mechanisms of signal transmission from the hormone to the target cell.
Any receptor protein consists of at least two domains (regions) that provide two functions:
1) hormone recognition;
2) transformation and transmission of the received signal to the cell.
How does the receptor protein recognize the hormone molecule with which it can interact?
One of the domains of the receptor protein contains a region complementary to some part of the signal molecule. The process of binding a receptor to a signal molecule is similar to the process of formation of an enzyme-substrate complex and can be determined by the value of the affinity constant.
Most of the receptors are not well understood because their isolation and purification are very difficult, and the content of each type of receptor in cells is very low. But it is known that hormones interact with their receptors in a physicochemical way. Electrostatic and hydrophobic interactions are formed between the hormone molecule and the receptor. When the receptor binds to the hormone, conformational changes in the receptor protein occur and the complex of the signal molecule with the receptor protein is activated. In the active state, it can cause specific intracellular reactions in response to the received signal. If the synthesis or ability of receptor proteins to bind to signal molecules is impaired, diseases arise - endocrine disorders. There are three types of such diseases.
1. Associated with insufficient synthesis of receptor proteins.
2. Associated with changes in the structure of the receptor - genetic defects.
3. Associated with the blocking of receptor proteins by antibodies.
Mechanisms of action of hormones on target cells Depending on the structure of the hormone, there are two types of interaction. If the hormone molecule is lipophilic (for example, steroid hormones), then it can penetrate the lipid layer of the outer membrane of target cells. If the molecule is large or polar, then its penetration into the cell is impossible. Therefore, for lipophilic hormones, the receptors are located inside the target cells, and for hydrophilic hormones, the receptors are located in the outer membrane.
In the case of hydrophilic molecules, an intracellular signal transduction mechanism operates to obtain a cellular response to a hormonal signal. This happens with the participation of substances, which are called second intermediaries. Hormone molecules are very diverse in shape, but "second messengers" are not.
The reliability of signal transmission provides a very high affinity of the hormone for its receptor protein.
What are the mediators that are involved in the intracellular transmission of humoral signals?
These are cyclic nucleotides (cAMP and cGMP), inositol triphosphate, calcium-binding protein - calmodulin, calcium ions, enzymes involved in the synthesis of cyclic nucleotides, as well as protein kinases - protein phosphorylation enzymes. All these substances are involved in the regulation of the activity of individual enzyme systems in target cells.
Let us analyze in more detail the mechanisms of action of hormones and intracellular mediators. There are two main ways of transmitting a signal to target cells from signaling molecules with a membrane mechanism of action:
1) adenylate cyclase (or guanylate cyclase) systems;
2) phosphoinositide mechanism.
adenylate cyclase system.
Main components: membrane protein receptor, G-protein, adenylate cyclase enzyme, guanosine triphosphate, protein kinases.
In addition, ATP is required for the normal functioning of the adenylate cyclase system.
The receptor protein, G-protein, next to which GTP and the enzyme (adenylate cyclase) are located, are built into the cell membrane.
Until the moment of hormone action, these components are in a dissociated state, and after the formation of the complex of the signal molecule with the receptor protein, changes in the conformation of the G protein occur. As a result, one of the G-protein subunits acquires the ability to bind to GTP.
The G-protein-GTP complex activates adenylate cyclase. Adenylate cyclase begins to actively convert ATP molecules into cAMP.
cAMP has the ability to activate special enzymes - protein kinases, which catalyze the phosphorylation reactions of various proteins with the participation of ATP. At the same time, phosphoric acid residues are included in the composition of protein molecules. The main result of this phosphorylation process is a change in the activity of the phosphorylated protein. In different cell types, proteins with different functional activities undergo phosphorylation as a result of activation of the adenylate cyclase system. For example, these can be enzymes, nuclear proteins, membrane proteins. As a result of the phosphorylation reaction, proteins can become functionally active or inactive.
Such processes will lead to changes in the rate of biochemical processes in the target cell.
The activation of the adenylate cyclase system lasts a very short time, because the G-protein, after binding to adenylate cyclase, begins to exhibit GTPase activity. After hydrolysis of GTP, the G-protein restores its conformation and ceases to activate adenylate cyclase. As a result, the cAMP formation reaction stops.
In addition to participants in the adenylate cyclase system, some target cells have receptor proteins associated with G-proteins, which lead to inhibition of adenylate cyclase. At the same time, the GTP-G-protein complex inhibits adenylate cyclase.
When cAMP formation stops, phosphorylation reactions in the cell do not stop immediately: as long as cAMP molecules continue to exist, the process of protein kinase activation will continue. In order to stop the action of cAMP, there is a special enzyme in cells - phosphodiesterase, which catalyzes the hydrolysis reaction of 3, 5 "-cyclo-AMP to AMP.
Some substances that have an inhibitory effect on phosphodiesterase (for example, the alkaloids caffeine, theophylline) help maintain and increase the concentration of cyclo-AMP in the cell. Under the influence of these substances in the body, the duration of activation of the adenylate cyclase system becomes longer, i.e., the action of the hormone increases.
In addition to the adenylate cyclase or guanylate cyclase systems, there is also a mechanism for information transfer inside the target cell with the participation of calcium ions and inositol triphosphate.
Inositol triphosphate is a substance that is a derivative of a complex lipid - inositol phosphatide. It is formed as a result of the action of a special enzyme - phospholipase "C", which is activated as a result of conformational changes in the intracellular domain of the membrane receptor protein.
This enzyme hydrolyzes the phosphoester bond in the phosphatidyl-inositol-4,5-bisphosphate molecule, resulting in the formation of diacylglycerol and inositol triphosphate.
It is known that the formation of diacylglycerol and inositol triphosphate leads to an increase in the concentration of ionized calcium inside the cell. This leads to the activation of many calcium-dependent proteins inside the cell, including the activation of various protein kinases. And here, as in the case of activation of the adenylate cyclase system, one of the stages of signal transmission inside the cell is protein phosphorylation, which leads to a physiological response of the cell to the action of the hormone.
A special calcium-binding protein, calmodulin, takes part in the work of the phosphoinositide signaling mechanism in the target cell. This is a low molecular weight protein (17 kDa), 30% consisting of negatively charged amino acids (Glu, Asp) and therefore capable of actively binding Ca +2. One calmodulin molecule has 4 calcium-binding sites. After interaction with Ca +2, conformational changes in the calmodulin molecule occur and the "Ca +2 -calmodulin" complex becomes able to regulate the activity (allosterically inhibit or activate) many enzymes - adenylate cyclase, phosphodiesterase, Ca +2, Mg +2 -ATPase and various protein kinases.
In different cells, when the "Ca + 2 -calmodulin" complex is exposed to isoenzymes of the same enzyme (for example, to adenylate cyclase of different types), in some cases activation is observed, and in others, inhibition of the cAMP formation reaction. Such different effects occur because the allosteric centers of isoenzymes can include different amino acid radicals and their response to the action of the Ca + 2 -calmodulin complex will be different.
Thus, the role of "second messengers" for the transmission of signals from hormones in target cells can be:
1) cyclic nucleotides (c-AMP and c-GMP);
2) Ca ions;
3) complex "Sa-calmodulin";
4) diacylglycerol;
5) inositol triphosphate.
The mechanisms of information transfer from hormones inside target cells with the help of the above mediators have common features:
1) one of the stages of signal transmission is protein phosphorylation;
2) termination of activation occurs as a result of special mechanisms initiated by the participants in the processes themselves - there are negative feedback mechanisms.
Hormones are the main humoral regulators of the physiological functions of the body, and their properties, biosynthetic processes, and mechanisms of action are now well known.
The features by which hormones differ from other signaling molecules are as follows.
1. The synthesis of hormones occurs in special cells of the endocrine system. The synthesis of hormones is the main function of endocrine cells.
2. Hormones are secreted into the blood, more often into the venous, sometimes into the lymph. Other signaling molecules can reach target cells without being secreted into circulating fluids.
3. Telecrine effect (or distant action) - hormones act on target cells at a great distance from the place of synthesis.
Hormones are highly specific substances with respect to target cells and have a very high biological activity.
3. Chemical structure of hormones The structure of hormones is different. Currently, about 160 different hormones from different multicellular organisms have been described and isolated. According to the chemical structure, hormones can be classified into three classes:
1) protein-peptide hormones;
2) derivatives of amino acids;
3) steroid hormones.
The first class includes the hormones of the hypothalamus and pituitary gland (peptides and some proteins are synthesized in these glands), as well as the hormones of the pancreas and parathyroid glands and one of the thyroid hormones.
The second class includes amines, which are synthesized in the adrenal medulla and in the epiphysis, as well as iodine-containing thyroid hormones.
The third class is steroid hormones, which are synthesized in the adrenal cortex and in the gonads. By the number of carbon atoms, steroids differ from each other:
C 21 - hormones of the adrenal cortex and progesterone;
C 19 - male sex hormones - androgens and testosterone;
From 18 - female sex hormones - estrogens.
Common to all steroids is the presence of a sterane core.
4. Mechanisms of action of the endocrine system Endocrine system - a set of endocrine glands and some specialized endocrine cells in tissues for which the endocrine function is not the only one (for example, the pancreas has not only endocrine, but also exocrine functions). Any hormone is one of its participants and controls certain metabolic reactions. At the same time, there are levels of regulation within the endocrine system - some glands have the ability to control others.
General scheme for the implementation of endocrine functions in the body This scheme includes the highest levels of regulation in the endocrine system - the hypothalamus and pituitary gland, which produce hormones that themselves affect the processes of synthesis and secretion of hormones of other endocrine cells.
The same scheme shows that the rate of synthesis and secretion of hormones can also change under the influence of hormones from other glands or as a result of stimulation by non-hormonal metabolites.
We also see the presence of negative feedbacks (-) - inhibition of synthesis and (or) secretion after the elimination of the primary factor that caused the acceleration of hormone production.
As a result, the content of the hormone in the blood is maintained at a certain level, which depends on the functional state of the body.
In addition, the body usually creates a small reserve of individual hormones in the blood (this is not visible in the diagram). The existence of such a reserve is possible because many hormones in the blood are in a state associated with special transport proteins. For example, thyroxine is associated with thyroxine-binding globulin, and glucocorticosteroids are associated with the protein transcortin. Two forms of such hormones - associated with transport proteins and free - are in the blood in a state of dynamic equilibrium.
This means that when the free forms of such hormones are destroyed, the bound form will dissociate and the concentration of the hormone in the blood will be maintained at a relatively constant level. Thus, a complex of a hormone with a transport protein can be considered as a reserve of this hormone in the body.
Effects that are observed in target cells under the influence of hormones It is very important that hormones do not cause any new metabolic reactions in the target cell. They only form a complex with the receptor protein. As a result of the transmission of a hormonal signal in the target cell, cellular reactions are switched on or off, providing a cellular response.
In this case, the following main effects can be observed in the target cell:
1) change in the rate of biosynthesis of individual proteins (including enzyme proteins);
2) a change in the activity of already existing enzymes (for example, as a result of phosphorylation - as has already been shown using the adenylate cyclase system as an example;
3) a change in the permeability of membranes in target cells for individual substances or ions (for example, for Ca +2).
It has already been said about the mechanisms of hormone recognition - the hormone interacts with the target cell only in the presence of a special receptor protein. The binding of the hormone to the receptor depends on the physicochemical parameters of the medium - on pH and the concentration of various ions.
Of particular importance is the number of receptor protein molecules on the outer membrane or inside the target cell. It changes depending on the physiological state of the body, with diseases or under the influence of drugs. And this means that under different conditions the reaction of the target cell to the action of the hormone will be different.
Different hormones have different physicochemical properties and the location of receptors for certain hormones depends on this. It is customary to distinguish between two mechanisms of interaction of hormones with target cells:
1) membrane mechanism - when the hormone binds to the receptor on the surface of the outer membrane of the target cell;
2) intracellular mechanism - when the receptor for the hormone is located inside the cell, i.e. in the cytoplasm or on intracellular membranes.
Hormones with a membrane mechanism of action:
1) all protein and peptide hormones, as well as amines (adrenaline, norepinephrine).
The intracellular mechanism of action is:
1) steroid hormones and derivatives of amino acids - thyroxine and triiodothyronine.
Transmission of a hormonal signal to cell structures occurs according to one of the mechanisms. For example, through the adenylate cyclase system or with the participation of Ca +2 and phosphoinositides. This is true for all hormones with a membrane mechanism of action. But steroid hormones with an intracellular mechanism of action, which usually regulate the rate of protein biosynthesis and have a receptor on the surface of the nucleus of the target cell, do not need additional messengers in the cell.
Features of the structure of protein receptors for steroids The most studied is the receptor for the hormones of the adrenal cortex - glucocorticosteroids (GCS). This protein has three functional regions:
1 - for binding to the hormone (C-terminal);
2 - for binding to DNA (central);
3 - antigenic site, simultaneously able to modulate the function of the promoter in the transcription process (N-terminal).
The functions of each site of such a receptor are clear from their names, it is obvious that such a structure of the steroid receptor allows them to influence the rate of transcription in the cell. This is confirmed by the fact that under the action of steroid hormones, the biosynthesis of certain proteins in the cell is selectively stimulated (or inhibited). In this case, acceleration (or deceleration) of mRNA formation is observed. As a result, the number of synthesized molecules of certain proteins (often enzymes) changes and the rate of metabolic processes changes.
5. Biosynthesis and secretion of hormones of various structures Protein-peptide hormones. In the process of formation of protein and peptide hormones in the cells of the endocrine glands, a polypeptide is formed that does not have hormonal activity. But such a molecule in its composition has a fragment (s) containing (e) the amino acid sequence of this hormone. Such a protein molecule is called a pre-pro-hormone and has (usually at the N-terminus) a structure called a leader or signal sequence (pre-). This structure is represented by hydrophobic radicals and is needed for the passage of this molecule from the ribosomes through the lipid layers of the membranes into the cisterns of the endoplasmic reticulum (ER). At the same time, during the passage of the molecule through the membrane, as a result of limited proteolysis, the leader (pre-) sequence is cleaved off and a prohormone appears inside the ER. Then, through the EPR system, the prohormone is transported to the Golgi complex, and here the maturation of the hormone ends. Again, as a result of hydrolysis under the action of specific proteinases, the remaining (N-terminal) fragment (pro-site) is cleaved off. The formed hormone molecule with specific biological activity enters the secretory vesicles and accumulates until the moment of secretion.
During the synthesis of hormones from among the complex proteins of glycoproteins (for example, follicle-stimulating (FSH) or thyroid-stimulating (TSH) hormones of the pituitary gland), in the process of maturation, the carbohydrate component is included in the structure of the hormone.
Extraribosomal synthesis can also occur. This is how the tripeptide thyroliberin (hormone of the hypothalamus) is synthesized.
Hormones are derivatives of amino acids. From tyrosine, the hormones of the adrenal medulla adrenaline and norepinephrine, as well as iodine-containing thyroid hormones, are synthesized. During the synthesis of adrenaline and norepinephrine, tyrosine undergoes hydroxylation, decarboxylation, and methylation with the participation of the active form of the amino acid methionine.
The thyroid gland synthesizes the iodine-containing hormones triiodothyronine and thyroxine (tetraiodothyronine). During the synthesis, iodination of the phenolic group of tyrosine occurs. Of particular interest is the metabolism of iodine in the thyroid gland. The glycoprotein thyroglobulin (TG) molecule has a molecular weight of more than 650 kDa. At the same time, in the composition of the TG molecule, about 10% of the mass is carbohydrates and up to 1% is iodine. It depends on the amount of iodine in the food. The TG polypeptide contains 115 tyrosine residues, which are iodinated by iodine oxidized with the help of a special enzyme - thyroperoxidase. This reaction is called iodine organification and occurs in the thyroid follicles. As a result, mono- and di-iodotyrosine are formed from tyrosine residues. Of these, approximately 30% of the residues can be converted into tri- and tetra-iodothyronines as a result of condensation. Condensation and iodination proceed with the participation of the same enzyme, thyroperoxidase. Further maturation of thyroid hormones occurs in glandular cells - TG is absorbed by cells by endocytosis and a secondary lysosome is formed as a result of the fusion of the lysosome with the absorbed TG protein.
Proteolytic enzymes of lysosomes provide hydrolysis of TG and the formation of T 3 and T 4 , which are released into the extracellular space. And mono- and diiodotyrosine are deiodinated using a special deiodinase enzyme and iodine can be reorganized. For the synthesis of thyroid hormones, the mechanism of inhibition of secretion by the type of negative feedback is characteristic (T 3 and T 4 inhibit the release of TSH).
Steroid hormones Steroid hormones are synthesized from cholesterol (27 carbon atoms) and cholesterol is synthesized from acetyl-CoA.
Cholesterol is converted into steroid hormones as a result of the following reactions:
1) elimination of the side radical;
2) the formation of additional side radicals as a result of the hydroxylation reaction with the help of special enzymes of monooxygenases (hydroxylases) - most often in the 11th, 17th, and 21st positions (sometimes in the 18th). At the first stage of the synthesis of steroid hormones, precursors (pregnenolone and progesterone) are first formed, and then other hormones (cortisol, aldosterone, sex hormones). Aldosterone, mineralocorticoids can be formed from corticosteroids.
Secretion of hormones Regulated by the central nervous system. Synthesized hormones accumulate in secretory granules. Under the action of nerve impulses or under the influence of signals from other endocrine glands (tropic hormones), as a result of exocytosis, degranulation occurs and the hormone is released into the blood.
The mechanisms of regulation as a whole were presented in the scheme of the mechanism for the implementation of the endocrine function.
6. Transport of hormones The transport of hormones is determined by their solubility. Hormones of a hydrophilic nature (for example, protein-peptide hormones) are usually transported in the blood in a free form. Steroid hormones, iodine-containing thyroid hormones are transported in the form of complexes with blood plasma proteins. These can be specific transport proteins (transport low molecular weight globulins, thyroxin-binding protein; transporting corticosteroids protein transcortin) and nonspecific transport (albumins).
It has already been said that the concentration of hormones in the bloodstream is very low. And it can change in accordance with the physiological state of the body. With a decrease in the content of individual hormones, a condition develops, characterized as hypofunction of the corresponding gland. Conversely, an increase in the content of the hormone is a hyperfunction.
The constancy of the concentration of hormones in the blood is also ensured by the processes of catabolism of hormones.
7. Hormone catabolism Protein-peptide hormones undergo proteolysis, break down to individual amino acids. These amino acids further enter into the reactions of deamination, decarboxylation, transamination and decompose to the final products: NH 3, CO 2 and H 2 O.
Hormones undergo oxidative deamination and further oxidation to CO 2 and H 2 O. Steroid hormones break down differently. There are no enzyme systems in the body that would ensure their breakdown.
Basically, the side radicals are modified. Additional hydroxyl groups are introduced. Hormones become more hydrophilic. Molecules are formed that are the structure of a sterane, in which the keto group is located in the 17th position. In this form, the products of catabolism of steroid sex hormones are excreted in the urine and are called 17-ketosteroids. Determination of their quantity in urine and blood shows the content of sex hormones in the body.
55. Endocrine glands, or endocrine organs, are called glands that do not have excretory ducts. They produce special substances - hormones that enter directly into the blood.
Hormones- organic substances of various chemical nature: peptide and protein (protein hormones include insulin, somatotropin, prolactin, etc.), amino acid derivatives (adrenaline, norepinephrine, thyroxine, triiodothyronine), steroid (hormones of the gonads and adrenal cortex). Hormones have high biological activity (therefore, they are produced in extremely small doses), specificity of action, distant effect, that is, they affect organs and tissues located far from the place where hormones are formed. Entering the blood, they are carried throughout the body and carry out humoral regulation of the functions of organs and tissues, changing their activity, stimulating or inhibiting their work. The action of hormones is based on the stimulation or inhibition of the catalytic function of certain enzymes, as well as the impact on their biosynthesis by activating or inhibiting the corresponding genes.
The activity of the endocrine glands plays a major role in the regulation of long-term processes: metabolism, growth, mental, physical and sexual development, adaptation of the body to changing conditions of the external and internal environment, ensuring the constancy of the most important physiological indicators (homeostasis), as well as in the body's reactions to stress. When the activity of the endocrine glands is disturbed, diseases called endocrine arise. Violations can be associated either with increased (compared to the norm) activity of the gland - hyperfunction, in which an increased amount of the hormone is formed and released into the blood, or with reduced activity of the gland - hypofunction followed by the opposite result.
Intrasecretory activity of the most important endocrine glands. The most important endocrine glands include the thyroid, adrenal glands, pancreas, genital, pituitary. The hypothalamus (hypothalamic region of the diencephalon) also has an endocrine function. The pancreas and gonads are glands of mixed secretion, since, in addition to hormones, they produce secrets that enter through the excretory ducts, that is, they also perform the functions of external secretion glands.
Thyroid(weight 16-23 g) is located on the sides of the trachea just below the thyroid cartilage of the larynx. Thyroid hormones (thyroxine and triiodothyronine) contain iodine, the intake of which with water and food is a necessary condition for its normal functioning.
Thyroid hormones regulate metabolism, enhance oxidative processes in cells and the breakdown of glycogen in the liver, affect the growth, development and differentiation of tissues, as well as the activity of the nervous system. With hyperfunction of the gland, Graves' disease develops. Its main signs are: proliferation of gland tissue (goiter), bulging eyes, rapid heartbeat, increased excitability of the nervous system, increased metabolism, weight loss. Hypofunction of the gland in an adult leads to the development of myxedema (mucous edema), which manifests itself in a decrease in metabolism and body temperature, an increase in body weight, swelling and puffiness of the face, and a mental disorder. Hypofunction of the gland in childhood causes growth retardation and the development of dwarfism, as well as a sharp lag in mental development (cretinism).
adrenal glands(weight 12 g) - paired glands adjacent to the upper poles of the kidneys. Like the kidneys, the adrenal glands have two layers: the outer one, the cortical layer, and the inner one, the medulla, which are independent secretory organs that produce different hormones with different patterns of action. The cells of the cortical layer synthesize hormones that regulate mineral, carbohydrate, protein and fat metabolism. So, with their participation, the level of sodium and potassium in the blood is regulated, a certain concentration of glucose in the blood is maintained, the formation and deposition of glycogen in the liver and muscles increases. The last two functions of the adrenal glands are performed in conjunction with pancreatic hormones.
With hypofunction of the cortical layer of the adrenal glands, bronze, or Addison's, disease develops. Its signs: bronze skin tone, muscle weakness, increased fatigue, decreased immunity. The adrenal medulla produces the hormones adrenaline and norepinephrine. They stand out with strong emotions - anger, fear, pain, danger. The entry of these hormones into the blood causes palpitations, constriction of blood vessels (except for the vessels of the heart and brain), increased blood pressure, increased breakdown of glycogen in the cells of the liver and muscles to glucose, inhibition of intestinal motility, relaxation of the muscles of the bronchi, increased excitability of the receptors of the retina, auditory and vestibular apparatus. As a result, the body's functions are restructured under the action of extreme stimuli and the body's forces are mobilized to endure stressful situations.
Pancreas It has special islet cells that produce the hormones insulin and glucagon, which regulate carbohydrate metabolism in the body. So, insulin increases the consumption of glucose by cells, promotes the conversion of glucose into glycogen, thus reducing the amount of sugar in the blood. Due to the action of insulin, the blood glucose content is maintained at a constant level, favorable for the flow of vital processes. With insufficient production of insulin, the level of glucose in the blood rises, which leads to the development of diabetes mellitus. Sugar not used by the body is excreted in the urine. Patients drink a lot of water, lose weight. Insulin is required to treat this disease. Another pancreatic hormone - glucagon - is an insulin antagonist and has the opposite effect, i.e., it enhances the breakdown of glycogen to glucose, increasing its content in the blood.
The most important gland of the endocrine system of the human body is pituitary, or the lower appendage of the brain (weight 0.5 g). It produces hormones that stimulate the functions of other endocrine glands. There are three lobes in the pituitary gland: anterior, middle, and posterior, and each of them produces different hormones. So, in the anterior pituitary gland, hormones are produced that stimulate the synthesis and secretion of thyroid hormones (thyrotropin), adrenal glands (corticotropin), gonads (gonadotropin), as well as growth hormone (somatotropin).
With insufficient secretion of growth hormone in a child, growth is inhibited and a disease of pituitary dwarfism develops (an adult's height does not exceed 130 cm). With an excess of the hormone, on the contrary, gigantism develops. Increased secretion of somatotropin in an adult causes acromegaly disease, in which certain parts of the body grow - tongue, nose, hands. Hormones of the posterior pituitary gland increase the reabsorption of water in the renal tubules, reducing urination (antidiuretic hormone), increase contractions of the smooth muscles of the uterus (oxytocin).
gonads- testicles, or testicles, in men and ovaries in women - belong to the glands of mixed secretion. The testicles produce androgens and the ovaries produce estrogens. They stimulate the development of reproductive organs, the maturation of germ cells and the formation of secondary sexual characteristics, i.e., structural features of the skeleton, muscle development, distribution of hairline and subcutaneous fat, larynx structure, voice timbre, etc. in men and women. The effect of sex hormones on shaping processes is especially evident in animals when the gonads are removed (castracin) or transplanted. The exocrine function of the ovaries and testes is the formation and excretion of eggs and spermatozoa through the genital ducts, respectively.
Hypothalamus. The functioning of the endocrine glands, which together form the endocrine system, is carried out in close interaction with each other and interconnected with the nervous system. All information from the external and internal environment of the human body enters the corresponding zones of the cerebral cortex and other parts of the brain, where it is processed and analyzed. From them, information signals are transmitted to the hypothalamus - the hypothalamic zone of the diencephalon, and in response to them, it produces regulatory hormones that enter the pituitary gland and through it exert their regulatory effect on the activity of the endocrine glands. Thus, the hypothalamus performs coordinating and regulatory functions in the activity of the human endocrine system.
In the human body, there are several regulatory systems that ensure the normal functioning of the body. These systems, in particular, include the glands of internal and external secretion.
It is easy enough to upset the balance in the body. Experts recommend avoiding factors that provoke imbalance.
The glands of external secretion (exocrine) secrete various substances into the internal environment of the body and onto the surface of the body. They form an individual and specific smell. In addition, the glands of external secretion provide protection against the penetration of harmful microorganisms into the body. Their discharge (secret) has a mycostatic and bactericidal effect.
External secretion glands (salivary, lacrimal, sweat, milk, genital) are involved in the regulation of intraspecific and interspecific relationships. This is mainly due to the fact that their discharge is endowed with the function of metabolically or informationally influencing the surrounding external organisms.
In the mouth are small and large salivary glands of external secretion. Their ducts open into the oral cavity. Small glands are located in the submucosa or thicker mucus. In accordance with the location, lingual, palatal, molar, labial are distinguished. Depending on the nature of their discharge, they are divided into mucous, serous and mixed. Not far from them is the thyroid gland of internal secretion. It accumulates and secretes iodine-containing hormones.
The major salivary glands are paired organs that are located outside the oral cavity. These include the sublingual, submandibular and parotid.
The mixture secreted by the salivary glands is called saliva. Secretory processes occur during the period of hormonal changes in the body (at twelve to fourteen years old) most intensively.
The mammary glands are (in origin) modified sweat glands of the skin and are laid in the sixth to seventh week. At first they look like two seals of the epidermis. Subsequently, "milk points" begin to form from them.
Before the onset of puberty, the mammary glands of girls are at rest. Branching out occurs in both sexes. With the onset of maturity, abrupt changes in the rate of development of the mammary glands begin. In boys, the rate of their development slows down, and then stops altogether. In girls, development is accelerating. By the beginning of the first menstruation, end sections are formed. However, it should be noted that the mammary gland in women continues to develop until pregnancy. Its final formation occurs during lactation.
The most massive digestive gland in humans is the liver. Its weight (in an adult) is from one to one and a half kilograms. In addition to the fact that the liver is involved in carbohydrate, vitamin, protein and fat metabolism, it performs protective, bile-forming and other functions. During intrauterine development, this organ is also hematopoietic.
Sweat glands in the skin produce sweat. They participate in the process of thermoregulation, form an individual smell. These glands are simple tubes with folded ends. Each sweat gland has a terminal part (body), a sweat duct. The latter opens outward sometimes.
Sweat glands have differences in functional significance and morphological features, as well as in development. They are located in the subcutaneous tissue (connective). On average, a person has about two to three and a half million sweat glands. Their morphological development is completed by approximately seven years.
The sebaceous glands reach their peak at puberty. Almost all of them are related to hair. In areas where there is no hairline, the sebaceous glands lie on their own. Their secretion - lard - serves as a lubricant for hair and skin. On average, about twenty grams of fat are released per day.
58Thymus(thymus, or, as this organ used to be called, the thymus gland, goiter gland) is, like the bone marrow, the central organ of immunogenesis. Stem cells that penetrate into the thymus from the bone marrow with the blood flow, after passing through a series of intermediate stages, turn into T-lymphocytes responsible for the reactions of cellular immunity. Subsequently, T-lymphocytes enter the blood, leave the thymus, and populate the thymus-dependent zones of peripheral organs of immunogenesis. Reticuloepitheliocytes of the thymus secrete biologically active substances called thymic (humoral) factor. These substances affect the functions of T-lymphocytes.
The thymus consists of two asymmetric lobes: the left lobe (lobus dexter) and the left lobe (lobus sinister). Both shares can be fused or closely adjoin to each other at the level of the middle. The lower part of each lobe is expanded, and the upper one is narrowed. Often, the upper parts protrude in the neck in the form of a two-pronged fork (hence the name "thymus gland"). The left lobe of the thymus is about half the time longer than the right. During the period of its maximum development (10-15 years), the weight of the thymus reaches an average of 37.5 g, and the length is 7.5-16.0 cm.
Topography of the thymus (thymus gland)
The thymus is located in the anterior part of the upper mediastinum, between the right and left mediastinal pleura. The position of the thymus corresponds to the upper interpleural field when the pleural borders are projected onto the anterior chest wall. The upper part of the thymus often extends into the lower sections of the pretracheal interfascial space and lies behind the sternohyoid and sternothyroid muscles. The anterior surface of the thymus is convex, adjacent to the posterior surface of the manubrium and body of the sternum (up to level IV of the costal cartilage). Behind the thymus are the upper part of the pericardium, which covers the front of the initial sections of the aorta and pulmonary trunk, the aortic arch with large vessels extending from it, the left brachiocephalic and superior vena cava.
The structure of the thymus (thymus gland)
The thymus has a delicate thin connective tissue capsule (capsula thymi), from which inside the organ, into its cortical substance, interlobular septa (septa corticales) depart, dividing the thymus substance into lobules (lobuli thymi). The thymus parenchyma consists of a darker cortex (cortex thymi) and a lighter medulla (medulla thymi) occupying the central part of the lobules.
The thymus stroma is represented by reticular tissue and stellate-shaped multi-growth epithelial cells - thymus epithelioreticulocytes.
Thymus lymphocytes (thymocytes) are located in the loops of the network formed by reticular cells and reticular fibers, as well as epithelioreticulocytes.
In the medulla there are dense bodies of the thymus (corpuscula thymici, Hassall's little bodies), formed by concentrically located, strongly flattened epithelial cells.
