History of ancient Indian philosophy. The specifics of Eastern philosophy

Indian philosophy is a fundamental teaching, which, of course, is very different from the philosophy of other states. India has existed since ancient times and therefore its own system of postulates of great thinkers has already developed on the territory of this country. It is worth noting that the very concept of philosophy arose 500 years before our era.

In contrast to the European and Eastern philosophy of India, the following main features are inherent:

Lack of continuity and connection between philosophical schools;
Lack of orientation towards the natural sciences;
Orientation to national traditions;
A clear focus of philosophical searches on the knowledge of oneself and one's inner world.

Indian philosophy has developed over three main periods, which are distinguished in the history of this amazing country, as: Vedic, classical and the period of philosophical treatises. In general, the development of Indian philosophy began with the writing of ancient texts called the Vedas. They consisted of four main parts. But the greatest contribution to the development of the philosophy and culture of India was made by the Rig Veda. This scripture helped the Indians to achieve knowledge of cosmic phenomena and other mysteries of being. The transmigration of souls, reward for past deeds, the search for a place in the spiritual hierarchy, asceticism, retribution after death - all these are the main dogmas of Indian philosophy, which are inherent in all periods of its development.

Buddhism and Vedantism are the main philosophical directions of this state. As already mentioned, the postulates of the second direction are fixed in the so-called "Vedas". These are original collections of mythical tales, the ideas of which have survived to this day. Some modern Indians still accept the philosophical teachings that are written in the Vedas. In fact, they were considered a kind of scripture, which had to be consistent. Representatives of the highest caste, the Brahmins, were the main preachers of the Vedic teaching, which for a long time was the main philosophical direction of this mysterious country.

The true causes of existence are known only to the Brahman, as the highest being. For a long time, the names of the Brahmin were considered a real deity who knows all the secrets of the universe. Vedanta is the main school of Indian philosophy, which has always preached the concept of Brahman as the main spiritual component of being. It is worth noting that each person must transform his inner essence into a special state in order to get closer to this deity. This approach has existed in Indian philosophy for a long time. People wanted to see themselves as Brahmins, completely cleansed of mental and bodily torments. According to the Indians, this is the only way to free your soul.

Another important philosophical and religious direction should be considered Buddhism. This is the greatest teaching of all time, which has brought more to the life of India than other postulates. The formation of this philosophical doctrine was a turning point for all Indians. Completely new trends in Buddhism were fundamentally different from the Vedic direction. This new doctrine denies not only the immortality of the soul, but also the fact of its very existence. According to the great Buddhists, the soul and body cannot form a single whole, since the body is in constant change and interaction with the surrounding reality. But sometimes a person does not realize this report. The philosophy of Buddhism is much simpler than the same Vedic teachings. The material and spiritual state of a person is considered baseless. The meaning of Buddhism is that it implies the presence of some higher goods and spiritual matters. The human world is an intricate maze, and its consciousness is another illusion that has nothing to do with reality. Buddha (the highest creator) cannot discuss the foundations of the universe with mere mortals. The Buddha's teaching is built on the existence of basic truths about suffering. According to these truths, it is suffering that is a universal property of human life, which has its own causes and can be stopped even in real life. The dogma of Buddhist philosophical teaching is the path of salvation from any suffering, which every person can and must overcome on the path to truth.

Faith, determination, correct speech and behavior, the right direction of thought and concentration on it - these are the main ways to save humanity from suffering. The eightfold path of the Buddha is the integrity of life itself, of all being, during which a person strives for the knowledge of the highest truth. It is best to study the philosophy of India briefly, as a full study will take too much time.

It should be emphasized that Indian philosophy has always relied on previous traditions. It is also distinguished by the non-personalized nature of various philosophical texts. The fact is that the biographies of the authors are overgrown with numerous myths and legends. Now it is very difficult to understand the essence of the matter. The philosophy of India briefly tells how one can achieve the highest bliss during life and after death. But, unfortunately, such an original philosophy is still too little studied.

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Indian philosophy arises on the basis of the rich cultural tradition of the numerous peoples of the great Bharata Varsha - Ancient India. According to the most modest estimates, Indian civilization originated several thousand years BC. Some researchers who are sympathetic to theosophical historiography are inclined to significantly expand these time limits - up to tens or even hundreds of thousands of years. The origins of the spiritual culture of Hindustan, represented by numerous myths, epic poems, religious teachings and ascetic practices of yoga, go into the boundless historical depths.

The sacred texts of Vedic literature and the ancient religion of the peoples of Hindustan associated with them were the direct basis of many philosophical systems of Ancient India - brahminism(on behalf of the supreme god - Brahma, or Brahman). At present, science knows four Vedas - Rig Veda, Samaveda, Yajurveda, Atharvaveda. The period of their formation by historians is estimated very contradictory: from a thousand to tens of thousands of years. Nevertheless, it can be definitely said that the Vedas are one of the oldest known written monuments of human thought.

The Vedas in India are considered Holy Scripture or Revelation. (giruti), which was recorded by the ancient spiritual sages (rigia). The texts of the Vedas are a collection of sayings, religious hymns, sacrificial songs and spells. Their problem is very broad. Some hymns already have a philosophical character in terms of the scale of the issues raised and the methods of their solution.

The text of each Veda is adjoined by several other texts - collected works of various authors written later. First, these are religious books called Brahmins. They are collections of commentaries and ritual texts. Secondly, this Aranyaki(literally, "forest books"), which were formed as instructions for forest hermits and ascetics. Thirdly, this Upaishads(literally, "to sit at the feet of the teacher") - philosophical works that are regarded as the highest secret explanations of the texts of the Vedas. Thus, the Vedas, Brahmanas, Aranyakas and Upanishads were formed for a long time and had a significant impact on the formation of ancient Indian philosophical thought.

A significant influence on the entire Indian culture was also Puranas(texts of a religious nature), itihasas(historical works) and epic poems "Mahabharata" and "Ramayana". Of particular importance for the subsequent development of philosophy in India was one of the parts of the Mahabharata - Bhagavad Gita(lit., "song of the god"). It describes how the semi-legendary spiritual teacher Krishna (considered in the Hindu tradition avatar of god Vishnu) explains to his friend and student - the commander Arjuna the most important provisions of spiritual philosophy and the principles of yoga.

Development of philosophical schools or systems of philosophical speculation (darshan) Ancient India was closely connected with the evolution of the religious worldview. The original Vedic religion of the Aryans eventually transformed into Brahmanism. Aryan supreme divine trinity (Indra - Surya - Agnyas) was gradually supplanted by the gods of the new sacred trinity. These are Brahma (God the creator), Vishnu (God the keeper of the world order) and Shiva (God the destroyer). Under the influence of unorthodox philosophical teachings (Jainism, Buddhism, Ajivika), by the end of the 1st millennium BC. in the bosom of Brahminism, changes of a philosophical, ethical and ritual nature are growing. Over the course of the 1st millennium, Brahmanism turns into a new variety - Hinduism, which in the form of two main religious movements ( Shaivism And Vaishnavism) survived to our time almost unchanged.

The fundamental ideas about the world and man, characteristic of the Vedic religion and Brahminism, later became the subject of further development or criticism from Indian philosophical schools. The most important aspects of this religious worldview are schematically as follows.

The cause of the universe was considered Brahman, understood at first purely religiously - as a divine Absolute Personality, later philosophically - as the highest Absolute Beginning objective order. The universe consists of three worlds ( triloka) - the highest spiritual (heaven), earthly and lower underground. They are inhabited by numerous living beings: gods, humans, animals, demons, spirits, elementals and souls.

Man is a creation of the gods and at the same time is a part of nature. He was originally endowed Atman - the spiritual principle of the subjective nature, which is the basis of his immortal divine soul. Soul (jiva) is included in the cycle of constant rebirths in the three worlds ( wheel of samsara) which are regulated karma(first - the god of retribution, later - the law of retribution). The existence of the soul in the earthly world is invariably aggravated by negative karma, leading to continuous suffering. The conditions of the new birth of a person or animal also depend on it.

Overcoming dark karma, breaking the vicious circle of samsara and achieving liberation (moksha) were considered the highest goals of religious practice and the meaning of human life on earth.

Avatar - in the Indian religious tradition, the embodiment of the highest spiritual essence (God) in a human being.
The Aryans, or Aryans, are highly developed tribes that conquered the native peoples of Hindustan in ancient times. It is assumed that they inhabited the expanses of Central Eurasia and migrated to the south (to the Hindustan Peninsula) and to the west (to Eastern Europe).

Those who are just getting acquainted with Eastern culture and have not yet decided whether this is really what suits them do not always need to thoroughly study thick volumes on religion and philosophy. According to the abbreviated presentation, one can draw up general ideas about the meaning and essence of the subject, highlight the basic principles and characteristic features. Briefly, the philosophy of Ancient India is also a great opportunity to broaden your horizons and learn a lot of new and interesting things about other peoples and beliefs.

The philosophy of ancient India in brief - what is the essence

The main feature of Indian philosophical worldviews is a close connection with religion. These two concepts are so intertwined that it is sometimes difficult to recognize where one ends and the other begins.

Hinduism is based on the Vedas. Its essence is in the reincarnation of the main deity. All other gods that exist in different cultures and peoples are only his reincarnation. Also people. Everyone has their own Karma, which is completely subject to the actions of a person. Sins pollute it, and a person will be reborn after death again and again until he is cleansed and fulfills his destiny. Then his soul will calm down, and he will no longer be reborn again and again.

In total, there are six different philosophical schools in India, they are classified as orthodox. They all teach how to live and act to break the cycle of rebirth, but each has its own approach. And this is also the peculiarities of the philosophy of Ancient India.

The Teachings of the Philosophy of Ancient India

As mentioned, there are six different schools:

Mimansa and Vedanta. They bow before the Vedas, only in them they see the possibility of redemption. According to their beliefs, we all live only in an illusory world, while the real one is Brahma, which we should strive to achieve, parting with our delusions and ignorance.
Vaisheshika. This school is based on atomic theory. It is believed that the whole world and all objects consist of tiny particles-atoms that have always existed and will exist. Reincarnation is just another combination of the same ingredients.
Nyaya. Based on a treatise on the logic of Akshapad Gautama. Thanks to numerous additions and discussions by supporters of the theory, a separate philosophical school arose.
Sanyahya. The theory of the opposite principles of everything that exists, the opposition of spirit and matter. Initially, there was only matter, but under the influence of three qualities - darkness, clarity and aspiration - a spirit also appeared. The goal is to free spirit from matter.
Yoga. He preaches the connection of man with the Cosmos. The main goal of this school is the achievement of Nirvana. And in order to immerse yourself in it, you should meditate, spiritually and physically cleanse yourself, breathe properly and perform special exercises.

The foundations of the school of philosophy of ancient India were formed over many centuries, they are all different, despite the common essence, and complement each other.

What else is special

India has displayed the philosophy of the Ancient East in more than 25 books of various content and purpose. It is noteworthy that the treatises cover almost all aspects of human life, the person himself, the world around him. This culture of India is very similar to the Chinese. Ultimately, we can conclude that the essence of philosophy lies in self-knowledge, self-improvement and the achievement of the highest bliss - Nirvana.

India, for all its diversity and richness, is characterized by some internal unity.

Ancient Indian philosophical ideas began their formation around the second millennium BC. Until now, these ideas have come down thanks to the Vedas - ancient Indian literary monuments. The Vedas are original prayers, hymns, spells written in Sanskrit. Despite the fact that the Vedas are something semi-mythical and semi-religious, it is in them that an attempt is first made to philosophically explain the world that surrounds a person.

Upanishads - philosophical works

Literally, the concept of "Upanishad" means "to sit at the feet of the teacher and listen to his instructions." Such works of philosophers appeared around the 9th-6th centuries BC. e. In its form, the Upanishad is basically a dialogue between a sage and a disciple or a person who is searching for truth. The philosophy of ancient India in the Upanishads is a kind of understanding of the phenomena in the world.

This is how ideas arise that there is a large amount of knowledge: logic, grammar, astronomy, and so on. And philosophy becomes one of the directions of this knowledge. The Upanishads have played a large role in Indian philosophy. It was this knowledge, in fact, that became the foundation for all further currents that appeared in India.

The most complex philosophy of ancient India is Buddhism. Since the appearance of the Buddha in Indian history, the spiritual and religious system has been completely transformed. It began to be regarded as a philosophical doctrine. The philosophers of ancient India are of the opinion that the soul, as well as the body, is a consequence of the instantaneous interaction of dharmas (special elements of being). The combination of these elements is what in the ordinary sense is considered to be sensations, experiences and so on. As a result, a very significant conclusion for Buddhism follows: the body and soul do not form something stable, they are in constant change, although a person, passing from the state of birth to the state of death, does not realize this.

The Buddha's teaching is based on four important truths:

Suffering covers all aspects and stages of human life, from birth to death (illness, loss, etc.). According to Buddhism, suffering is a universal property of every person's life.
The cause of human suffering is the movement of dharmas (beginningless or objective), which creates endless combinations of life. As one of the reasons, a person's attachment to the satisfaction of his feelings, passions and to life in general is noted.
Suffering can also stop in real life, if the will is directed to the denial of the objects of the external world by one's "I", if one renounces attachments and absolutization.
The path of deliverance from torment is the eightfold path of salvation, which leads to the highest goal - nirvana.

Conclusion

The philosophy of ancient India at all times relied on previous traditions and very often became an explanation of the existing heritage. In addition, the culture of Indian philosophy, of course, differs significantly from the traditions of European philosophy, as it is closely connected with religion and myths.

Philosophy of Ancient India - briefly, the most important thing. This is another thread in a series of posts. on the basics of philosophy. In a previous article, we reviewed . As already mentioned, the science of philosophy arose simultaneously in different parts of the world - in Ancient Greece and in Ancient India and China approximately in the 7th-6th centuries. BC. Often the philosophies of ancient India and ancient China are considered together, as they are very related and have had a great influence on each other. But still, I propose to consider the history of the philosophy of Ancient China in the next article.

The philosophy of ancient India was based on the texts contained in the Vedas, which were written in the most ancient language - Sanskrit. They consist of several collections written in the form of hymns. It is believed that the Vedas were compiled over a period of thousands of years. The Vedas were used for worship.

The first philosophical texts of India are the Upanishads (end of the 2nd millennium BC). The Upanishads are the interpretation of the Vedas.

Upanishads

The Upanishads formed the main Indian philosophical themes: the idea of an infinite and one God, the doctrine of rebirth and karma. The One God is the incorporeal Brahman. Its manifestation - Atman - is the immortal, inner "I" of the world. The Atman is identical to the human soul. The goal of the human soul (the goal of the individual Atman) is to merge with the world Atman (the world soul). One who lives in recklessness and impurity will not be able to reach such a state and will enter the cycle of rebirths according to the combined result of his words, thoughts and deeds, according to the laws of karma.

The Upanishads are ancient Indian treatises of a philosophical and religious nature in philosophy. The oldest of them date back to the 8th century BC. The Upanishads reveal the main essence of the Vedas, which is why they are also called Vedanta.

In them, the Vedas have received the greatest development. The idea of the connection of everything with everything, the theme of space and man, the search for connections, all this was reflected in them. The basis of everything that exists in them is the inexpressible Brahman, as a cosmic, impersonal principle and the basis of the whole world. Another central point is the idea of the identity of man with Brahman, of karma as the law of action and samsara like a circle of suffering that a person needs to overcome.

Philosophical schools (systems) of ancient India

WITH 6th century BC the time of classical philosophical schools (systems) began. Distinguish orthodox schools(considered the Vedas the only source of Revelation) and unorthodox schools(they did not recognize the Vedas as the only authoritative source of knowledge).

Jainism and Buddhism referred to as unorthodox schools. Yoga and Samkhya, Vaisheshika and Nyaya, Vedanta and Mimamsa These are the six orthodox schools. I listed them in pairs because they are pair friendly.

Unorthodox schools

Jainism

Jainism is based on the tradition of hermitage (6th century BC). The basis of this system is the personality and it consists of two principles - material and spiritual. Karma binds them together.

The idea of the rebirth of souls and karma led the Jains to the idea that all life on Earth has a soul - plants, animals and insects. Jainism preaches such a life so as not to harm all life on Earth.

Buddhism

Buddhism arose in the middle of the 1st millennium BC. Its creator Gautama, a prince from India, who later received the name Buddha, which means awakened in translation. He developed the concept of the way to get rid of suffering. This should be the main goal of the life of a person who wants to get liberation and go beyond the limits of samsara, the cycle of suffering and pain.

To break out of the circle of suffering (to enter nirvana), one must observe 5 commandments (Wikipedia) and engage in meditation, which calms the mind and makes the mind of a person more clear and not subject to desires. The extinction of desires leads to liberation and deliverance from the cycle of suffering.

Orthodox schools

Vedanta

Vedanta has been one of the most influential schools of Indian philosophy. The exact time of its appearance is not known, approximately - 2 c. BC e. The completion of the doctrine is attributed to the end of the 8th century AD. e. Vedanta is based on the interpretation of the Upanishads.

It is the basis of everything Brahman, which is one and infinite. The Atman of a person can cognize Brahman and then a person can become free.

Atman is the highest "I", the absolute, which is aware of its existence. Brahman is the cosmic, impersonal principle of everything that exists.

Mimansa

Mimamsa adjoins Vedanta and is a system that was engaged in explaining the rituals of the Vedas. The core was the idea of duty, which was a sacrifice. The school reached its culmination in the 7th-8th centuries. It had an impact on strengthening the influence of Hinduism in India and reducing the importance of Buddhism.

Sankhya

This is the philosophy of dualism founded by Kapila. Two principles operate in the world: prakriti (matter) and purusha (spirit). According to her, the main basis of everything is matter. The goal of Samkhya philosophy is to divert spirit from matter. It was based on human experience and reflection.

Sankhya and Yoga are connected. Sankhya is the theoretical basis for yoga. Yoga is a practical method for achieving liberation.

Yoga

Yoga. This system is based on practice. Only through practical exercises can a person achieve reunion with the divine principle. A lot of such yoga systems have been created, and they are still very famous all over the world. It is she who has become the most popular now in many countries, thanks to the complexes of physical exercises that make it possible to be healthy and not get sick.

Yoga differs from Samkhya in the belief that each person has a supreme personal Deity. With the help of asceticism, meditation, you can get rid of prakriti (from the material).

Nyaya

Nyaya was a teaching about various forms of thinking, about the rules for conducting a discussion. Therefore, its study was mandatory for everyone who was engaged in philosophizing. The problems of being in it were investigated through logical comprehension. The main goal of a person in this life is liberation.

Vaisheshika

Vaisheshika is a school related to the Nyaya school. According to this system, every thing is constantly changing, although there are elements in nature that are not subject to change - these are atoms. An important theme of the school is to classify the objects under consideration.

Vaisheshika is based on the objective knowability of the world. Adequate knowledge is the main goal of systematic thinking.

Books on the Philosophy of Ancient India

From Sankhya to Vedanta. Indian philosophy: darshans, categories, history. Chattopadhyaya D (2003). A professor at the University of Calcutta wrote this book specifically for Europeans who are just beginning to get acquainted with the philosophy of Ancient India.

Six systems of Indian philosophy. Müller Max (1995). The professor at Oxford University is an outstanding expert on Indian texts, he owns translations of the Upanishads and Buddhist texts. This book is referred to as a fundamental work on the philosophy and religion of India.

Introduction to Indian Philosophy. Chatterjee S. and Datta D (1954). The authors present the views of Indian philosophical schools briefly and in simple language.

Philosophy of Ancient India - briefly, the most important thing. VIDEO.

Summary

I think the article Philosophy of Ancient India - briefly, the most important" become useful to you. Did you know:

about the main origins of the philosophy of ancient India - the ancient texts of the Vedas and Upanishads;
about the main classical schools of Indian philosophy - orthodox (yoga, sankhya, vaisheshika, nyaya, vedanta, mimamsa) and unorthodox (jainism and Buddhism);
about the main feature of the philosophy of the Ancient East - about understanding the true purpose of a person and his place in the world (it was considered more important for a person to focus on the inner world than on the external circumstances of life).

I wish you all always a positive attitude for all your projects and plans!