Research methods not related to sociology. Analysis of existing documents

One of the important stages of sociological research is the actual collection of sociological information. It is at this stage that new knowledge is acquired, the subsequent generalization of which allows a deeper understanding and explanation of the real world, as well as predicting the development of events in the future. For these purposes, sociology uses various types and methods of collecting social information, the application of which directly depends on the goals, objectives of the study, conditions, time and place of its conduct.

The methodology of sociological research is a system of operations, procedures and techniques for establishing social factors, their systematization and analysis tools. Methodological tools include methods (methods) for collecting primary data, rules for conducting sample studies, methods for constructing social indicators and other procedures.

One of the types of research is a pilot study, i.e. exploratory or pilot study. This is the simplest type of sociological research, since it solves tasks that are limited in their content and covers small surveyed populations. The purpose of the pilot study can be, firstly, a preliminary collection of information to obtain additional knowledge about the subject and object of the study, to clarify and correct hypotheses and tasks, and secondly, the procedure for checking the instrumentation for collecting primary information for its correctness prior to the mass study.

Descriptive sociological research is a more complex type of sociological research that allows one to form a relatively holistic view of the phenomenon under study, its structural elements. Descriptive research is used in cases where the object of research is a relatively large community of people characterized by different characteristics.

Analytical sociological research is the most in-depth study that allows not only to describe the phenomenon, but also to give a causal explanation of its functioning. If in the course of a descriptive study it is established whether there is a relationship between the characteristics of the phenomenon under study, then in the course of an analytical study it is revealed whether the discovered relationship is of a causal nature.

A point (or one-time) study provides information about the state and quantitative characteristics of a phenomenon or process at the time of its study.

Point studies, repeated at certain intervals, are called repeated. A special type of re-examination is a panel study, which provides for repeated, regular examination of the same objects.

The most common method of collecting sociological information is a survey, which allows you to collect the necessary, high-quality, diverse information over a large area in a short time. A survey is a method of collecting data in which a sociologist directly or indirectly addresses questions to a certain set of people (respondents). The survey method is used in a number of cases: 1) when the problem under study is not sufficiently provided with documentary sources of information, or when such sources are not available at all; 2) when the subject of research or its individual characteristics are not available for observation; 3) when the subject of study is the elements of public or individual consciousness: needs, interests, motivations, moods, values, beliefs of people, etc.; 4) as a control (additional) method for expanding the possibilities of describing and analyzing the studied characteristics and for rechecking data obtained by other methods.

According to the forms and conditions of communication between a sociologist and a respondent, written surveys (questionnaires) and oral surveys (interviews) are distinguished, which are carried out at the place of residence, at the place of work, in target audiences. The survey can be face-to-face (personal) and remote (handling the questionnaire through a newspaper, television, mail, telephone), as well as group and individual.

The most common type of survey in the practice of applied sociology is the questioning. This technique allows you to collect information about social facts and social activities with virtually no restrictions, due to the fact that the survey is anonymous, and the interviewer communicates with the respondent through an intermediary - a questionnaire. That is, the respondent himself fills out the questionnaire (questionnaire), and can do this both in the presence of the questionnaire, and without him.

The results of the survey largely depend on how competently the questionnaire is drawn up (see Appendix 1 for an approximate sample of the questionnaire). Being the main tool for collecting information, the questionnaire should consist of three parts: introductory, main and final. In the introductory part of the questionnaire, it is necessary to reflect the following information: who conducts the study, what are its goals, what is the methodology for filling out the questionnaire, as well as an indication of the anonymity of the survey.

The main part of the questionnaire contains the questions themselves. All questions used in the questionnaires can be classified according to content and form. The first group (by content) includes questions about the facts of consciousness, the facts of behavior. Questions about the facts of consciousness reveal the opinions, wishes, expectations, and plans of the respondents. Questions about the facts of behavior are aimed at identifying the motivation for actions, actions of large social groups of people. In terms of form, the questions of the questionnaire can be open (that is, not containing prompts for answers), closed (containing a full set of answer options) and semi-closed (containing a set of answer options, as well as the possibility of a free answer), direct and indirect.

The final section of the questionnaire should contain questions about the identity of the respondent, which form a kind of "passport" of the questionnaire, i.e. identify the social characteristics of the respondent (gender, age, nationality, occupation, education, etc.).

A fairly common method of sociological research is the interview. When interviewing, the contact between the interviewer and the respondent is carried out directly, "eye to eye". At the same time, the interviewer himself asks questions, directs the conversation with each individual respondent, and records the answers received. This is a more time-consuming, in comparison with the questionnaire, survey method, which, in addition, has a number of problems. In particular, the limitation of the scope due to the impossibility of maintaining anonymity, the possibility of the interviewer's influence on the quality and content of the answers (the "interviewer effect"). Interviewing is used, as a rule, for the purposes of a trial (pilot) study, to study public opinion on any issue, to interview experts. The interview can be conducted at the place of work, at the place of residence, as well as by telephone.

Depending on the methodology and technique of conducting, there are standardized, non-standardized and focused interviews. A standardized (formalized) interview is a technique in which communication between the interviewer and the respondent is strictly regulated by pre-designed questionnaires and instructions. The interviewer must adhere to the wording of the questions and their sequence. A focused interview aims to collect opinions, assessments about a specific situation, phenomenon, its causes and consequences. The specificity of this interview lies in the fact that the respondent gets acquainted with the subject of the conversation in advance, prepares for it by studying the literature recommended to him. The interviewer, on the other hand, prepares in advance a list of questions that he can ask in a free sequence, but he must receive an answer for each question. A non-standardized (free) interview is a technique in which only the topic of the conversation is determined in advance, around which a free conversation is held between the interviewer and the respondent. The direction, logical structure and sequence of the conversation depends solely on the one who conducts the survey, on his ideas about the subject of discussion.

Quite often, sociologists resort to such a research method as observation. Observation - a method of collecting information in which direct registration of ongoing events is made.

Observation as a method is borrowed from the natural sciences and is a way of knowing the world. As a scientific method, it differs from simple worldly observations. Firstly, the observation is carried out with a very specific goal, it is focused on collecting the information necessary for the sociologist, i.e. Before the observation, the question “What to observe?” is always solved. Secondly, observation is always carried out according to a certain plan, i.e. The question is how to observe? Third, the observational data must be recorded in a specific order. That is, sociological observation is a directed, systematic, direct auditory and visual perception and registration of social processes, phenomena, situations, facts that are significant from the point of view of the goals and objectives of the study.

Depending on the nature of the observation process, the following types are distinguished: formalized and non-formalized, controlled and uncontrolled, included and not included, field and laboratory, random and systematic, structured and unstructured, etc. The choice of the type of observation is determined by the objectives of the study.

A special type of observation is self-observation, in which the individual (the object of observation) fixes certain moments of his behavior according to the program proposed by the researcher (for example, through keeping a diary).

The main advantage of this method - the sociologist's direct personal contact with the phenomenon (object) under study - is to a certain extent a problem of the method, its weak point. Firstly, it is difficult to cover a large number of phenomena, therefore, local events and facts are observed, which may result in errors in the interpretation of people's actions, the motives of their behavior. Secondly, errors in interpretation can be caused by the subjective assessment of the observed processes and phenomena by the observer himself. Therefore, the collection of primary information by the method of observation should be accompanied by the use of various methods of control, including: observation of observation, repeated observation, etc. An observation is considered reliable if a similar result is obtained by repeating the observation with the same object and under the same conditions.

A huge number of tasks facing sociology are associated with the study of processes occurring in small groups. To analyze intragroup (interpersonal) relations in small groups, a method such as sociometry is used. This technique was proposed in the 30s of the twentieth century by J. Moreno. This study uses a specific type of survey that is closest to psychological testing (often referred to as a sociometric test). Respondents are asked to answer which of the members of the group they would like to see as their partners in this or that situation, and whom, on the contrary, they reject. Then, using special methods, they analyze the number of positive and negative choices for each member of the group in various situations. With the help of a sociometric procedure, it is possible, firstly, to identify the degree of cohesion - disunity in a group; secondly, to determine the position of each member of the group in terms of sympathy-antipathy, while identifying the "leader" and "outsider"; and, finally, to identify within the group a separate cohesion, subgroups with their informal leader.

The specificity of a sociometric survey is that it cannot be conducted anonymously, i.e. sociometric questionnaires are nominal in nature, which means that the study affects the vital interests of each member of the group. Therefore, this technique requires compliance with a number of ethical requirements, including non-disclosure of the results of the study to group members, participation in the study of all potential respondents.

An experiment is used as a kind of in-depth, analytical sociological research and a method of collecting information about the factors affecting the change in the state of certain social phenomena and processes, as well as the degree and results of this impact. This method came to sociology from the natural sciences and is aimed at testing hypotheses regarding causal relationships between social phenomena. The general logic of the experiment is to follow the direction, magnitude, and stability of changes in the characteristics of interest to the researcher by choosing a certain experimental group and placing it in an unusual situation (under the influence of a certain factor).

According to the nature of the experimental situation, experiments are divided into field and laboratory. In a field experiment, the object of study is in the natural conditions of its functioning. In a laboratory experiment, the situation, and often the experimental groups, are artificially formed.

According to the logical structure of proving hypotheses, a distinction is made between a linear and a parallel experiment. In a linear experiment, one group is analyzed, which is both control and experimental. Two groups participate simultaneously in a parallel experiment. The characteristics of the first, control, group remain constant throughout the entire period of the experiment, and the second, experimental, group - change. Based on the results of the experiment, the characteristics of the groups are compared, and a conclusion is made about the magnitude and causes of the changes that have occurred.

According to the nature of the object of study, real and thought experiments are distinguished. A real experiment is characterized by purposeful intervention in reality, testing of explanatory hypotheses by systematically changing the conditions of social activity. In a thought experiment, hypotheses are tested not by real phenomena, but by information about them. Both real and mental experiments are carried out, as a rule, not on the general population, but on a model, i.e. on a representative sample.

According to the specifics of the task, scientific and applied experiments are distinguished. Scientific experiments are aimed at obtaining new knowledge about given social phenomena, and applied experiments are aimed at obtaining a practical result (social, economic, etc.).

Experiment is one of the most sophisticated methods of collecting social information. To determine the effectiveness of the experiment, it is necessary to conduct it multiple times, during which the main options for solving a social problem are checked, as well as the purity of the experiment. When conducting an experiment, polling and observation can be used as additional methods of collecting information.

One of the important methods of collecting social information is the analysis of documents, which is used to extract sociological information from documentary sources necessary for solving research problems. This method allows you to get information about past events that are no longer monitored. A documentary source of information - a document - for a sociologist is everything that captures information in some "visible" way. Documents include various written sources (archives, press, reference books, literary works, personal documents), statistical data, audio and video materials.

There are two main methods of document analysis: non-formalized (traditional) and formalized (content analysis). Traditional analysis is based on the perception, understanding, understanding and interpretation of the content of documents in accordance with the purpose of the study. For example, whether the document is an original or a copy, if a copy, then how reliable it is, who is the author of the document, for what purposes it was created. Formalized document analysis (content analysis) is designed to obtain information from large arrays of documents that are not available to traditional intuitive analysis. The essence of this method lies in the fact that the document highlights such features (phrases, words) that can be counted and which essentially reflect the content of the document. For example, stable thematic sections of a newspaper recurring for quite a long time (frequency of their occurrence), the size of the newspaper space allotted to them (frequency of lines) reflect the interest of the readership, as well as the information policy of this newspaper.

The final stage of empirical sociological research involves the processing, analysis and interpretation of data, obtaining empirically substantiated generalizations, conclusions and recommendations. The results of scientific analysis are usually summarized in a scientific report, which contains information about the solution of the tasks set in the study. The report outlines the sequence of implementation of the research program, analysis of the empirical data obtained, substantiates the conclusions and provides practical recommendations. In addition, appendices are given to the report, which provide numerical and graphical indicators, as well as all methodological materials (questionnaires, observation diaries, etc.).

Key concepts of the topic: respondent, pilot study, sociological survey, questioning, interviewing, participant observation, non-involved observation, sociometry, experiment, content analysis.

When conducting sociological research, the following main methods of collecting information are most often planned, which are included in the methodological part of the program (Fig. 2).

Fig.2. Classification of sociological research methods

Document Analysis . This method allows you to get information about past events that are no longer monitored.

The study of documents helps to identify trends and dynamics of their changes and development. The source of sociological information is usually text messages contained in protocols, reports, resolutions and decisions, publications, etc. A special role is played by social statistical information, which in most cases is used to characterize the development of the process or phenomenon under study.

Equally important is coitent-aiali h, which is actively used in media research, being an indispensable method of grouping texts. The analysis is based on the use of uniform indicators (indicators) for searching, accounting and calculating the mass character of certain characteristics of the text.

The tasks solved by this method follow a simple scheme: who said what, to whom, how, with what purpose And With what result.

Survey - the most common method of collecting primary information. Almost 90% of all sociological data are obtained with its help.

In each case, the survey involves an appeal to a direct participant and is aimed at those aspects of the process that are little or not amenable to direct observation at all. That is why the survey is indispensable when it comes to the study of those meaningful characteristics of social, group and interpersonal relations that are hidden from the outside eye and reveal themselves only in certain conditions and situations.

During the study, the following types of surveys are used (Fig. 3).

Fig.3. Survey types

Depending on the source (carrier) of primary sociological information, mass and specialized surveys are distinguished. IN mass poll The main source of information is representatives of various social groups whose activities are not directly related to the subject of analysis.

Participants in mass surveys are called respondents.

IN specialized surveys the main source of information is competent persons whose professional or theoretical knowledge, life experience allow making authoritative conclusions. In fact, the participants in such surveys are experts who are able to give a balanced assessment of the issues of interest to the researcher.

Hence another widely used name in sociology for such surveys - expert polls or ratings.

There are three main types of sociological survey: questioning, conversation and interviewing.

Questionnaire – a written survey conducted according to a certain plan, involving the receipt of respondents' answers to a list of questions and statements ordered by content, either one-on-one or in the presence of a questionnaire.

The following types of surveys are used (Fig. 4).

Fig.4. Types of survey

Questionnaire (French - investigation) - a questionnaire, independently filled out by the interviewee according to the rules specified in it.

Questionnaire- a series of questions and statements ordered in content and form, presented in the form of a questionnaire, which has a rigidly fixed order and structure.

Press survey- This is a type of survey in which questionnaires are published in print. This type of questioning practically excludes the possibility of the researcher to influence the formation of the sample.

Handout survey provides for the personal delivery of the questionnaire to the respondent. Its advantages are in the personal contact of the researcher with the respondent, it makes it possible to advise the respondent on the rules for filling out the questionnaire, to assess the respondent's compliance with the intended sample.

Question - a thought expressed in an interrogative expression aimed at clarifying or supplementing knowledge.

Closed questions are accompanied by possible answers, while open questions require a direct answer to the question. The main tools used in the course of the survey are questionnaires.

Interview - an oral survey conducted according to a certain plan, in which there is direct contact between the interviewer and the respondent, and the latter's answers are recorded either by the interviewer (his assistant) or mechanically.

During the interview, the following types of interviews are used (Fig. 5)

Fig.5. Types of interview

Free interviews use verbatim recording, tape recording, or recording from memory. In standardized interviews, responses are coded according to the questionnaire.

The following requirements are imposed on the interview: the correct choice of the place of the interview; the need for an introductory speech (introduction, purpose of the study, importance of the study, guarantee of anonymity); the neutral position of the interviewer during the conversation; creating a favorable atmosphere for communication; recording interview data.

Conversation - a type of survey based on a thoughtful and carefully prepared conversation between a researcher and a competent person (respondent) or a group of people in order to obtain information on the issue under study.

The conversation should be conducted in an atmosphere of relaxed and mutual trust according to a predetermined, well-thought-out plan, highlighting issues to be clarified.

Observation is a purposeful and systematized perception of the process or phenomenon being studied, the features, properties and features of which are recorded by the researcher. The forms and methods of fixation can be different: an observation form or diary, a photo, television or movie camera, and other technical means.

Focus groups , the method of conducting which is reduced to conducting an interview according to a pre-prepared scenario in the form of a discussion with a small group of "ordinary people" (as opposed to experts in an expert survey, "brainstorming", etc.).

The main methodological requirement for the composition of this discussion group is its homogeneity, which eliminates the possibility of direct or indirect pressure of some members of the group on others. Therefore, researchers select focus groups from people who do not know each other of approximately the same age, the same sex, and a similar level of income. The formation of these groups should cover the main groups of the population so that the prevailing orientations in the minds and behavior of people can be represented. An important requirement is the size of this group, which allows you to support the discussion (with 4-5 participants, it can quickly die out, and with a significant number - 20-25 people, it will not allow all participants to fully express themselves).

It answers two basic questions: "What to do?" and more "How to do it?".

First of all, the situation and the problems arising in its framework that require analysis are clarified. Research opportunities are being explored. Based on this, a research concept is developed, which is formalized in the form programs.

Program- this is the main document of sociological research, so we will reveal it content.

theoretical-methodological and methodical-organizational (procedural).

The first reveals what will be explored,

the second is how the study will be carried out.

Theoretical and methodological section of the program includes:

1. Analysis of the situation, formulation and justification of the problem .

In life, many problems often arise. In order to make the right decision in connection with these problems, they must be studied. For this purpose, concrete sociological research is being carried out.

For example, a phenomenon is known, but the causes of its occurrence, its essential characteristics, are not. There was a contradiction between knowledge of the phenomenon and ignorance of its essence. To solve a problem means to resolve this contradiction, to obtain the missing knowledge and, on its basis, to formulate recommendations for interested persons or bodies.

At formulation and justification of the problem must be guided by the following:

- firstly, the problem should reflect the current situation, the real contradiction that gives rise to it;

- secondly, it should be relevant, "flashy", requiring an early solution;

– thirdly, the problem should not be “small”, that is, insignificant, as well as global, which cannot be solved at this level of research;

- fourthly, in form it should be concise and clear. Its content should be reflected in the formulation of the research topic.

The correct formulation of the problem largely determines the quality of the entire program and the final results of the study.

2. Definition of the purpose, object and subject of research .

The scope and volume of the proposed work, terms, labor and material costs, the content of the output products depend on the formulation of the research objectives.

The object of sociological research is most often collectives, their activities, living conditions and everyday life.

3. Logical analysis of basic concepts .

This stage is the most difficult in the work of a military sociologist on the program.

It lies in the fact that

the main concepts, with the help of which the problem posed is investigated,

they reveal the object of study and are arranged in such a way that they reflect its aspects, properties, relationships, that is through their analysis, one can imagine how the social process actually proceeds.

He based,

firstly, on the fact that any phenomena or processes can be described using concepts;

secondly, on the fact that concepts have a different degree of generality. Therefore, it is possible to dismember not the object of study itself, but concepts that reflect both the object of study as a whole and its individual aspects.

Thus, it is possible to build a verbal model of the studied social phenomenon or process.

The logical analysis of the basic concepts is implemented through two procedures:

interpretations And operationalization.

Definitions of concepts can be found in reference books, textbooks, or formulated independently, based on the logic of the study and your experience.

Based on the selected initial concepts, their operationalization is carried out:

For example, it is necessary to carry out the operationalization of the concept of “prestige of the profession”. This can be achieved by studying the following indicators: the value orientations of the individual, attitudes, motives, interests, needs, etc.

All these indicators have their own empirical indicators. Therefore, after the operationalization of concepts, indicators are built that allow one to judge the content of the concept based on certain facts of social reality. Of course, a complete translation of the concept under study (any level - both theoretical and operationalized) into indicators is impossible, since it is impossible to translate a broader concept into a narrower one with the help of a finite number of facts of social reality. Nevertheless, one should strive to use the most characteristic indicators in the study, by which one can more accurately judge the content of the concept under study.

4. Finding indicators and choosing a measurement scale .

The indicators are facts that can be quantified, but they can also be assessments, attitudes, judgments of people expressing their attitude to various phenomena in the life of collectives.

They are answers to questions.

When choosing indicators should be guided as follows:

- the choice of indicators is predetermined by operational concepts, they outline the range of facts that can be used as indicators;

– there are operational concepts that themselves serve as indicators:

age, nationality, rank, etc. In this case, the answer to the question is strictly determined by these concepts;

– there are operational concepts that require the use of not one, but several indicators;

- in each case, the choice of a set of indicators depends on the nature of the object of sociological research, the conditions in which it is located.

In sociological research, the following are used for measurement: scale types:

nominal (names),

rank (orders),

interval (metric).

For example,

gender: 1) male, 2) female;

nationality: 1) Russian, 2) Ukrainian, 3) Belarusian, etc.

Nothing is said about the degree of manifestation of this property or sign, only the fact of its presence is recorded.

With the help of a nominal scale, people's interests, their opinions, occupation, marital status, etc. are measured.

For example, within this scale, answers to the question: “To what extent are you able to manage your emotions?” are located as follows:

1) Most of the time I am able to manage myself.

2) Sometimes I can't control myself.

3) I often feel that I am not able to control myself.

The response numbers represent the ranks.

These are signs that can be expressed in numbers. This is age, length of service, income, time spent on certain types of activities, etc.

It is important to bear in mind that the choice of a scale in which social values ​​are supposed to be measured should be made based on the requirements for it:

its validity, completeness and sensitivity.

It is determined by the number of positions in the answers to the questions.

Usually scales with three, five and seven positions are used. The more positions, the higher the sensitivity of the scale.

For example, you can offer five positions to answer the question: “To what extent are you satisfied with your financial situation?”:

1) completely satisfied;

2) mostly satisfied;

3) not completely satisfied;

4) satisfied to a small extent;

5) is not satisfied at all.

5. Putting forward hypotheses and setting research objectives .

At the same time, the initial prerequisites for their advancement are the lack of knowledge that allows giving explanations and assumptions about the causes of phenomena, processes, that is, as already noted, the phenomenon is known, but the reasons that give rise to it are not.

Based on the known, an assumption is made about the causes of this phenomenon, and then in the course of the study data are collected that confirm or refute the hypothesis.

IN the dynamics of the researcher's work in the design of the research program, this happens as follows.

Having put forward and clearly defined the problem, the researcher first of all tries to understand it on the basis of his knowledge and previous experience. In other words, he tries to explain with old knowledge and experience that which is not yet fully known.

In this case, on the basis of existing knowledge, he carries out a preliminary interpretation of the problem:

makes assumptions that, in his opinion, fully cover and explain the phenomenon under study, that is, the researcher formulates a hypothesis or a series of hypotheses.

When hypothesizing the following requirements must be followed:

– hypotheses should not be trivial, that is, those whose proof or refutation does not give anything to sociological science. They must go beyond the ordinary consciousness;

- hypotheses must be clearly formulated, otherwise they cannot be tested;

- they should be available for verification in the process of this sociological research;

- they should not contradict known and verified facts, as well as each other.

It should be remembered that the focus and results of the study largely depend on the correct formulation of hypotheses.

Hypotheses are descriptive and explanatory

basic and additional.

Descriptive hypotheses explain the structural functional relationships of the object under study, and explanatory- causal relationships.

Main hypotheses relate to the central problem of the study, and additional- to indirect.

Therefore, in the course of the study, not one, but several hypotheses are often put forward.

Main goals imply the search for an answer to the main question:

what are the ways and means of solving the problem under study.

Additional provide a solution to the main issue.

In addition, additional tasks are posed in the interests of testing auxiliary hypotheses.

Thus, we have considered the content of the theoretical and methodological section of the research program.

Methodological and organizational section of the program includes:

1. Study population definition .

If the object under study (collective or social group) is small, then the study can cover all 100% of its size. But if the object is numerous, and this happens in most cases, then one hundred percent coverage is practically impossible.

In this case, it applies sampling method .

It lies in the fact that a limited number of units of observation is selected for subsequent comprehensive study.

This method is based

firstly, on the relationship and interdependence of the qualitative characteristics of social objects;

secondly, on the legitimacy of conclusions about the whole based on the study of its part, provided that in its structure the part is a model of the whole.

How is it carried out sample?

To answer this question, first of all, we define the concepts that we will operate with when forming the sample.

These include:

general population;

sampling set;

selection unit;

unit of analysis;

sampling frame;

representativeness.

For example, the moral and psychological state of the personnel of the organization is being studied. All this composition of the organization will be the population of this study.

In relation to the above example, these are specific divisions of the organization, employees (employees) who will be subject to research.

The conclusions obtained during the study of the problem are extrapolated to the entire personnel of the unit, that is, to the entire general population.

If the general population is a plant, then the units of selection will be departments, workshops, brigades, etc., that is, elements of the organizational structure, the general population.

These are the people in the sample.

The representativeness is the higher, the more units of analysis will be represented by the sample and the more homogeneous the units of analysis will be.

Main requirements when forming the sample are the following:

1) provide all elements of the general population with the same chance of being included in the sample. This means that all categories of the organization's workforce must be represented in the sample. The sample population must be a model of the population;

2) since the sample is a model of the general population, it reproduces the latter with some error. The error must be minimal.

In the practice of sociological research, an error of 5–7% is allowed with a minimum regional sample size of 200–400 people.

Sampling can be

multistage And single stage,

purposeful And spontaneous.

Multi-stage formation is carried out in several stages. Associations are selected from the industry, organizations - from associations, departments in which the study will be carried out - from organizations, specific people from the department.

One-stage formation is carried out in one step: everyone from the unit is selected to participate in the study.

Selection from the general population to the sample is carried out by several methods. Among them:

a) mechanical selection. It is produced by bringing everyone into a single list, from which they are selected at regular intervals. For example: 1st, 5th, 10th, 15th, etc.;

b) random selection. It is carried out as follows: surnames are entered on the cards, the cards are mixed and random ones are removed;

c) quota sampling. This is a sample by representation.

For example: engineers - so many; craftsmen - so many, workers - so many, etc.;

d) the main array method. It provides for the participation in the study of all those present in the team;

e) nested method. It lies in the fact that not individual employees are taken as selection units, but collectives, followed by a 100% survey of their composition.

In each specific study, the program not only indicates the quantitative composition of the sample and the methods of its formation, but also justifies why such a number of units was taken and this particular selection method is used.

2.Description of the methods used to collect information .

Allocate three main types of sources, which can be used to obtain empirical data, and each of them corresponds to the main method for obtaining the desired information.

Documentary sources empirical data, which exist in many varieties, require the sociologist to turn to the method of document analysis.

External manifestations social processes and patterns of their development in people's behavior, in the objective results of activity allow the sociologist to use the method of observation.

Finally, in cases where the source of the necessary information can be people who are direct participants in the processes or phenomena being studied, the researcher resorts to the method of interviewing members of various social communities: questionnaires, interviews, expert and sociometric surveys.

In each of these potential sources of sociological information the subject of research is reflected in its various aspects, in different volumes, with varying degrees of closeness to the essential properties of the phenomena being studied.

From this follows several important findings .

A. None of the methods of data collection is universal in relation to the subject of research.

It is the specificity of the reflection of the volume of analysis in the sources of information that requires the sociologist to apply various methods in an integrated manner in order to master the most diverse sources of information and, ultimately, to fully comprehend the essential properties of the subject being studied.

B. The specifics of studying the problem under study in the sources of information gives rise to many of its technical varieties within the framework of each of the main methods.

At the same time, each technical version of the method takes into account its cognitive capabilities, has its pros and cons that affect the quality of information.

Thus, data collection methods are not just a set of methods that can be arbitrarily chosen by the researcher depending on organizational resources and personal preferences. The choice of data collection method is dictated by the objective nature of the studied sources of the information sought.

In the course of the study, it may be necessary to use some other methods of collecting primary information. In this case, the program is specified and supplemented.

3. Clarification of the logical structure of the tools used .

- the logical structure includes all the concepts and definitions of structural and factor operationalization available in the theoretical and methodological section of the program of sociological research;

- the logical structure of the toolkit defines indicators, that is, the quantitative and qualitative characteristics of operational concepts to be measured;

- the logical structure of the toolkit also shows how it is possible to measure the qualitative and quantitative characteristics of operational concepts, in other words, with the help of what “devices” should be measured, thereby substantiating the types of measurement scales;

- and, finally, with the help of the logical structure, the questions of the toolkit are lined up in a clear logical series in accordance with the researcher's intention in order to solve problems and test hypotheses defined by the program of sociological research.

Undoubtedly, the development of the logical structure of the toolkit requires the researcher to have a high level of professional culture, clear, precise, logical thinking, the ability to cover the entire range of problems identified during the development of the program, and their solution.

When developing the logical structure of the toolkit it is important to consider the following.

Firstly, in the column "Operational concept" if possible all definitions contained in the structural and factor analysis must be taken into account. Moreover, these concepts should be grouped into blocks of tools that qualitatively characterize the object of study. At the same time, it should be taken into account that it is not always possible to select a measurable indicator for an operational concept.

For example, consider such a concept as “information”. At the household level, the question of whether or not this or that employee is informed about the events in the country and abroad can be resolved. When measuring this indicator in a sociological study, problems arise, since the question: “Are you informed about events in the country and abroad?” - one can confidently answer “Yes”, while the second one will answer “No”, because he doubts his knowledge. Thus, the researcher will not find the truth.

In the above example, self-assessment of one's awareness was used as an indicator.

Secondly, the indicators chosen should measure (in other words, be sensitive or responsive) exactly the operational concept that needs to be measured.

From the foregoing follows an important methodological recommendation:

it is advisable to develop the logical structure of the toolkit simultaneously with the development of the toolkit itself. This allows you to choose the best indicators, correctly formulate questions, and preserve the logical structure of the toolkit itself.

It should be noted that a logical structure is made for all formalized documents for collecting information: questionnaires, interview forms, sheets (observation cards), etc.

4. Drawing up a logical scheme for processing information .

This process consists in the logical construction of methods for processing and analyzing the information received.

The diagram indicates

how the received information is processed (manually or on a computer),

and how it is analyzed (using tables or graphs, mathematical calculations or complex).

Because the primary information collection documents contain dozens of questions, and each question has several answers, manual processing of information is difficult. In this case, a computer is used (a program for processing information is being developed specifically for this).

5. Drawing up a working plan for the study .

At the end of the program, a working plan for the study is presented.

He is researcher work algorithm, starting from the receipt and formulation of a social order for research and ending with the processing, analysis of the information received, and the issuance of specific recommendations.

The plan provides for financial costs, organizational and technical procedures for the study.

Typically, the plan contains four blocks of events.

First block combines activities related to the preparation of the study: the procedure for compiling and approving the program and research tools, forming and instructing groups for collecting information, conducting a pilot study, and multiplying the tools.

Second block contains all the organizational and methodological work that ensures the collection of sociological information: arrival at organizations and their subdivisions, a report to officials on the goals and content of the study, clarification of the procedure for conducting it, direct collection of information.

Third block covers activities related to the preparation of the collected information for processing and its processing.

Fourth block includes analysis of the received data, preparation of a report and development of recommendations.

The plan assigns a person responsible for each activity and sets a deadline for completion. In form, it is arbitrary and, as a rule, corresponds to generally accepted patterns.

As emphasized earlier, the research program provides for the development of sociological research tools: questionnaires, interview forms, observation cards, document analysis matrices, etc.

Most often used in research questionnaire. Its development is a complex process.

Questionnaire for sociological research- this is a system of questions united by a single research plan aimed at identifying the quantitative and qualitative characteristics of the object and subject of analysis.

The questions used in the questionnaires can be classified as:

b) by form - into closed, semi-closed, open, direct, indirect;

c) by functions - into basic and non-basic (control).

Questions about the facts of human consciousness aimed at clarifying opinions, desires, expectations, plans for the future, etc.

Questions about facts of conduct record the actions, actions, results of the activities of military personnel.

Questions about the identity of the respondent(sometimes they are called a passport, or a socio-demographic block of the questionnaire) reveal his age, social origin, marital status, nationality, education, etc.

It should be noted that the questionnaires are widely used questions that require determining the level of knowledge of the respondent. These are the so-called examination questions.

Closed questions- these are those for which the questionnaire provides a full set of answers, from which the respondent must choose one, for example: “What is the composition of your family?”:

1) 2 people;

2) 3 people;

3) 4 people;

4) 5 people or more.

Closed questions can be alternative and non-alternative.

Alternative Questions are those whose answers are mutually exclusive. For example: “Do you know the conditions of social insurance?”:

Semi-closed questions- these are those when the list of positions of the expected answers contains the positions “Other” or “Something else”, that is, when answering these questions, the respondent is given the opportunity not only to choose an answer option, but also to state his position.

For example, to the question: “What prompted you to become a lawyer?” - the answer options may be:

1) family traditions;

2) legal advice;

3) read in books about legal activity and seen in movies;

4) something else.

When posing closed and semi-closed questions, you should be guided by the following:

- answer options should reveal some aspects of the problem under study;

– they should be clear and concise in form;

- their list should not be too long;

– there should be no “bad” and “good” options.

Open questions- these are those when the respondent is not offered answer options. They provide an opportunity to express your opinion about the question. For example, to the question: “What attracts you in your work?” - each respondent has the opportunity to express his opinion in detail. These questions are most often used in intelligence research.

direct questions are those that require direct information from the respondent. For example: "Are you satisfied with your activities?":

1) satisfied;

2) not satisfied.

However, there are situations when the respondent may not answer a direct question. For example, when it is necessary to negatively assess one's activities or the activities of colleagues, or some negative facts that take place in the organization.

In such cases, apply indirect questions. Their goal is to get the same information as when asking direct questions, but they are formulated in such a way that they dispose the respondent to a frank answer.

Let us give examples of direct and indirect questions of the same content.

direct question: “Are you satisfied with the conditions of work in the team? If not satisfied, then what?

1) working conditions;

2) relationships in the team;

3) relations with immediate superiors;

4) something else.

Indirect question: "If you are not satisfied with the conditions of activity in this team, where would you like to work?":

1) where living conditions are better established;

2) where the relationship in the team will be more suitable for you;

3) where you, first of all, will be able to establish good relationships with superiors;

4) other.

One way to replace direct questions with indirect ones is to change them from a personal form to an impersonal one. For example, instead of starting a question: "What do you think ..." is put "Some believe ..." or "It is customary to believe ...".

Main questions- these are those that are aimed at collecting direct information about the phenomenon under study.

Minor questions are intended to relieve tension from the respondent or, with their help, to clarify the content of the answer to the main question.

These questions are in the nature of controls. For example, after the main question: “Do you regularly read fiction?” - follows the control: "Please name the works you read this month."

Understanding the classification of questions, their features allows you to most successfully build the composition of the questionnaire.

It must also be borne in mind that when compiling questionnaires sociological survey should not only know the classification of questions, but also be guided by the following:

- take into account the peculiarities of respondents' perception of the text of the questionnaire. When compiling the questionnaire, it is important to try to imagine the state of the respondents, to take into account their possible difficulties when working on it;

- take into account the specifics of the respondents: official position, terms of service, qualifications, level of education, culture, etc.;

- try to interest them in active and conscientious participation in the ongoing research;

- when placing questions, it is necessary to adhere to a certain sequence:

1) simple questions of a private nature;

2) more complex, so-called event;

3) again simple;

4) the most complex, of a motivational nature;

5) simplified by the end of the questionnaire.

In conclusion, questions are posed that clarify the socio-demographic data of the respondents (the so-called passport);

Questions are usually grouped into semantic blocks. Their size should be approximately the same;

- The questionnaire should not be overloaded with questions. Answers to them should contain basically the necessary information;

- the time for filling out the questionnaire should not exceed 45 minutes, since in the future the attention of the respondents decreases and the effectiveness of the information received decreases;

- the form of the questionnaire should be simple and convenient for the work of not only respondents, but also researchers, especially when processing information.

Questionnaire layout could be the following:

introduction, in which,

firstly, the topic, goals, tasks of the survey are stated, the organization conducting it is indicated, that is, it is explained: who conducts the survey and why, how the data will be used, anonymity of information is guaranteed, and a request is made to take an active part in the study;

secondly, instructions for filling out the questionnaire are given. It talks about how to answer questions. In particular, for closed and semi-closed questions, it is necessary to choose one of the proposed answers, underlining or rounding off its code, and for an open or semi-closed question, if none of the options placed is suitable, the respondent is invited to freely express his opinion.

The questions in the questionnaire are arranged, as already mentioned, in a certain sequence, preferably in blocks that combine questions in meaning and require answers that reveal the most important aspects of the problem under study.

Questions are numbered in order, and answer options for closed and semi-closed questions are indicated by a code that is located from the answer text to the left with an ordinal coding system or to the right with a positional system.

For answers to open questions, free space and several codes are left.

The semantic sections of the block should begin with introductory words, which are highlighted in font style. For example, when studying social and legal security, the questionnaire may contain a section that requires information on the implementation of the principle of social justice. It may start with: Now let's move on to questions that require information about the real

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Introduction.

1. Sociological research and its types.

2. General characteristics of the sociological research program.

3. Research problems.

4. Method of sociological observation

5. Documents in sociology.

6. Methods of sociological survey

7. Methods of analysis and processing of sociological information.

Conclusion.

Literature.

Introduction.

In the structure of sociological knowledge, three interrelated levels are most often distinguished: 1) general sociological theory; 2) special sociological theories (or theories of the middle level); 3) sociological research, also called private, empirical, applied or concrete sociological. All three levels complement each other, which makes it possible to obtain scientifically substantiated results by studying certain social objects, phenomena and processes.

Public life constantly poses many questions to a person, which can only be answered with the help of scientific research, in particular sociological. However, not all research in the field of sociology is properly sociological. It is important to distinguish between them, because today one often encounters an arbitrary interpretation of such research, when almost any concrete social development of a particular social science problem (especially if polling methods are used) is incorrectly called sociological research. The latter, in the opinion of the Russian sociologist E. Tadevosyan, should be based on the use of specific scientific methods, techniques and procedures specific to sociology in the study of social facts and empirical material. At the same time, it is wrong to reduce sociological research only to the collection of primary empirical data, to sociological surveys, since this is just one of the stages, albeit a very important one, of sociological research.

In a broad sense, sociological research is a specific type of systematic cognitive activity aimed at studying social objects, relationships and processes in order to obtain new information and identify patterns of social life based on theories, methods and procedures adopted in sociology.

In a narrower sense, sociological research is a system of logically consistent methodological, methodical and organizational-technical procedures, subject to a single goal: to obtain accurate and objective data about the social object, phenomenon or process being studied.

In other words, sociological research is a specific type of social (social science) research (their "core"), which considers society as an integral socio-cultural system and is based on special methods and techniques for collecting, processing and analyzing primary information that are accepted in sociology.

At the same time, any sociological research involves several stages. The first, or stage of preparation, consists in considering the goals, drawing up a program and plan, determining the means and timing of the study, as well as choosing methods for analyzing and processing sociological information. The second stage involves the collection of primary sociological information - collected non-generalized information in various forms (records of researchers, extracts from documents, individual answers of respondents, etc.). The third stage consists in preparing the information collected in the course of a sociological study (questionnaire survey, interview, observation, content analysis and other methods) for processing, compiling a processing program and actually processing the information received on a computer. And, finally, the fourth or final stage is the analysis of the processed information, the preparation of a scientific report based on the results of the study, as well as the formulation of conclusions and the development of recommendations and proposals for the customer or other management entity that initiated the sociological study.

1. Sociological research and its types.

As you know, typology is a scientific method, the basis of which is the division of objects, phenomena or processes and their grouping according to the commonality of any signs. The need to determine the types of sociological research is dictated, first of all, by the fact that already at the very beginning of its conduct, the sociologist faces questions regarding the allocation of the general, special or unique in the study of social objects, phenomena or processes of social life. If he manages to reasonably identify his research with the available species, then this allows him to more effectively use the experience already accumulated by other researchers in organizing and conducting concrete sociological research.

Sociological research is subdivided on many grounds, and therefore various typologies and classifications can be proposed. Thus, according to the nature of the obtained sociological knowledge, theoretical and empirical (concrete) studies are distinguished. For theoretical sociological research, deep generalization of the accumulated factual material in the field of social life is of decisive importance. At the center of empirical research are the accumulation and collection of factual material in this area (based on direct observation, questioning, analysis of documents, statistical data, and other methods of obtaining information) and its primary processing, including the initial level of generalization. However, it would be a mistake to break apart, and even more so to oppose the empirical and the theoretical in sociological research. These are two sides of a holistic study of social phenomena, constantly interacting, complementing each other and mutually enriching.

Depending on whether they are carried out once or repeatedly, sociological research is divided into single and repeated. The first allow you to get an idea of ​​the state, position, statics of any social object, phenomenon or process at the moment. The latter are used to identify dynamics, changes in their development. The number of repeated sociological studies and the time intervals between them are determined by their goals and content. A kind of repeated sociological research is a panel one, when the same social object is studied according to an identical program and methodology after a certain period of time, which makes it possible to establish trends in its development. The most illustrative example of a panel sociological study is periodic population censuses.

By the nature of the goals and objectives set, as well as by the breadth and depth of the analysis of a social phenomenon or process, sociological research is divided into exploratory, descriptive and analytical.

Reconnaissance (or pilot, probing) research is the simplest; it can be used to solve very limited problems. In fact, this is a "running in" of the tools, i.e., methodological documents: questionnaires, interview forms, questionnaires, observation cards or document study cards. The program of such a study, as well as the tools themselves, is simplified. The survey populations are relatively small: from 20 to 100 people. Intelligence research, as a rule, precedes a deep study of a particular problem. In the course of its implementation, the goals and objectives, hypotheses and subject area, questions and their formulation are specified. It is especially important to carry out such a study when the problem has not been sufficiently studied or is generally posed for the first time. With the help of intelligence research, operational sociological information is obtained about the studied social object, phenomenon or process.

Descriptive research is a more complex sociological analysis. With its help, empirical information is obtained that gives a relatively holistic view of the studied social object, phenomenon or process. Typically, this study is carried out when the object of analysis is a relatively large population that differs in various properties and characteristics (for example, the workforce of a large enterprise, where people of different professions, gender, age, with different work experience, etc.) work. Singling out relatively homogeneous groups in the structure of the object of study (for example, by level of education, age, profession) makes it possible to evaluate and compare the characteristics of interest to the sociologist, to identify the presence or absence of links between them. In a descriptive study, one or more methods of collecting empirical data may be applied. The combination of various methods increases the reliability and completeness of sociological information, makes it possible to draw deeper conclusions and more informed recommendations.

Analytical research is the most complex sociological analysis, which allows not only to describe the elements of the object, phenomenon or process being studied, but also to identify their causes. The search for cause-and-effect relationships is the main purpose of this study. If a descriptive study establishes only a connection between the characteristics of the phenomenon under study, then an analytical one finds out whether this connection is of a causal nature, and what is the main reason that determines this or that social phenomenon. With the help of an analytical study, a set of factors causing this phenomenon is studied. Usually they are classified as basic and non-basic, permanent and temporary, controlled and uncontrolled, etc. Analytical research is impossible without a detailed program and well-polished tools. Typically, such research is carried out after exploratory and descriptive research, during which information is collected that gives a preliminary idea of ​​certain elements of the studied social object, phenomenon or process. Analytical research is most often complex. In terms of the methods used, it is much more diverse than reconnaissance and descriptive.

Special sociological literature also describes other approaches to identifying the typology of sociological research. The approach of the Russian sociologist V. Yadov deserves special attention, who distinguishes the following types of sociological research: focused on various aspects of social planning and management of social processes, theoretical and applied, the practical significance of which is revealed through a system of additional (engineering) developments; theoretical and methodological, operational at enterprises and institutions, with the help of which they analyze local problems in order to find the best ways to resolve them.

Some researchers distinguish between sociological research in the spheres of public life, for example, socio-economic, socio-political, socio-pedagogical, socio-psychological, etc. Of particular interest is the approach of the Ukrainian sociologist G. Shchekin, who classifies empirical and applied sociological research as follows pilot tests aimed at testing the effectiveness of the tools; field, focused on the study of the object in normal natural conditions, in everyday situations; with feedback, the purpose of which is to attract the team to participate in solving the practical problems facing it; panel, involving the repeated study of one object at certain intervals of time; langitudinal as a kind of repeated, when long-term periodic observation of the same persons or social objects is carried out; comparative, when as the main technique they use a comparison of information about various social subsystems, periods of historical development, studies of different authors; interdisciplinary, involving the cooperation of representatives of various scientific disciplines in solving a complex problem.

The Russian sociologists M. Gorshkov and F. Sheregi attempted to work out the main criterion for classifying sociological research based on their logical structure and practice orientation. They single out such sociological research: intelligence, operational, descriptive, analytical, experimental. These sociologists reduce all surveys to questionnaires and interviews. Depending on the source of primary sociological information, they subdivide surveys into mass and specialized ones, separately highlighting also sociological observations, document analysis, point and panel studies.

The above classifications undoubtedly have a certain value for the practice of conducting sociological research. However, their shortcomings are also quite pronounced. So, often they are carried out by mixing various bases and classification features. But their main drawback is that they do not rely on all components of the selected system of the cognitive process, and therefore often reflect only certain essential points of research, not covering all types of sociological research.

The classifications of social objects accepted in sociology differ, as a rule, in the depth of penetration into their essence. Conventionally, the classifications of social objects are divided into essential and non-essential. Essential are based on the conceptual understanding of the nature of the classified objects. Analysis shows that there are relatively few such classifications, but they are all firmly entrenched in sociological science. Non-essential classifications are based on objects, deep penetration into the essence of which is rather problematic. Consequently, these classifications are not devoid of a certain superficiality, which is explained by the insufficient level of understanding of the classified objects and penetration into their essence.

As the analysis shows, the concept of the structure of sociological research can be used as the basis for the classification of sociological research. With this approach, the basis for the classification of sociological research are the structural elements of social cognition: the subject of research, its method, the type of research subject, the conditions and prerequisites for research, and the knowledge gained. Each of these grounds, in turn, is subdivided into a number of sub-grounds, etc. The proposed essential classification of the types of sociological research is given in Table 1.

Table 1.

Essential classification of sociological research

Basis of classification	Types of sociological research
Subject of study: application area degree of representation sides of the object severity object dynamics	Socio-economic, actually sociological, socio-political, socio-pedagogical, etc. complex, not complex Spot, repeated, panel, monitoring
According to the research method: depth and complexity dominance applied method type and level of research body's activities	reconnaissance (aerobatic or sounding), descriptive, analytical Observation, analysis of documents, survey (questionnaire, interview, testing, examination), experimental research Theoretical, empirical, empirical-theoretical, fundamental, applied
By subject type: structure subject to the number of goals, put forward by the subject	single purpose
According to the conditions and prerequisites of the study: condition type a priori information	Field, laboratory Information secured and unsecured
According to the knowledge gained: novelty of acquired knowledge type of knowledge gained roles in science knowledge applications	Innovative, compiler Empirical, empirical-theoretical, theoretical Fixing facts, testing hypotheses, summarizing, analytical, synthesizing, predictive, retrospective, etc. Theoretical, applied, theoretical and applied
By the scale of the object of study	Solid, selective, local, regional, sectoral, nationwide, international.

The presented essential classification can be used to characterize any sociological research. At the same time, it should be borne in mind that its individual bases are practically independent of each other. And in order to describe this or that particular study, it is only necessary to single out the corresponding elements for each basis. For example, sociological research can be characterized as socio-economic, comprehensive, targeted, intelligence, analytical, collective, field, information-provided, innovative, applied, generalizing, etc.

2. General characteristics of the sociological research program

As already noted, sociological research is a complex process of cognitive activity, during which the sociologist (the subject of knowledge) consistently makes the transition from one qualitative stage of knowledge to another, from not understanding the essence of the social object under study to obtaining the necessary and reliable knowledge about it. Whatever the specifics of a particular sociological study, it always goes through certain stages. In sociology, as a rule, four main stages of sociological research are distinguished, the characteristics of which are presented in Table 2. The analysis shows that any sociological research begins with the development of its program, which can be considered in two aspects. On the one hand, it is the main document of scientific research, by which one can judge the degree of scientific validity of a particular sociological study. On the other hand, the program is a certain methodological model of research, which fixes the methodological principles, the purpose and objectives of the study, as well as ways to achieve them. In addition, since sociological research actually begins with the development of a program, it is the result of its initial stage.

Thus, in the process of developing a program of sociological research, an epistemological model of research is created, and questions of its methodology, methods and techniques are also resolved. Any program of sociological research must meet the following basic requirements: theoretical and methodological validity; structural completeness, i.e., the presence of all structural elements in it; consistency and consistency of its parts and fragments; flexibility (it should not constrain the creative possibilities of the sociologist); clarity, clarity and comprehensibility even for non-specialists.

table 2

Characteristics of the main stages of sociological research

Research phase		Result
programming	Development of questions of methodology, methods and techniques of sociological research	Sociological Research Program
Informational	Application of methods and techniques to obtain an array of reliable and representative sociological information	Empirical sociological information
Analytical	Analysis of sociological information, its generalization, theorization, description and explanation of facts, substantiation of trends and patterns, identification of correlation and cause-and-effect relationships	Description and explanation of the studied social object (phenomenon or process)
Practical		Model of practical transformation of the studied social object (phenomenon or process)

Based on the fact that the program plays a central role in sociological research, it is important to formulate functions that indicate its purpose and reveal its main content.

1. The methodological function lies in the fact that from the existing variety of conceptual approaches and aspects of the vision of the object, it determines the methodology that the sociologist will apply.

2. The methodological function involves concretization and justification of research methods, i.e., obtaining sociological information, as well as its analysis and processing.

3. The gnoseological function provides a reduction in the level of uncertainty in the understanding of the object under study after the development of the program compared to its understanding before its development.

4. The modeling function consists in presenting the object as a special model of sociological research, its main aspects, stages and procedures.

5. The programming function is to develop a program as such, which is a specific model of the research process that optimizes and streamlines the activities of a sociologist-researcher.

6. The normative function indicates the presence of a program built in accordance with the established structure, as a fundamental requirement and a sign of the scientific nature of sociological research. The program sets the normative requirements of sociological science in relation to a particular study.

7. The organizational function involves the distribution of responsibilities among the members of the research team, the division and ordering of the work of each sociologist, control over the progress of the research process.

8. The heuristic function ensures the search and acquisition of new knowledge, the process of penetrating into the essence of the object under study, the discovery of deep layers, as well as the transition from ignorance to knowledge, from delusion to truth.

The absence or incomplete development of the program distinguishes speculative and unscrupulous research. Therefore, when conducting an examination of the quality of sociological research, special attention is paid to checking the scientific consistency of its program. Inattention to the construction of a correct and scientifically complete program significantly affects the quality of the research, significantly narrows the cognitive capabilities of the sociologist, and also reduces the relevance and social significance of sociological research and its results.

3. Research problems

The starting point of any research, including sociological research, is a problematic situation that develops in real life. It, as a rule, contains the most acute contradiction between any elements of the social process. For example, when studying the professional orientation of students, one of the most important contradictions characterizing it is the contradiction between the professional life plans of students and the possibility of their implementation in practice. At the same time, the professional aspirations of a student may be so unrealistic or incommensurable with his abilities and the possibilities of society that they will certainly never come true. In this case, a school graduate either fails or acquires a profession that is contraindicated for him, which sooner or later leads him to disappointment, as well as to significant losses for society as a whole, and for this individual in particular. Social costs are also unjustifiably large both for the acquisition by graduates of a profession for which they are unsuitable, and for training them in new professions. The costs to society of irrational occupational movements of workers are enormous, but it is even more difficult to measure the individual losses due to poor occupational choices. Inferiority complexes arising in this connection and suicidal states accompanying them, difficulties in self-realization of the personality sharply reduce the quality of life.

This is a typical problem situation faced by the sociologist. After its analysis and argumentation of social significance, the researcher transfers the practical aspect of the problem situation to the rank of a cognitive problem, proves its insufficient research and validity, as well as the need to study, i.e., satisfy the need for knowledge by resolving this contradiction of social reality.

However, not every sociological study is problematic. The fact is that the formulation of the problem requires a deep analysis of social life, the availability of certain knowledge about society, about its various aspects, as well as the corresponding erudition of a sociologist. Therefore, quite often one has to deal with either problem-free studies or studies in which the problem is formulated intuitively. The practice of sociological research proves a simple truth: it is better to stick to a problem than to conduct research without problems. It is important that the problem is not already solved or false, and this requires its serious examination.

The definition of the problem is preceded by the diagnosis of the problem situation, the determination of the qualification of its scale, severity, and also the type of trend behind this problem. In addition, it is important to fix the speed of development of the problem. To determine the essence of specific problems in order to study them, the classification of social problems is of great methodological importance (Table 3).

Table 3

Classification of social problems

From Table. Figure 3 shows that the scale of the problems are divided into local, or micro-social; regional, covering individual regions; national, having a national scale and affecting the national security of the country. By severity, the problems are classified into immature, which will manifest themselves in the future, and now need prevention; topical, i.e., already overdue, and acute, requiring immediate resolution. According to the type of social change trends, there are destructive-degradative problems that determine negative destructive processes in society; transformational, fixing the transformation of society, its transition from one quality to another; innovative, related to various aspects of social innovation. According to the speed of development, problems are divided into passive, i.e., developing slowly; active, characterized by dynamism, and superactive, growing extremely fast.

Thus, table. 3 illustrates the variety of existing social problems. In fact, each specific problem can be differentiated according to each of the four indicators, i.e., according to the social scale, severity, type of trend and the speed of its development. At the same time, we get 27 types of problems for each of those presented in Table. 3 indicators. For example, according to the indicator "immature" the problem can be described as follows: local, immature, destructive-degradative, passive; local, immature, destructive-degradative, active, etc. If we imagine all possible options, then their number will be 27 * 3 = 81.

The classification of social problems significantly influences the definition of the methodology and tools for their study, as well as the nature of the practical use of the results obtained. The problem is some unsatisfied need for goods and services, cultural values, activities, self-realization of the individual, etc. The task of the sociologist is not only to classify the problem, that is, to understand the type of this need and ways to satisfy it, but also to formulate it in a form convenient for further analysis. Thus, the spatial and temporal characteristics of the problem, the disclosure of its social content (the definition of the communities covered by it, institutions, phenomena, etc.) make it possible to correctly determine the object of study. The presentation of the problem as a contradiction (between desires and possibilities; various structures, aspects; between social systems and the environment; between their functions and dysfunctions, etc.) creates the conditions for determining the goals and objectives of the study.

In a sociological study, the category "problem" performs several important functions: updating, which gives the study a social significance (after all, any sociological study is relevant to the extent that the problem under study is sharpened); regulation, since, as the starting point of the study, it significantly affects the development of all sections of the research program; methodologization, since the formulation of the problem initially sets the whole study approaches and principles, theories and ideas that guide the sociologist in determining the nature of the problem; pragmatization, which consists in the fact that the correct formulation of the problem provides the practical effect of the entire study, and also determines the area for the implementation of conclusions and practical recommendations.

4. Method of sociological observation

Observation in sociological research is a method of collecting and the simplest generalization of primary information about the social object under study by direct perception and direct registration of facts related to the object under study and significant from the point of view of the objectives of the study. The information units of this method are recorded acts of verbal or non-verbal (real) behavior of people. In contrast to the natural sciences, where observation is considered the main and relatively simple method of collecting data, in sociology it is one of the most complex and time-consuming research methods.

In addition, sociological observation is integrated into almost all methods of sociological science. For example, a sociological survey can be represented as a specific observation of the respondents through a questionnaire, and a social experiment organically includes two acts of observation: at the very beginning of the study and at the end of the experimental variables.

Sociological observation is characterized by a number of essential features. First, it should be directed to socially important areas, i.e., to those circumstances, events and facts that are essential for the development of the individual, the team, and in this it should correspond to the social order from society. Secondly, observation should be carried out purposefully, in an organized and systematized manner. The need for this is determined by the fact that, on the one hand, observation is a set of relatively simple procedures, and, on the other hand, the object of sociological observation is distinguished by a wide variety of properties and there is a danger of "losing" the most significant of them. Thirdly, observation, unlike other sociological methods, is characterized by a certain breadth and depth. The breadth of observation implies the fixation of as many properties of an object as possible, and the depth - the selection of the most significant properties and the most profound and essential processes. Fourth, the results of the observation should be clearly recorded and easy to reproduce. Good memory is not enough here, it is necessary to apply the procedures of logging, data unification, language coding, etc. Fifth, observation and processing of its results require special objectivity. It is the specificity of the problem of objectivity in sociological observation that distinguishes it from observation in the natural sciences.

Unlike other sociological methods, sociological observation has two important features. The first is determined by the object of observation, which often has social activity of various kinds. All observables have consciousness, psyche, goals, value orientations, character, emotions, i.e. qualities that can cause unnatural behavior, unwillingness to be observed, desire to look in the best light, etc. Taken together, this significantly reduces the objectivity of information received from the object - real individuals and groups. This bias is especially noticeable when the goals of the sociologist and those observed are different. The process of observation in this case begins to turn either into a struggle or into manipulations by a "sociologist-detective" who disguises his activities in every possible way. Similar situations have repeatedly arisen in the practice of sociological research. Thus, in Western countries there are enough special works devoted to recommendations regarding the behavior of a "sociologist-spy". This problem loses relevance if the sociologist stands on the positions of humanism or expresses the interests of the subjects themselves.

The second feature of the method of sociological observation is that the observer cannot be deprived of purely human traits, including the emotionality of perception. If the phenomena of a non-social nature may not excite the observer, then the phenomena of society always cause feelings and empathy, feelings, emotions and a desire to help the subjects, and sometimes even “correct” the results of observation. The fact is that the observer himself is a part of social life. Between him and the observed there is not only epistemological, but also socio-psychological interaction, which is sometimes quite difficult to overcome.

Thus, the objectivity of sociological research does not consist in excluding personal relationships, but in not replacing them with the criteria of scientific research. The pathos of the personal attitude of the sociologist to the subjects must be inextricably linked with the pathos of a strict scientific and logical approach.

It should be noted that the advantages of the method of sociological observation are quite clear and boil down to the following. Firstly, this is the immediacy of perception, which makes it possible to fix specific, natural situations, facts, living fragments of life, rich in details, colors, halftones, etc. Secondly, it is the ability to take into account the specific behavior of groups of real people. At present, this problem is practically unsolvable by other sociological methods. Thirdly, observation does not depend on the readiness of the observed persons to speak out about themselves, which is characteristic, for example, of a sociological interview. Here it is necessary to take into account the possibility of "pretending" the observed, because they know that they are being observed. Fourthly, this is the multidimensionality of this method, which makes it possible to record events and processes most fully and comprehensively. Greater multidimensionality is characteristic of the most experienced observers.

The disadvantages of the observation method are primarily due to the presence of the activity of a social object and subject, which can lead to a biased result. The most serious limitations of this method, which the sociologist must be aware of, include the following:

1. The mood of the observer during the experiment can adversely affect the nature of the perception of events and the assessment of facts. This influence is especially great when the motive for observing is too weakly expressed in the observer.

2. The attitude towards the observed is strongly influenced by the social position of the observer. His own interests and position may contribute to the fact that some acts of behavior of the observed will be reflected in fragments, while others - perhaps less important - can be assessed as more significant. For example, a young man's critical attitude towards his teacher, from the point of view of one observer, can be assessed as a sign of his independence, and from the point of view of another, as obstinacy and extreme bad manners.

3. The expectation tendency of the observer is that he is too committed to a certain hypothesis and fixes only what corresponds to it. This can lead to the fact that the observer simply does not see the essential and important properties of the observables that do not fit into his initial hypothesis. Moreover, the observed can pick up this predisposition and change their behavior, both for the better and for the worse.

4. The complexity of observation can be not only its advantage, but also its disadvantage, leading to the loss of the essential among the huge set of recorded qualities.

5. Of course, the circumstances in life are repeated, but not in all the details, and the one-time occurrence of the observed circumstances may prevent fixing all the details.

6. The personal meetings and acquaintances of the observer with the observed that precede the observation can lead to a shift in the entire picture of observation under the influence of likes or dislikes formed during the meetings.

7. There is a danger of fixing their incorrect interpretations and assessments instead of real facts.

8. When the psychological fatigue of the observer sets in, he begins to record minor events less often, misses some of them, makes mistakes, etc.

9. This method also has a halo effect, based on the overall impression produced by the observed on the observer. For example, if the observer notes in the observed a number of positive acts of behavior, in his opinion, significant, then all other acts are illuminated by him in the halo of the previously formed prestige of the observed. This is reminiscent of the school effect of an excellent student, when he poorly completed the teacher's control task, but the latter, under the influence of the authority of an excellent student, gives him an overestimate.

10. The effect of condescension consists in the desire of the observer to overestimate the observed. The initial position of the observer may be: "All people are good, why evaluate them badly?" The effect of condescension can also be caused by sympathy for the observed, concern for one's own prestige, etc.

11. The effect of the auditor consists in the desire of the observer to look for only shortcomings in the activities and behavior of the observed, according to the principle "there is no good without evil" and to underestimate the assessment.

12. When using the observation method, averaging errors occur, which manifest themselves in the fear of extreme estimates of observed events. Since extreme features are much rarer than average ones, the observer is tempted to fix only the typical average and discards the extremes. As a result, the observation results become "discolored". Here, to the detriment of truth, the effect of the average value works: one person ate two chickens, and the other - none, and on average it turns out that everyone ate a chicken, that is, a lie.

13. The logical errors of this method are based on the fact that the observer fixes connections between features that do not actually have these connections. For example, there are false ideas that moral people are necessarily good-natured, good-natured people are gullible, and gullible people are obese, etc.

14. The error of contrast consists in the desire of the observer to fix in the observed qualities that he himself does not have.

15. The results of observation are often influenced by interfering factors: inconsistencies between the situation of observation and the displayed qualities, the presence of third parties, especially immediate superiors, etc.

16. The limited number of observed individuals makes it difficult to disseminate the results of observation to wider populations of society.

17. Observation requires a lot of time, as well as human, material and financial resources. For example, for 100 hours of observation, there are 200 hours of recording and about 300 hours for reporting the observation results.

18. There are high requirements for the qualifications of sociologists-executors. Therefore, the costs of their training and instruction are necessary.

It is believed that observation arose and is still used most often in anthropology - the science of the origin, evolution of man and human races. Anthropologists observe the way of life, customs, mores and traditions of forgotten and small peoples, tribes and communities, their relationships and interactions. From anthropology to sociology came not only the methodology and methods of observation, but also their classification. However, observation in everyday life and scientific observation are far from being the same thing. Scientific sociological observation is characterized by regularity, consistency, mandatory follow-up verification of the results, and a variety of types presented in Table 4.

Table 4

Classification of types of sociological observation

Each type of sociological observation has its advantages and disadvantages. The sociologist's task is to choose or modify the type of observation that best suits the nature and characteristics of the object being studied. So. with the help of uncontrolled observation, mainly real life situations are examined in order to describe them. This type of observation is very phenomenological, it is carried out without a rigid plan and is of an exploratory, reconnaissance nature. It only allows you to "feel" the problem, which can later be subjected to controlled observation. The latter is of a more rigorous nature and consists in control, an increase in the number of observers, a series of observations, etc.

Included and non-included observations are distinguished as observation "from within" and "from outside". When observation is enabled, the observer becomes a full member of the group he is studying. At the same time, conditions are created for fixing the intimate aspects of the behavior of members of the social group. Such observation requires from the observer high qualifications and significant life self-restraints, since he has to share the way of life of the studied group. That is why there are few examples of the use of this type of observation in the practice of sociological research. In addition, the subjectivity of the observer can be specifically manifested in the case of included observation; as a result of getting used to the algorithms of the life of the observed, he begins to justify them, thereby losing objectivity.

So, as a result of one of the first included observations of the life of vagrants, conducted by the American sociologist J. Anderson, who for many months wandered around the country with vagrants, not only the unique features of their way of life were recorded, but also attempts were made to justify the standards of "tramp life". ". There are also studies using participant observation of the life of "hippies", foreign workers, lumpen, religious sects, etc. In Russia, participant observation was successfully used by V. Olshansky in studying the value orientations of young workers, who worked for a long time as an assembly fitter at a factory.

Not included is called observation, as if from the outside, when the researcher does not become an equal member of the group under study and does not influence its behavior. According to the procedure, it is much simpler, but more superficial, making it difficult to take into account motives and motives, the use of self-observation. Meanwhile, the recorded information in this type of observation is devoid of the introduced action on the part of the sociologist.

Unstructured observation is based on the fact that the researcher does not determine in advance which elements of the process under study he will observe. In this case, observation is carried out over the object as a whole, its boundaries, elements, problems, etc. are clarified. It is used, as a rule, at the initial stages of research to "shoot" problems, as well as in monographic studies.

Structured observation, unlike unstructured observation, involves a clear preliminary definition of what and how to observe. It is used mainly in describing situations and testing working hypotheses.

Field observation is focused on real life situations, and laboratory observation is focused on specially created conditions. The first type of observation is carried out when studying an object in natural conditions and is used in sociological intelligence, and the second allows you to detect the qualities of the subjects that do not show in real life, and are recorded only in experimental studies in the laboratory.

An open observation is one in which the subjects are aware of the very fact of observation, which can lead to elements of the subjectivity of the result due to the unnaturalness of their behavior and the influence exerted on them by the observer. For reliability, it requires repeated observations by various observers, as well as taking into account the time of adaptation of the subjects to the observer. Such observation is used in the exploration phases of the study.

As for observation incognito, or hidden, it differs from included observation in that the sociologist, being in the group under study, observes from the outside (he is disguised) and does not influence the course of events. In foreign sociology there is a terminological combination "to disguise itself as a lamppost". The fact is that it is human nature not to fix the habitual, the attitude towards which resembles the attitude towards a lamppost, which is not noticed during a walk. This phenomenon is often used by sociologists, whose "lampposts" are the social roles familiar to people: a businessman, an intern, a student in practice, etc. The results of observations in this case are more natural, but sometimes people have to be accustomed to a new "lamppost" ".

Sociological observation, depending on its types, is more or less amenable to programming. In the structure of the observation method, it is customary to single out the following elements: 1) establishing the object and subject of observation, its units, as well as determining the goal and setting research tasks; 2) providing access to observed situations, obtaining appropriate permits, establishing contacts with people; 3) choice of method (type) of observation and development of its procedure; 4) preparation of technical equipment and documents (replication of observation cards, protocols, briefing of observers, preparation of photo or television cameras, etc.); 5) conducting observation, data collection, accumulation of sociological information; 6) recording the results of observations, which can be performed in the form of: short-term recordings "hot on the trail"; filling in special cards (for example, to observe a newcomer who has appeared in a group, as well as the behavior of his immediate environment, you can use the observation card model presented in Table 5); filling out observation protocols, which are an extended version of observation cards; keeping an observation diary; use of video, photo, film and sound equipment; 7) control over monitoring, which involves: access to documents; carrying out repeated observations;

Table 5

reference to other similar studies; 8) drawing up a report on the observation, which should contain the main provisions of the observation program; description of time, place and situation; information about the method of observation; detailed descriptions of observed facts; interpretation of observation results.

Thus, in its most general form, the procedure of sociological observation provides for such an order of research actions of a sociologist.

1. Determining the purpose and objectives of observation (why observe and for what purpose?).

2. Choice of object and subject of observation (what to observe?).

3. Choice of observation situation (in what conditions to observe?).

4. Choice of method (type) of observation (how to observe?).

5. Choice of a way of registration of observed event (how to keep records?).

6. Processing and interpretation of information obtained through observation (what is the result?).

Without a clear answer to all these questions, it is difficult to carry out sociological observation effectively. For all the attractiveness of observation as a method of collecting sociological information, its comparative simplicity, as already noted, it has many weak points. First of all, these are difficulties with the representativeness (reliability) of the data. It is difficult to cover a large number of phenomena when observing. This gives rise to the possibility of errors in interpreting events and actions of people from the point of view of the motives of their actions. The possibility of errors also exists because the sociologist does more than just observe. He has his own frame of reference, based on which he interprets and interprets certain facts and events in his own way. However, with all the subjectivity of perception, the main content of the materials also reflects the objective situation.

The practice of using observation not only confirms the fundamental ability of this method to provide objective information, but also serves as a decisive means of identifying and overcoming the subjectivity of the results. In order to obtain objective information about the sociological phenomenon or fact being studied, the following control methods are used: observation of observation, control using other sociological methods, recourse to repeated observation, exclusion of evaluative terms from records, etc. Thus, sociological observation is considered reliable, if, when repeated under the same conditions and with the same object, it produces the same results.

5. Documents in sociology

Documents, as a rule, are an important source of sociological information, and their analysis has become widespread in sociological research. The document analysis method (or documentary method) is one of the main data collection methods in sociological research, involving the use of information recorded in handwritten or printed text, on magnetic tape, film and other information media. The study of documents gives the researcher the opportunity to see many important aspects of social life. A document in sociology means a source (or object) containing information about social facts and phenomena of social life, social subjects that function and develop in modern society.

A classic example of documentary research in foreign sociology is the work of W. Thomas and F. Znaniecki "The Polish Peasant in Europe and America", the material for writing which was the letters of Polish emigrants. The authors accidentally acquired unclaimed letters from the post office and subjected them to sociological analysis, which marked the beginning of not only the use of the document analysis method in sociology, but also a new direction in sociological research. This method has been used repeatedly in domestic sociology. The most indicative here is the work of V. Lenin "The Development of Capitalism in Russia", created on the basis of a rethinking of the data of Russian Zemstvo statistics.

Thus, the method of document analysis opens up a wide opportunity for the sociologist to see the reflected aspects of social reality contained in documentary sources. Therefore, one should not plan field studies, and even more so go to them, without first obtaining official statistical data (not only central, but also local), without studying past and present research on this topic (if any), materials from books and journals, reports of various departments and other materials. For example, a sociological study of the free time of the inhabitants of a particular city can begin with the collection of statistical data on the use of library funds, attendance at theaters, concerts, etc.

However, in order to make the most of the opportunities provided by documents, one should get a systematic idea of ​​all their diversity. The classification of documents (Table 6) helps to navigate the documentary information, the basis of which is the fixation of the information contained in a particular document. In other words, the form in which the information is recorded depends on the purposes for which this or that document can be used and by what method it can be most successfully analyzed.

The analysis of documents differs from other methods of sociological research in that it operates with ready-made information; in all other methods, the sociologist has to extract this information on purpose. In addition, the object of study in this method is mediated, replaced by a document. The biggest problem with this method is the lack of confidence in the authenticity of the document and the sociological information it contains. After all, you can encounter a fake document. Or a situation may arise when the original is actually a fake in terms of the information contained in it, which may be the result of the ugly system of documentary postscripts that existed in the past, falsification of reporting and statistical materials. However, a forgery (if there is confidence that it is really a fake) can also be subjected to sociological analysis in order to study the goals and methods of falsifying documents and their consequences for society.

The problem of the reliability of documentary information is also due to the type of document. In general, the information contained in official documents is more reliable than that contained in personal documents, which can be said about primary documents as compared to secondary ones. Documents that have undergone special control, such as financial, legal and other types of control, have the maximum reliability.

Table 6

Classification of types of documents in sociology

Basis of classification	Document types
Information fixation technique	Written (all types of printed and handwritten products) Iconographic (video, film, photographic documents, paintings, engravings, etc.) Phonetic (radio recordings, tape recordings, CDs) Computer
	Official (created by legal entities and officials, formalized and certified) Personal or informal (created by unofficial persons)
The degree of closeness to fixed material	Primary (directly reflective material) Secondary (retelling the primary document)
Motives for creation	Provoked (specially called to life: competition announcements, essays by schoolchildren, etc.) Unprovoked (created at the initiative of the author)
	Legal historical Statistical Pedagogical Technical, etc.
Degree of preservation	Fully saved Partially saved

The reliability of various information fragments in a document can also be different. For example, if a personal letter contains a message about a rally and the number of its participants, then the fact of the rally itself is most reliable, and the estimate of the number of protesters may be questionable. Reports of real events are much more reliable than reports evaluating these events, since the latter always need serious verification.

In order to avoid the "traps of sensationalism", as well as to increase the reliability of sociological information, the sociologist-researcher must follow the following rules: 1) verify the authenticity of the document; 2) find another document confirming the one under consideration; 3) clearly imagine the purpose of the document and its meaning, and be able to read its language; 4) apply the documentary method in conjunction with other methods of collecting sociological information.

In sociology, there are many types of document analysis methods, but the most common and firmly established in the practice of sociological research are two: traditional, or classical (qualitative); formalized, or quantitative, also called content analysis (which means "content analysis" in English). Despite significant differences, they do not exclude, but complement each other, since they have one goal - to obtain reliable and reliable information.

6. Methods of sociological survey

A sociological survey is a method of collecting primary sociological information about the object under study by asking questions to a specific group of people called respondents. The basis of a sociological survey is indirect (questionnaire) or non-mediated (interview) socio-psychological communication between a sociologist and a respondent by registering answers to a system of questions arising from the purpose and objectives of the study.

A sociological survey occupies an important place in sociological research. Its main purpose is to obtain sociological information about the state of public, group, collective and individual opinion, as well as facts, events and assessments related to the life of the respondents. According to some scientists, almost 90% of all empirical information is collected with its help. Polling is the leading method in studying the sphere of people's consciousness. This method is especially important in the study of social processes and phenomena that are inaccessible to direct observation, as well as in cases where the area under study is poorly provided with documentary information.

A sociological survey, unlike other methods of collecting sociological information, makes it possible to "catch" through a system of formalized questions not only the accentuated opinions of respondents, but also the nuances, shades of their mood and structure of thinking, and also to reveal the role of intuitive aspects in their behavior. Therefore, many researchers consider the survey to be the simplest and most accessible method of collecting primary sociological information. In fact, the efficiency, simplicity, and economy of this method make it very popular and a priority in comparison with other methods of sociological research. However, this simplicity

and accessibility are often apparent. The problem is not with conducting the survey as such, but with obtaining qualitative data from it. And this requires appropriate conditions, compliance with certain requirements.

The main conditions of the survey (which is verified by the practice of sociological research) include: 1) the availability of reliable tools, justified by the research program; 2) creating a favorable, psychologically comfortable environment for the survey, which does not always depend only on the training and experience of the persons conducting it; 3) thorough training of sociologists, who must have high intellectual speed, tact, the ability to objectively assess their shortcomings and habits, which directly affects the quality of the survey; know the typology of possible situations hindering the conduct of the survey or provoking respondents to inaccurate or incorrect answers; have experience in compiling questionnaires using sociologically correct methods that allow you to double-check the reliability of answers, etc.

Compliance with these requirements and their significance are largely determined by the types of sociological survey. In sociology, it is customary to distinguish between written surveys (questionnaires) and oral (interviewing), face-to-face and correspondence (postal, telephone, press), expert and mass, selective and continuous (for example, a referendum), national, regional, local, local, etc. ( Table 7).

In the practice of sociological research, the most common type of survey is a questionnaire, or questionnaire survey. This is explained both by the variety and the quality of the sociological information that can be obtained with its help. A questionnaire survey is based on the statements of individuals and is conducted in order to identify the finest nuances in the opinion of the respondents (respondents). The questionnaire survey method is the most important source of information about real-life social facts and social activities. It begins, as a rule, with the formulation of program questions, the "translation" of the problems posed in the research program into questionnaire questions, with a wording that excludes various interpretations and is understandable to the respondents.

In sociology, as analysis shows, two main types of questionnaire survey are used more often than others: continuous and selective.

Table 7

Classification of types of sociological survey

A variation of the continuous survey is the census, in which the entire population of the country is surveyed. Since the beginning of the XIX century. Population censuses are regularly conducted in European countries, and today they are used almost everywhere. Population censuses provide invaluable social information, but are extremely expensive - even rich countries can afford such a luxury only once every 10 years. A continuous questionnaire survey thus covers the entire population of respondents belonging to any social community or social group. The country's population is the largest of these communities. However, there are also smaller ones, such as company personnel, participants in the Afghan war, veterans of the Second World War, and residents of a small city. If the survey is carried out at such facilities, it is also called census.

A sample survey (as opposed to a continuous one) is a more economical and no less reliable method of collecting information, although it requires a sophisticated method and technique. Its basis is a sample population, which is a reduced copy of the general population. The general population is considered to be the entire population of the country or that part of it that the sociologist intends to

study, and selective - a lot of people interviewed directly by the sociologist. In a continuous survey, the general and sample populations coincide, and in a sample they diverge. For example, the Gallup Institute in the United States regularly polls 1.5-2 thousand people. and obtains reliable data on the entire population (the error does not exceed a few percent). The general population is determined depending on the objectives of the study, the sample - by mathematical methods. Thus, if a sociologist intends to look at the presidential elections in Ukraine in 1999 through the eyes of its participants, then the general population will include all residents of Ukraine who have the right to vote, but he will have to poll a small part - the sample population. In order for the sample to accurately reflect the general population, the sociologist adheres to the following rule: any elector, regardless of the place of residence, place of work, health status, gender, age, and other circumstances that make it difficult to access it, must have the same opportunity to get into the sample population. A sociologist has no right to interview specially selected people, the first people they meet or the most accessible respondents. The probabilistic selection mechanism and special mathematical procedures that ensure the greatest objectivity are legitimate. It is believed that the random method is the best way to select typical representatives of the general population.

It should be noted that the art of a questionnaire survey consists in the correct formulation and arrangement of the questions asked. The ancient Greek philosopher Socrates was the first to address the scientific formulation of questions. Walking through the streets of Athens, he verbally expounded his teaching, sometimes baffling passers-by with his ingenious paradoxes. Today, in addition to sociologists, the polling method is used by journalists, doctors, investigators, and teachers. What is the difference between a sociological survey and surveys conducted by other specialists?

The first distinguishing feature of a sociological survey is the number of respondents. Specialists deal, as a rule, with one person. A sociologist, on the other hand, interviews hundreds and thousands of people and only then, summarizing the information received, draws conclusions. Why is he doing this? When one person is interviewed, they get his personal opinion. A journalist who interviews a pop star, a doctor who determines a patient's diagnosis, an investigator who finds out the causes of a person's death, does not need more, because they need the personal opinion of the interviewee. A sociologist, on the other hand, who interviews many people, is interested in public opinion. Individual deviations, subjective biases, prejudices, erroneous judgments, intentional distortions, processed statistically, cancel each other out. As a result, the sociologist obtains an average picture of social reality. After interviewing, for example, 100 managers, he identifies the average representative of this profession. That is why the sociological questionnaire does not require the surname, first name, patronymic and address: it is anonymous. So, a sociologist, receiving statistical information, reveals social personality types.

The second distinguishing feature of a sociological survey is the reliability and objectivity of the information received. This feature is actually related to the first one: by interviewing hundreds and thousands of people, the sociologist gets the opportunity to process the data mathematically. And by averaging various opinions, he receives more reliable information than a journalist. If all scientific and methodological requirements are strictly observed, this information can be called objective, although it was obtained on the basis of subjective opinions.

The third feature of a sociological survey is the very purpose of the survey. A doctor, journalist or investigator does not seek generalized information, but finds out what distinguishes one person from another. Of course, they all seek truthful information from the interviewee: the investigator - to a greater extent, the journalist who ordered the sensational material - to a lesser extent. But none of them is aimed at expanding scientific knowledge, enriching science, elucidating scientific truth. Meanwhile, the data obtained by the sociologist (for example, on the regularities of the connection between work and the attitude to work and the form of leisure) free his fellow sociologists from the need to conduct a survey again. If it is confirmed that diverse work (for example, a manager-manager) predetermines a variety of leisure, and monotonous work (for example, a worker on an assembly line) is associated with a monotonous, meaningless pastime (drinking, sleeping, watching TV), and if such a connection is theoretically proven, then we get a scientific social fact, universal and universal. However, such universality does not satisfy a journalist or a doctor, since they need to reveal individual characteristics and relationships.

An analysis of publications containing the results of sociological research shows that almost 90% of the data they contain was obtained using one or another type of sociological survey. Therefore, the popularity of this method is due to a number of fairly good reasons.

Firstly, behind the sociological survey method there is a great historical tradition, based on long-standing statistical, psychological and test studies, which made it possible to accumulate vast and unique experience. Secondly, the survey method is relatively simple. Therefore, it is he who is often preferred in comparison with other methods of obtaining empirical information. In this regard, the survey method has become so popular that it is often identified with sociological science in general. Thirdly, the survey method has a certain universality, which makes it possible to obtain information both about the objective facts of social reality and about the subjective world of a person, his motives, values, life plans, interests, etc. Fourthly, the survey method can be effectively apply when conducting both large-scale (international, national) research, and to obtain information in small social groups. Fifth, the sociological survey method is very convenient for quantitative processing of the sociological information obtained with its help.

7. Methods of analysis and processing of sociological information

Empirical data obtained in the course of sociological research do not yet allow drawing correct conclusions, discovering patterns and trends, or testing the hypotheses put forward by the research program. The obtained primary sociological information should be summarized, analyzed and scientifically integrated. To do this, all collected questionnaires, observation cards or interview forms must be checked, coded, entered into a computer, grouped the data obtained, compiled tables, graphs, charts, etc. In other words, it is necessary to apply methods of analysis and processing of empirical data.

In sociology, methods of analysis and processing of sociological information are understood as methods for transforming empirical data obtained in the course of sociological research. The transformation is carried out in order to make the data visible, compact and suitable for meaningful analysis, testing of research hypotheses and interpretation. Although it is impossible to draw a sufficiently clear distinction between methods of analysis and methods of processing, the former are usually understood as more complex data transformation procedures that are intertwined with interpretation, and the latter are mostly routine, mechanical procedures for transforming the information received.

Meanwhile, the analysis and processing of sociological information as a holistic formation constitutes the stage of empirical sociological research, during which, using logical-content procedures and mathematical-statistical methods, based on primary data, the relationships of the studied variables are revealed. With a certain degree of conventionality, information processing methods can be divided into primary and secondary. For the primary processing methods, the initial information is the data obtained in the course of an empirical study, i.e. the so-called "primary information": respondents' answers, expert assessments, observational data, etc. Examples of such methods are grouping, tabulation, calculation of multivariate distributions of features, classification, etc.

Secondary processing methods are used, as a rule, for primary processing data, i.e. these are methods for obtaining indicators calculated from frequencies, grouped data and clusters (averages, scatter measures, relationships, significance indicators, etc.). The methods of secondary processing can also include methods of graphical presentation of data, the initial information for which are percentages, tables, indices.

In addition, the methods of analysis and processing of sociological information can be divided into methods of statistical analysis of information, including methods of descriptive statistics (calculation of multivariate distributions of features, averages, dispersion measures), methods of inference statistics (for example, correlation, regression, factorial, cluster, causal, loglinear, analysis of variance, multidimensional scaling, etc.), as well as methods for modeling and predicting social phenomena and processes (for example, time series analysis, simulation modeling, Markov chains, etc.). Methods of analysis and processing of sociological information can also be divided into universal, which are suitable for the analysis of most types of information, and special, suitable only for the analysis of data presented in a special form of information (for example, analysis of sociometric data or content analysis of texts).

From the point of view of the use of technical means, two types of processing of sociological information are distinguished: manual and machine (using computer technology). Manual processing is mainly used as a primary one with small amounts of information (from several tens to hundreds of questionnaires), as well as with relatively simple algorithms for its analysis. The secondary processing of information is carried out using a microcalculator or other computer technology. Pilot, expert and sociometric surveys are an example of sociological research in which manual processing is often used.

However, the main means of data analysis and processing at present are computers, including personal computers, on which the primary and most types of secondary processing and analysis of sociological information are carried out. At the same time, the analysis and processing of sociological information on a computer is carried out, as a rule, by means of specially developed computer programs that implement methods for analyzing and processing sociological data. These programs are usually issued in the form of special sets of programs or so-called packages of applied programs for the analysis of sociological information. In large sociological centers, the analysis and processing of sociological information, along with application packages, are based on archives and banks of sociological data, which allow not only storing the necessary information, but also effectively using it in the secondary analysis of sociological data.

Conclusion

The analysis shows that the further development of sociological science in Ukraine will largely depend on the political and economic situation in the country, the position and role of science in society, as well as the personnel and financial policy of the state. In the near future, domestic sociology (as well as world sociology) will more clearly define its subject, different from the subjects of other sciences, and will also take up its own business more substantively, without replacing other sciences, and, moreover, it will be institutionalized not only organizationally, but also conceptually and methodologically. .

In this regard, in the near future, another trend should also be expected in Russian sociology - a reorientation from traditional connections with other sciences in terms of the object to connections in terms of the method, i.e., mastering the principles, approaches and methods developed in other scientific disciplines, such as synergetics , development theory, systems theory, activity theory, organization theory, information theory, etc.

The development of methodological and methodological approaches in both theoretical and applied sociology will depend on the latter trend to some extent, in which the methodological problems of "translating" sociological categories from the theoretical to the empirical level, as well as the transformation of sociological concepts, models and methods in order to more effectively apply them in the field of social technologies.

As for the methods and methodology of sociological research, in the near future, domestic sociologists should be expected to increase efforts related to the search for obtaining reliable data, as well as the creation of wide networks of interviewers, which will make it possible to conduct sociological research in a monitoring mode. Qualitative methods of sociological data analysis, as well as computer content analysis and computer-assisted interviews, will be used more widely. In addition, at the beginning of the third millennium we should expect the creation of powerful networks of telephone interviews.

Along with studies on all-Ukrainian (nationwide) samples, regional studies, i.e., studies on samples representative of the regions of Ukraine, will become more widespread. Together with questionnaires, the so-called flexible methods of collecting empirical data will be used much more often: in-depth interviews, focused conversations, etc. One can also expect a wider distribution of exploratory (without rigid hypotheses) and special methodological and methodological studies. At the same time, local, operational and compact empirical studies of various aspects of reforming social life (naturally, with a sufficiently high level of their scientific organization and conduct) can turn out to be no less effective for both applied and theoretical sociology.

Of undoubted interest will continue to be the ethical side of both sociological science and the practical activities of domestic sociologists.

Literature:

1. Yu. P. Surmin N.V. Tulenkov "Methodology and methods of sociological research"

2. G. V. Shchekin "The system of sociological knowledge"

3. N. P. Lukashevich N. V. Tulenkov "Sociology"

The model of the observation card, which is carried out by the teacher in the literature lesson (A, B, C, D - students of the class).