The concept of logical form (form of thinking).

The human brain is a complex structure that has not yet been fully studied. We use very little of its potential, slowly improving and sometimes not trying to discover new opportunities for ourselves. But even this small part of the work of the main organ of the central nervous system is striking in its intricate mechanism: the operations of thinking, its types and manifestations in all people are so different, at the same time obeying the same laws of formation.

Comparison

We do this simple operation every day without noticing it. After all, in order to have an idea about a particular object, we mentally isolate its main characteristics, highlighting and emphasizing them. For example, in order to understand the reason for an unsuccessful interview, a journalist focuses on what it was like, under what conditions it was recorded, and its features. Highlighting these points is always associated with awareness of the task, by comparing it with other more successful works.

We begin to use thinking from the cradle. A baby who has just been born uses the same comparison. By certain signs - voice, smell, touch - he distinguishes mother from other people.

By comparing objects and phenomena, we draw conclusions about their differences and similarities, opposition and identity. As a result, we understand the world around us better. Thinking operations teach us and develop us. For example, by comparing an interview with a report, a student journalist determines the essence and form of each of these genres, which allows him to separate, distinguish and reproduce them in the future.

Abstraction

The basic operations of thinking also include this function of the brain, thanks to which a person is able not only to isolate individual characteristics, as well as the properties of phenomena and objects, but also to be able to realize them abstractly. Based on abstraction, a concept is formed. For example, we all know that food gives us strength and health. Thanks to the daily consumption of meat, milk and cereals, we live, move, and work. The main property of food is saturation and enrichment of the body with necessary substances. Abstracting from the concept of “food”, when we talk about the need to satisfy hunger, we already mean food products without even saying their name.

Abstraction helps a person establish logical connections between objects. Delving deeper into a particular phenomenon, we see its essence, purpose, direction and task. Abstraction helps a person to think generally, holistically, drawing conclusions and conclusions. Operations such as comparison and abstraction contribute to the knowledge of truth.

Generalization

This function of our brain is closely related to the previous one, together they form our thinking. abstraction and generalization allow a person to recognize and study the world around him based on characteristics. The first type of brain activity highlights one property of an object that is characteristic only of it. Based on it, we draw a conclusion about what we are talking about. Instead, generalization is also a property, but characteristic not only of a given phenomenon, but also of others. For example, a boxer's punch is characterized by sharpness. We give knockout such a definition based on our knowledge about sharpness, which we developed during other life situations: while watching football, programs about snakes, feeling gusts of wind on the street.

That is, we learned what sharpness is by analyzing all the characteristics of these phenomena. We were able to determine that this is a process that occurs with rapid and strong exposure. Only this one operation reflects in our minds the whole essence of the phenomenon: the defeat of a boxer during a knockout occurs precisely due to the harshness of his opponent.

Specification

Another property of the brain associated with abstraction. Concretization is its exact opposite. If at one end of the stick we have abstraction and generalization, then at the other we have concretization. The first can be individual, but the second is common to everyone. In the educational process, specification means a specific example for an established position.

To correctly understand reality, you need to be able to master all these processes. After all, concretization does not allow mental activity to go far from the object or activity. Contemplating phenomena or events, we clearly understand their essence. Without specification, all acquired knowledge remains bare, abstract, and therefore useless. For example, having studied the theory of separating water from alcohol, we will never fully understand the essence of the process until we see with our own eyes what actually happens during this action. The brain concretizes all acquired knowledge through vision, touch and smell. A person also often brings up facts in order to specify a particular event.

Analysis

It is used by a person every day in the same way as other thinking operations. This is a separate property of the brain when it breaks down a phenomenon or object into its components. This is actually dismemberment, disassembly into parts. For example, an athlete running. We can mentally identify such elements as the start, the run itself and the finish. This will be the analysis of this activity process.

Analyzing more deeply and in detail, we can also highlight the sharpness at the start, the speed of the athlete’s movement, and the rhythm of breathing. These components are also included in the overall picture called “running”. By analyzing, we gain a deeper understanding of the world that surrounds us. Indeed, during this thinking process, we do not highlight any parts, but only those that are characteristic of a certain phenomenon. During the same run, a person waves his arms differently and has different facial expressions. But this will be a specification of the athlete, and not the running itself. You need to highlight only the essential elements for each object or phenomenon.

Synthesis

This is exactly the opposite of analysis. With the help of synthesis, on the contrary, we create an overall picture of what is happening from specific details. It gives us the opportunity to reconstruct events based on individual facts. A person receives from diverse details a complete concept of what is happening. It's like putting together puzzles: you substitute this or that part, throw away the excess, add what you need.

Basic operations of thinking such as always go hand in hand. Only at the same time you need to understand that neither of these concepts dominates, since both of them are important. Every analysis presupposes synthesis and vice versa. A very striking example of synthesis is the investigation of a crime. The investigator collects facts, studies evidence, interviews people, displays in his mind a chain of events and actions in order to come to the correct conclusion: who, when and why violated the law. The whole picture of the crime he created consists of a mass of small, seemingly insignificant elements. Individually they are of no value, but collected together they can change the course of certain events.

Types of thinking

Human mental activity also has other manifestations. For example, it comes in three types, each of which helps to generalize and at the same time specify the world around us:

1. Effective thinking based on direct perception of objects. Occurs during practical activities. This is the basis for all other types of thinking.
2. figurative. In this case, a person relies on images, fantasy and perception.
3. Abstract-logical. Occurs during the identification of connections and properties of individual objects and takes the form of reasoning and abstract concepts.

All types and operations of thinking are closely interconnected, one might say, woven into a single knot. For example, when describing the same historical events, words rely on images, and the reconstruction of images in the mind is inherently based on phrases read or heard. The operations of thinking also take part in the process, making it individual for each person. Thanks to different types of mental activity, we open up new horizons of knowledge.

Forms of mental activity

Each of our thoughts has not only content, but also an outer shell. That is, the basic operations of thinking are always expressed in a certain form:

• Concept. Reflects the characteristics, properties of objects and phenomena, their relationships. At the same time, concepts can be concrete and abstract, general and individual.
• Judgment. Expresses the denial or affirmation of something. Reflects the connection between events and phenomena. Judgments can be false or true.
• the same conclusion drawn from a series of judgments. Inferences can be inductive (logical conclusion from the particular to the general) and deductive (from the general to the particular).

Operations and forms of thinking are the main way of perceiving and knowing the world. Without the hard work of the brain, a person would remain a “vegetable”, unable to think, imagine, feel, or move. There is no limit to the capabilities of the “gray matter”. With its development and improvement in the future, it is possible to discover new types, forms and operations of thinking.

Logic is a science that studies methods and means of correct thinking and understanding of the real world. It represents natural, consistent thought processes with the help of which one can see and determine the cause-and-effect relationship that arises between objects and phenomena.

We need logical thinking in order to timely analyze and apply previously received information. It helps us to solve various problems (from drawing up the shortest route to home to developing a large-scale business plan). Logical thinking allows you to separate the main from the secondary, find connections and fully analyze the situation.

Thanks to logic, we can give reasons for various phenomena, consciously approach the solution of important problems and competently share our thoughts.

What types of logical thinking are there?

Thinking is the process of processing received information that comes from the outside world. When receiving any information, a person is able to present it in the form of a certain image, to imagine an object when it is not nearby.

The following main types of logical thinking are distinguished:

1. Visually effective– as a result of solving a problem, a person is able to transform it in his thoughts, based on previously acquired experience and knowledge. At first, a person observes the situation, then, through trial and error, tries to solve the problem, after which theoretical activity is formed. This type of thinking involves equal application of theory and practice.
2. Visual-figurative– thinking occurs through representation. It is most typical for preschool children. In order to solve a problem, children often use images that can be in memory or created by imagination. Also, this type of thinking is possessed by people who are associated with a type of activity in which it is necessary to make decisions based on the observation of objects or their images (drawing, diagram).
3. Abstract-logical– this type of thinking is not interested in individual details; it is interested in the process of thinking as a whole. To avoid problems solving important problems in the future, it is important to develop abstract-logical thinking from early childhood. This kind of thinking manifests itself in three main forms: concept, judgment, conclusion.

The concept combines one or more homogeneous objects, dividing them according to essential features. This form of thinking needs to be developed in children at an early age, giving definitions to all objects and interpreting their meaning.

Judgment can be either simple or complex. This can be an affirmation of an object or a denial of its relationship with other objects. An example of a simple judgment is simple phrases: “Masha loves porridge”, “Mom loves Anya”, “The cat meows”, etc. This is exactly how kids think when they begin to explore the world around them.

An inference is a logical analysis of what is happening, which is based on several judgments.

Each person can independently develop a logical type of thinking by solving special problems, puzzles, crosswords, and puzzles.

Logical mental operations

Logical mental operations consist of:

• comparisons,
• abstractions,
• generalizations
• specification,
• analysis,
• synthesis.

By comparisons we can understand the reason for our failure and subsequently pay due attention to the problem and the conditions under which it was created.

Abstraction process allows you to divert the attention of one object from other closely interrelated objects. Abstraction makes it possible to see an object, determine its essence and give your own definition of this object. Abstraction refers to human mental activity. It allows us to comprehend the phenomenon, touching on its most significant characteristic features. By abstracting from problems, a person learns the truth.

Generalization allows you to combine similar objects and phenomena based on common characteristics. Typically, generalization is used to summarize or draw up rules.

A thought process like specification completely opposite to generalization. It serves for correct awareness of reality, not allowing thinking to break away from the real perception of phenomena. Concretization does not allow our knowledge to acquire abstract images, which in reality become useless.

Our brain uses every day analysis for a detailed division into parts of an object or phenomenon necessary for us. By analyzing a phenomenon or object, we can identify its most necessary elements, which will further help us improve our skills and knowledge.

Synthesis on the contrary, it allows you to create an overall picture of what is happening from small details. With its help, you can compare current events by going through several individual facts. An example of synthesis is puzzles. When assembling a mosaic, we imagine one or another part of it, putting aside what is unnecessary and adding what is necessary.

Applying logic

Logical thinking is used in almost every area of ​​human activity (humanities, economics, rhetoric, creative activity, etc.). For example, in the mathematical sciences or philosophy, strict and formalized logic is used. In other areas, logic serves as a source of useful knowledge necessary to obtain a reasonable conclusion of the whole situation as a whole.

A person tries to apply logical skills on a subconscious level. Some people cope with this better, some worse. But in any case, using our logic, we need to know what we can do with it:

1. Select the necessary method to solve the problem;
2. Think faster;
3. Express your thoughts qualitatively;
4. Avoid self-deception;
5. Find and correct other people’s mistakes in their conclusions;
6. Select the necessary arguments to convince your interlocutor that you are right.

In order to develop the correct logical thinking, it is necessary not only to strive, but also to systematically study the main components of this issue.

Is it possible to learn logical thinking?

Scientists identify several aspects that contribute to mastering the basic concepts of logic:

• Theoretical training is knowledge that is provided in educational institutions. These include basic concepts, laws and rules of logic.
• Practical learning is previously acquired knowledge that needs to be applied in real life. At the same time, modern education involves passing special tests and solving problems that can reveal the level of a person’s intellectual development, but without applying logic in emerging life situations.

Logical thinking must be built sequentially, based on arguments and events that help to draw the right conclusions and make important decisions. A person with well-developed logical thinking has no problems in solving serious issues that require quick reactions and analytical activity.

It is necessary to develop this ability in childhood, but through long training, adults can also master the skills of logical thinking.

In modern psychology, there are a large number of exercises that can develop a person’s observation, thinking, and intellectual abilities. One of the effective exercises is “Logicity”.

The main idea of ​​the exercise is to correctly determine the relationship between judgments and whether the conclusion drawn is logical. For example: “All cats can meow. Vaska is a cat, which means he can meow” - this statement is logical. “Cherry red. The tomato is also red, which means it is a fruit.” There is a clear error in this conclusion. Each exercise allows you to build a logical chain for yourself that will allow you to make the only right decision.

Every day we are faced with many tasks, the solution of which requires our ability to think logically. Logic as the ability to think and reason consistently and consistently is required in many life situations, from solving complex technical and business problems to persuading interlocutors and making purchases in a store.

But despite the high need for this skill, we often make logical errors without knowing it ourselves. Indeed, among many people there is an opinion that it is possible to think correctly on the basis of life experience and so-called common sense, without using the laws and special techniques of “formal logic”. To perform simple logical operations, express elementary judgments and simple conclusions, common sense can also be suitable, but if we need to understand or explain something more complex, then common sense often leads us to errors.

The reasons for these misconceptions lie in the principles of development and formation of the foundations of logical thinking in people, which are laid in childhood. Teaching logical thinking is not carried out purposefully, but is identified with mathematics lessons (for children at school or for students at the university), as well as with solving and passing a variety of games, tests, tasks and puzzles. But such actions contribute to the development of only a small proportion of logical thinking processes. In addition, they explain to us the principles of finding solutions to tasks in a rather primitive way. As for the development of verbal-logical thinking (or verbal-logical), the ability to correctly perform mental operations, consistently come to conclusions, for some reason we are not taught this. That is why the level of development of people's logical thinking is not high enough.

We believe that a person’s logical thinking and his ability to cognition should develop systematically and on the basis of a special terminological apparatus and logical tools. During the classes of this online training, you will learn about self-education methods for the development of logical thinking, get acquainted with the main categories, principles, features and laws of logic, and also find examples and exercises for applying the acquired knowledge and skills.

What is logical thinking?

To explain what “logical thinking” is, let’s divide this concept into two parts: thinking and logic. Now let's define each of these components.

Human thinking- this is the mental process of processing information and establishing connections between objects, their properties or phenomena of the surrounding world. Thinking allows a person to find connections between the phenomena of reality, but in order for the connections found to truly reflect the true state of affairs, thinking must be objective, correct or, in other words, logical, that is, subject to the laws of logic.

Logics translated from Greek has several meanings: “the science of correct thinking”, “the art of reasoning”, “speech”, “reasoning” and even “thought”. In our case, we will proceed from the most popular definition of logic as a normative science about the forms, methods and laws of human intellectual mental activity. Logic studies ways to achieve truth in the process of cognition in an indirect way, not from sensory experience, but from knowledge acquired earlier, therefore it can also be defined as the science of ways to obtain inferential knowledge. One of the main tasks of logic is to determine how to come to a conclusion from existing premises and gain true knowledge about the subject of thought in order to better understand the nuances of the subject of thought being studied and its relationships with other aspects of the phenomenon under consideration.

Now we can define logical thinking itself.

This is a thought process in which a person uses logical concepts and constructions, which is characterized by evidence, prudence, and the goal of which is to obtain a reasonable conclusion from existing premises.

There are also several types of logical thinking; we list them, starting with the simplest:

Figurative-logical thinking

Figurative-logical thinking (visual-figurative thinking) - various thought processes of the so-called “imaginative” problem solving, which involves a visual representation of the situation and operating with images of its constituent objects. Visual-figurative thinking, in fact, is synonymous with the word “imagination”, which allows us to most vividly and clearly recreate the whole variety of different actual characteristics of an object or phenomenon. This type of human mental activity is formed in childhood, starting from approximately 1.5 years.

To understand how developed this type of thinking is in you, we suggest you take the IQ Test “Raven’s Progressive Matrices”

The Raven's Test is a progressive matrix scale for assessing IQ, mental ability, and logical thinking, developed in 1936 by John Raven and Roger Penrose. This test can give the most objective assessment of the IQ of the people being tested, regardless of their level of education, social class, type of activity, linguistic and cultural characteristics. That is, it can be said with a high probability that the data obtained as a result of this test from two people from different parts of the world will evaluate their IQ equally. The objectivity of the assessment is ensured by the fact that this test is based solely on images of figures, and since Raven's matrices are among non-verbal intelligence tests, its tasks do not contain text.

The test consists of 60 tables. You will be offered drawings with figures connected to each other by a certain relationship. One figure is missing; it is given at the bottom of the picture among 6-8 other figures. Your task is to establish a pattern that connects the figures in the picture and indicate the number of the correct figure by choosing from the proposed options. Each series of tables contains tasks of increasing difficulty, while at the same time, the complication of the type of tasks is observed from series to series.

Abstract logical thinking

Abstract logical thinking- this is the completion of a thought process with the help of categories that do not exist in nature (abstractions). Abstract thinking helps a person model relationships not only between real objects, but also between abstract and figurative ideas that thinking itself has created. Abstract logical thinking has several forms: concept, judgment and inference, which you can learn more about in the lessons of our training.

Verbal and logical thinking

Verbal and logical thinking (verbal-logical thinking) is one of the types of logical thinking, characterized by the use of linguistic means and speech structures. This type of thinking requires not only the skillful use of thought processes, but also competent command of one’s speech. We need verbal-logical thinking for public speaking, writing texts, arguing, and in other situations where we have to express our thoughts using language.

Applying logic

Thinking using the tools of logic is necessary in almost any area of ​​human activity, including the exact sciences and humanities, economics and business, rhetoric and public speaking, the creative process and invention. In some cases, strict and formalized logic is used, for example, in mathematics, philosophy, and technology. In other cases, logic only provides a person with useful techniques for obtaining a reasonable conclusion, for example, in economics, history, or simply in ordinary “life” situations.

As already mentioned, we often try to think logically on an intuitive level. Some people do it well, some do it worse. But when connecting the logical apparatus, it is better to know exactly what mental techniques we use, since in this case we can:

• More precisely, choose the right method that will allow you to come to the right conclusion;
• Think faster and better - as a consequence of the previous point;
• It is better to express your thoughts;
• Avoid self-deception and logical fallacies,
• Identify and eliminate errors in other people’s conclusions, cope with sophistry and demagoguery;
• Use the necessary argumentation to convince your interlocutors.

The use of logical thinking is often associated with quickly solving logic tasks and passing tests to determine the level of intellectual development (IQ). But this direction is associated to a greater extent with bringing mental operations to automatism, which is a very insignificant part of how logic can be useful to a person.

The ability to think logically combines many skills in the use of various mental actions and includes:

1. Knowledge of the theoretical foundations of logic.
2. The ability to correctly perform such mental operations as: classification, specification, generalization, comparison, analogy and others.
3. Confident use of key forms of thinking: concept, judgment, inference.
4. The ability to argue your thoughts in accordance with the laws of logic.
5. The ability to quickly and effectively solve complex logical problems (both educational and applied).

Of course, such operations of thinking using logic as definition, classification and categorization, proof, refutation, inference, conclusion and many others are used by every person in his mental activity. But we use them unconsciously and often with errors, without a clear idea of ​​the depth and complexity of those mental actions that make up even the most elementary act of thinking. And if you want your logical thinking to be truly correct and rigorous, you need to learn this specifically and purposefully.

How to learn it?

Logical thinking is not given to us from birth, it can only be learned. There are two main aspects of teaching logic: theoretical and practical.

theoretical logic , which is taught at universities, introduces students to the basic categories, laws and rules of logic.

Practical training aimed at applying the acquired knowledge in life. However, in reality, modern teaching of practical logic is usually associated with passing various tests and solving problems to test the level of intelligence development (IQ) and for some reason does not address the application of logic in real life situations.

To truly master logic, you need to combine theoretical and applied aspects. Lessons and exercises should be aimed at developing intuitive, automated logical tools and consolidating the acquired knowledge in order to apply it in real situations.

Based on this principle, the online training that you are reading now was compiled. The purpose of this course is to teach you to think logically and apply logical thinking methods. Classes are aimed at introducing the basics of logical thinking (thesaurus, theories, methods, models), mental operations and forms of thinking, rules of argumentation and laws of logic. In addition, each lesson contains tasks and exercises to train you to use the acquired knowledge in practice.

Logic lessons

Having collected a wide range of theoretical materials, as well as having studied and adapted the experience of teaching applied forms of logical thinking, we have prepared a series of lessons for the full mastery of this skill.

We will devote the first lesson of our course to a complex but very important topic - the logical analysis of language. It’s worth mentioning right away that this topic may seem abstract to many, loaded with terminology, and inapplicable in practice. Don't be scared! Logical analysis of language is the basis of any logical system and correct reasoning. The terms that we learn here will become our logical alphabet, without knowledge of which we simply cannot go further, but gradually we will learn to use it with ease.

A logical concept is a form of thinking that reflects objects and phenomena in their essential features. Concepts come in different types: concrete and abstract, individual and general, collective and non-collective, irrespective and correlative, positive and negative, and others. Within the framework of logical thinking, it is important to be able to distinguish these types of concepts, as well as produce new concepts and definitions, find relationships between concepts and perform special actions on them: generalization, limitation and division. You will learn all this in this lesson.

In the first two lessons we said that the task of logic is to help us move from an intuitive use of language, accompanied by errors and disagreements, to a more orderly use of it, devoid of ambiguity. The ability to handle concepts correctly is one of the skills required for this. Another equally important skill is the ability to correctly define. In this lesson we will tell you how to learn this and how to avoid the most common mistakes.

Logical judgment is a form of thinking in which something is affirmed or denied about the surrounding world, objects, phenomena, as well as relationships and connections between them. Judgments in logic consist of a subject (what the judgment is about), a predicate (what is said about the subject), a copula (what connects the subject and the predicate) and a quantifier (the scope of the subject). Judgments can be of various types: simple and complex, categorical, general, particular, individual. The forms of connectives between the subject and the predicate also differ: equivalence, intersection, subordination and compatibility. In addition, within the framework of composite (complex) judgments there can be their own connectives, which define six more types of complex judgments. The ability to think logically presupposes the ability to correctly construct various types of judgments, understand their structural elements, features, relationships between judgments, and also check whether a judgment is true or false.

Before moving on to the last third form of thinking (inference), it is important to understand what logical laws exist, or, in other words, objectively existing rules for constructing logical thinking. Their purpose, on the one hand, is to help build inferences and argumentation, and on the other hand, to prevent errors and violations of logic associated with reasoning. This lesson will examine the following laws of formal logic: the law of identity, the law of excluded middle, the law of contradiction, the law of sufficient reason, as well as De Morgan's laws, the laws of deductive inference, Clavius' law and the laws of division. By studying examples and completing special exercises, you will learn how to purposefully use each of these laws.

Inference is the third form of thinking in which from one, two or more propositions, called premises, a new proposition, called a conclusion or conclusion, follows. Inferences are divided into three types: deductive, inductive and analogical inferences. In deductive inference (deduction), a conclusion is drawn from a general rule for a particular case. Induction is inference in which a general rule is derived from several particular cases. In inferences by analogy, based on the similarity of objects in some characteristics, a conclusion is drawn about their similarity in other characteristics. In this lesson you will become familiar with all types and subtypes of inferences and learn how to build various cause-and-effect relationships.

This lesson will focus on multi-premise inferences. Just as in the case of single-premise conclusions, all the necessary information in a hidden form will already be present in the premises. However, since there will now be many premises, the methods for extracting them become more complex, and therefore the information obtained in conclusion will not seem trivial. In addition, it should be noted that there are many different types of multi-premise inferences. We will focus only on syllogisms. They differ in that both in the premises and in the conclusion they have categorical attributive statements and, based on the presence or absence of some properties in objects, they allow one to draw a conclusion about the presence or absence of other properties in them.

In previous lessons we talked about various logical operations that form an important part of any reasoning. Among them were operations on concepts, definitions, judgments and inferences. This means that at this point it should be clear what components the reasoning consists of. However, we have not yet touched upon the questions of how reasoning as a whole can be organized and what types of reasoning there are in principle. This will be the topic of the last lesson. Let's start with the fact that reasoning is divided into deductive and plausible. All types of inferences discussed in previous lessons: inferences using a logical square, appeals, syllogisms, enthymemes, sorites, are precisely deductive reasoning. Their distinctive feature is that the premises and conclusions in them are connected by a relation of strict logical consequence, while in the case of plausible reasoning there is no such connection. First, let's talk more about deductive reasoning.

How to take classes?

The lessons themselves with all the exercises can be completed in 1-3 weeks, having mastered the theoretical material and practiced a little. But to develop logical thinking, it is important to study systematically, read a lot and constantly train.

For maximum effect, we recommend that you first simply read all the material, spending 1-2 evenings on it. Then take 1 lesson daily, doing the necessary exercises and following the suggested recommendations. After you have mastered all the lessons, engage in effective repetition in order to remember the material for a long time. Next, try to apply logical thinking techniques more often in life, when writing articles, letters, when communicating, in disputes, in business, and even in your leisure time. Reinforce your knowledge by reading books and textbooks, as well as using additional material, which will be discussed below.

Additional material

In addition to the lessons in this section, we tried to select a lot of useful material on the topic under consideration:

• Logic problems;
• Tests for logical thinking;
• Logic games;
• The smartest people in Russia and the world;
• Video lessons and master classes.

As well as books and textbooks, articles, quotes, auxiliary trainings.

Books and textbooks on logic

On this page we have selected useful books and textbooks that will help you deepen your knowledge of logic and logical thinking:

• "Applied Logic". Nikolai Nikolaevich Nepeyvoda;
• "Textbook of Logic". Georgy Ivanovich Chelpanov;
• "Logic: lecture notes." Dmitry Shadrin;
• "Logics. Training course" (educational and methodological complex). Dmitry Alekseevich Gusev;
• “Logic for Lawyers” (collection of problems). HELL. Getmanova;

Thinking- this is the process of indirect and generalized reflection, establishing existing connections and relationships between objects and phenomena of reality.

Thinking- a cognitive process of a higher level compared to the direct sensory reflection of reality in sensations, perceptions, and ideas. Sensory knowledge provides only an external picture of the world, while thinking leads to knowledge of the laws of nature and social life.

Thinking performs a regulatory, cognitive and communicative function, i.e., a communication function. And here its expression in speech acquires special significance. Whether thoughts are transmitted orally or in writing in the process of communication between people, whether a scientific book or a work of fiction is written - everywhere the thought must be formalized in words so that other people understand it.

Sensory reflection and thinking- a unified process of human cognition of the surrounding reality. The source of knowledge is practice. It all begins with sensations and perceptions, that is, with living contemplation. In no other way can one obtain knowledge about various objects and phenomena, about the properties of things, about various forms of movement of matter. Only then does sensory knowledge ascend to mental - abstract, logical. But even at the level of abstract thinking, its connection with sensory images of sensations, perceptions and ideas remains.

Such abstract and generalized knowledge allows us to understand the world more fully and deeply. The truth of such knowledge is verified by practice. Here it already acts as a criterion for the correctness of human cognition, human thinking. The unity of sensory reflection and thinking allows us to compare the past and present, to foresee and design the future. This applies not only to the surrounding world of things, phenomena, other people, but also to the person himself, allowing him to “learn to control himself.”

Like all mental phenomena, thinking is a product of reflex activity of the brain. The unity of the sensory and logical in thinking is based on the complex interaction of the cortex and subcortical formations of the brain.

Thinking - always solving some problem, searching for an answer to a question that has arisen, searching for a way out of the current situation. At the same time, no solution, no answer, no way out can be seen only by perceiving reality.

Thinking - it is not only an indirect, but also a generalized reflection of reality. Its generality lies in the fact that for each group of homogeneous objects and phenomena, common and essential features that characterize them are identified. As a result, knowledge about this object in general is formed: a table in general, a chair in general, a tree in general, etc. The essential features of “man in general,” for example, are the following general features: man is a social being, a worker, who has speech. To highlight these general and essential features, you need to abstract yourself from private, unimportant features, such as gender, age, race, etc.

Distinguish visual-effective, visual-figurative and verbal-logical thinking.

Visual-effective thinking. It is also called practically effective or simply practical thinking. It occurs directly in the process of people’s practical activities and is associated with the solution of practical problems: production, organization of the educational process. This type of thinking is, one might say, fundamental throughout a person’s life.

Visual-figurative thinking. This type of thinking is associated with solving mental problems based on figurative material. Here we operate with a wide variety of images, but most of all with visual and auditory images. Visual-figurative thinking is closely related to practical thinking.

Verbal and logical thinking. It is also called abstract or theoretical. It has the form of abstract concepts and judgments and is associated with the operation of philosophical, mathematical, physical and other concepts and judgments. This is the highest level of thinking, allowing one to penetrate into the essence of phenomena and establish the laws of development of nature and social life.

All types of thinking are closely interconnected. However, for different people one or another species occupies a leading position. Which one is determined by the conditions and requirements of the activity. For example, a theoretical physicist or a philosopher has verbal-logical thinking, while an artist has visual-figurative thinking.

The relationship between types of thinking is also characterized by their mutual transitions. They depend on the tasks of activity, requiring first one, then the other, or even joint manifestation of types of thinking.

Basic logical forms of thinking- concept, judgment, inference.

Concept- this is a thought expressed in a word about the general and essential characteristics of objects and phenomena of reality. In this way it differs from representations that only show their images. Concepts are formed in the process of historical development of mankind. Therefore, their content acquires the character of universality. This means that even though the same concept is denoted differently by words in different languages, the essence remains the same.

Concepts are mastered in the process of a person’s individual life as he enriches himself with knowledge. The ability to think is always associated with the ability to operate with concepts, to operate with knowledge.

Judgment- a form of thinking in which the affirmation or denial of certain connections and relationships between objects, phenomena and events is expressed. Judgments can be general (for example, “all plants have roots”), particular, or single.

Inference- a form of thinking in which a new judgment is derived from one or more judgments, one way or another completing the thought process. There are two main types of inferences: inductive (induction) and deductive (deduction).

Inference is called inductive. from particular cases, from particular judgments to the general. For example: “when Ivanova turned 14 years old, she received a Russian citizen passport,” “when Rybnikov turned 14 years old, he received a Russian citizen passport,” etc. Consequently, “all Russians who have reached the age of 14 receive a Russian citizen passport "

There is also a conclusion by analogy. It is usually used to build hypotheses, i.e., assumptions about the possibility of certain events and phenomena.

The process of inference thus, it is the operation of concepts and judgments, leading to one or another conclusion.

Mental operations are called mental actions used in the process of thinking. These are analysis and synthesis, comparison, generalization, abstraction, specification and classification.

Analysis- mental division of the whole into parts, highlighting individual signs and properties.

Synthesis- mental connection of parts, features, properties into a single whole, mental connection of objects, phenomena, events into systems, complexes, etc.

Analysis and synthesis are interconnected m. The leading role of one or the other is determined by the tasks of the activity.

Comparison- mental establishment of similarities and differences between objects and phenomena or their signs.

Generalization- mental unification of objects or phenomena based on selection when comparing common and essential properties and characteristics for them.

Abstraction- mental distraction from any properties or signs of objects or phenomena.

Specification- mental selection from the general of one or another particular specific property and feature.

Classification- mental separation and subsequent unification of objects, phenomena, events into groups and subgroups according to certain characteristics.

Mental operations, as a rule, do not occur in isolation, but in various combinations.

Analysis and synthesis form a unity. In the process of analysis, a comparison takes place in order to identify common and different characteristics of a particular group of phenomena or objects.

Thinking, as is known, - generalized reflection of reality. The process of identifying common essential features requires abstraction, therefore, abstraction is also included in the process of analysis and synthesis.

Thinking can be figurative- at the level of images, perceptions and ideas. It also exists to some extent in higher animals. Human higher thinking is verbal thinking. Language, speech is the material shell of thought. Only in speech - oral or written form - does a person’s thought become accessible to others.

Individual characteristics of thinking manifest themselves in various properties of mental activity. They develop in the process of life and activity and are largely determined by the conditions of training and upbringing. Typological features of higher nervous activity are also important.

Among the features of thinking include breadth and depth of mind, consistency, flexibility, independence and critical thinking.

Breadth of mind characterized by versatility of knowledge, the ability to think creatively, the ability to make broad generalizations, and the ability to connect theory with practice.

Depth of mind- this is the ability to isolate a complex issue, delve into its essence, separate the main from the secondary, foresee the paths and consequences of its solution, consider the phenomenon comprehensively, understand it in all connections and relationships.

Sequence of thinking is expressed in the ability to establish a logical order in solving various issues.

Flexibility of thinking- this is the ability to quickly assess a situation, quickly think and make the necessary decisions, and easily switch from one method of action to another.

Independence of thinking is expressed in the ability to pose a new question, find an answer to it, make decisions and act in a non-standard way, without succumbing to suggestive outside influences.

Critical thinking characterized by the ability not to consider the first thought that comes to mind to be correct, to subject the proposals and judgments of others to critical consideration, to make the necessary decisions only after weighing all the pros and cons.

The listed features of thinking are combined differently in different people and expressed to varying degrees. This characterizes the individual characteristics of their thinking.

Conditions for the development of thinking in the educational process.

When studying the development of a child's thinking, it is always necessary to take into account the main difference between the conditions of phylogenetic and ontogenetic development. Along the line of phylogenetic development, the stimulus for thinking has always mainly been needs, the satisfaction of which had more or less pronounced vital significance; here thinking arose and developed on the basis of serious activity - service and, especially, labor. As far as ontogeny is concerned, especially within the limits of childhood, the situation here is different. Childhood is that period of a person's life when he himself does not have to take care of satisfying his basic needs - this is done by others, his educators, adults. A person ceases to be considered a child only after he becomes forced to take care of the satisfaction of his vital needs, that is, to solve the tasks that confront him on his own.

Therefore, during childhood, the impulse for the development of thinking is the need to satisfy not vital needs, as is the case in phylogenesis, but the needs of another category, in particular, needs development. The development of children's thinking occurs mainly on the basis of games And study. Accounting for this circumstance is not only of great theoretical, but perhaps even greater practical significance, since in the education of thinking, the knowledge of where the impulses of a child’s thinking come from is certainly of fundamental importance.

The development of thinking as an activity takes place in communication, in actions with objects, in a game, in didactic classes. The accumulation of activity experience and its generalization in the form of a variety of targeted ways of acting with objects, ways of communicating with people ensures the correct development of the child’s thinking and its transformation from visual-active at an early age into visual-figurative and conceptual at preschool and school age.

The human ability to think is based on three components, the so-called forms of thinking. It is thanks to this that the human brain has such high lability and is capable of the most complex processes of analysis and synthesis. The very first teachings in this area arose in the ancient world.

But Aristotle is considered the founder of modern theory. It was he who identified the main forms of thinking.

• concept;
• judgment;
• inference.

Thinking always exists in some forms, and they, interacting, form a picture of human consciousness, intelligence and worldview.

The basis of this process is the concept.

Concept

A concept is a thought process that identifies distinctive and essential features that generalize various objects and phenomena.

Such signs can be essential (general) and insignificant (single). For example, when we say quadrilateral, each of us will imagine different shapes. For some it will be a square, for others it will be a trapezoid, and for others it will be a figure with different sides. But, in spite of everything, they have one thing in common - 4 angles, and this will be the common or essential feature that unites the concept of a quadrilateral. But the equality of the sides and the indicators of the size of the angles will be single or insignificant signs by which these figures can be divided into rectangles, parallelograms, etc.

The concept reflects only essential, generalizing features. For example, the concept of athlete means people involved in one or another sport and it doesn’t matter what it is, figure skating or basketball.

Presentation on the topic: "Forms of thinking. Fundamentals of logic"

There are also concrete and abstract concepts:

• A specific concept is something that has clearly defined characteristics and reflects events, objects and phenomena of the surrounding world, for example: “game”, “water”, “snow”.
• An abstract concept characterizes abstract ideas that are difficult to imagine and classify, for example: “good”, “evil”, “love”.

It is impossible to imagine our life without the ability to use concepts; in this case, we would have to give a name to literally every object on the planet, and, speaking of a forest, we would have to list the “names” of all the trees.

Concepts underlie all human mental activity. By combining them, we can communicate with each other, draw conclusions and make discoveries. This activity involves the second form of thinking.

Judgment

Judgment is a thought process that establishes a connection between concepts about phenomena and objects, in the process of which an opinion is formed on the basis of previously obtained information.

There are general, particular and individual judgments. For example, the general one is “the water in all seas is salty”, the particular one is “some seas are inland”, and the individual one is “the salinity of the Black Sea is 14 ‰”.

They also distinguish between formal and empirical. In the formal case, the facts of the relationship between objects are asserted, without asserting their veracity (“the grass is green”, “the cat has four paws”). And, empirical judgment - characterizes the fact of the relationship between two objects based on observation of them, as a result of which it is possible to verify their authenticity (“look how green the grass is”).

Judgments are formed by expressing directly perceived relationships between several concepts.

For example, if we perceive 3 such concepts as “man”, “dog”, “leash”, we can judge that a person is walking a dog. A more complex way of doing this is to form judgments independently of the presence of concepts. For example, “My neighbor walks his dog every day at this time, but today he’s not there, which means they’ve gone to the village.” Based on the premise “no neighbor with a dog in the yard,” a conclusion is drawn using previously obtained information. This conclusion is the third form of thinking - inference.

Inference

Inference is the highest form of thinking, in which a thought is formed as a result of the synthesis and processing of several judgments and concepts.

Such conclusions are evidence obtained by logical means. For example, it is known that “a figure skater is an athlete who engages in figure skating.” It is also known that “Ivanov is engaged in figure skating.” Based on these that Ivanov is a figure skater.

Basically, a person uses two types of inferences - induction and deduction. But they also include analogy and conjecture.

Deduction is reasoning from the general to the particular, and induction is the ability to generalize single concepts.

• Deduction. Using deduction, we can understand the meaning of individual phenomena and facts based on general patterns. For example, knowing that when water freezes, it expands and damages the container, we can assume that the storage and transportation of such products should be carried out at positive temperatures.
• Induction. Guided by induction, we begin by accumulating knowledge about as many objects as possible that have similar features. In this case, everything secondary and not essential is omitted. As a result, we can draw a general conclusion about the properties or structure of the concept under study. So, for example, when analyzing the concept of “poisonous animals” in the lesson, they first determine on the basis of what they can be considered poisonous. Then it is concluded that some snakes are poisonous, many spiders and insects are poisonous, and even some fish and amphibians. And on the basis of this, a general conclusion is built about the existence of deadly animals that you need to know and be able to distinguish.
• An analogy is an easier way to reason. This form of thinking is most often used to build psychological patterns. In this case, the conclusion is based on the similarity of the most significant features. That is, if out of a group of 30 people 6 are more calm and slow, we can conclude that they most likely belong to people who have a phlegmatic type of character.
• The assumption, however, cannot be considered a reliable conclusion, since it is made without any evidence. The most famous assumption in the history of mankind was the statement of N. Copernicus about the shape and movement of our planet. He came to this conclusion based on observations. Noticing the cyclicity in the change of time of day and seasons, he suggested that the Earth rotates around its axis and around the Sun. But evidence of his conclusions appeared only hundreds of years later.

Thinking underlies all human activity. This is the engine of progress, the basis of human essence, the receptacle of consciousness and mind.

Some animals also have separate and primitive ways of thinking, but only the human mind, having undergone thousands of changes in the process of its development, emerged victorious from this “war”.

Thanks to the ability to operate with concepts, build judgments and synthesize conclusions, humanity is at the point of development in which we are now. Space exploration, the construction of high-tech machines, achievements in medicine, we owe all this to thinking, as the starting point of any discovery.