Physical geography - Altai-Sayan mountainous country. Eastern and Western Sayans - mountains of southern Siberia
Flat mountains or even a plain left in the place of the destroyed mountain system are sometimes subjected to a new influence of mountain-building forces; they create new mountains in the old place, which can be called reborn, but these mountains always differ in their forms and in their structure from those destroyed.
A new period of compression of the earth's crust pushes through the old cracks of ruptures whole blocks left from the former mountains and consisting of folded sedimentary rocks and igneous rocks that have intruded into them. These boulders rise to various heights, and the destructive forces immediately begin their work, cut, dismember the boulders and turn them into a mountainous country. In this case, narrow, raised boulders can take on alpine forms, even crowned with snow and glaciers.
The Ural represents such revived mountains. The chains of the Urals, created in its geosyncline at the end of the Paleozoic era, were long ago turned into a hilly plain, on which then the young movements of the earth's crust again pushed out long and narrow blocks, already turned by destructive forces into rocky ridges, like Taganai, Denezhkin stone, Kara-tau and others. Altai in Siberia is also a revived mountain system, created by young vertical movements on the site of an almost plain left from the Paleozoic Altai. Some narrow and especially highly raised boulders have been turned by destructive forces into the Katun, North and South Chunek Alps with eternal snows and glaciers.
The revived mountains are also the long chains of the Tien Shan in Central Asia. But in these mountains the boulders, into which almost a plain was broken, which remained in the place of the old Tien Shan, underwent some additional folding during the epochs of compression that replaced the epochs of expansion; this complicated their structure. In addition, there are mountains that are more correctly called not reborn, but rejuvenated. These are the mountains that the destructive forces have not yet managed to turn into almost plains, but have already significantly lowered. The renewed movements of the earth's crust cannot completely restore their original appearance; but the long and narrow boulders, into which these mountains were broken by new movements, were raised higher and again dissected deeper, cut by destructive forces and therefore became more picturesque. An example of such mountains is the Chersky Range in the basin of the Indigirka and Kolyma rivers in northeastern Siberia.
But the revived mountains in the distant future will have the same fate - they will be destroyed again, smoothed out by destructive forces, turned a second time into a plain.
This is how the circulation of substances takes place in inanimate nature, in the kingdom of stones. One replaces the other - one grows, ages and seems to disappear, and another appears in its place. But only forms, outlines change and disappear, and the very substance of which the Earth consists, changing its appearance or moving to another place, remains eternal.
Posted Wed, 22/04/2015 - 08:40 by Cap
Avachinskaya Sopka (Avacha) is an active volcano in Kamchatka, in the southern part of the Eastern Range, north of Petropavlovsk-Kamchatsky, in the interfluve of the Avacha and Nalychev rivers. It belongs to the volcanoes of the Somma-Vesuvius type.
The height is 2741 m, the top is cone-shaped. The cone is composed of basaltic and andesitic lavas, tuffs and slag. The diameter of the crater is 400 m, there are numerous fumaroles. As a result of the eruption that occurred in 1991, a massive lava plug formed in the crater of the volcano. At the top of the volcano (together with the Kozelsky volcano) there are 10 glaciers on an area of 10.2 km².
The lower slopes of the volcano are covered with forests of dwarf pine and stone birch, in the upper part - glaciers and snow. The glacier on the northern slope is named after the Far Eastern explorer Arsenyev.
At the foot of the volcano there is a volcanological station of the Institute of Volcanology of the Far Eastern Branch of the Russian Academy of Sciences.
As a rule, the highest peaks of the Sikhote-Alin have a sharply defined contour and are covered with large stone placers in vast areas. The relief forms resemble badly destroyed circuses and mountain glaciation karts.
They are composed of sandy-shale deposits with numerous breakthroughs of intrusions, which led to the presence of deposits of gold, tin and polymetals. In tectonic depressions within the Sikhote-Alin deposits of hard and brown coal.
In the foothills, basalt plateaus are common, of which the largest plateau in terms of area is west of Sovetskaya Gavan. Plateau areas are also found on the main watershed. The largest is the Zevinsky plateau, on the watershed of the upper reaches of the Bikin and the rivers flowing into the Tatar Strait. In the south and east, the Sikhote-Alin is represented by steeply sloping mid-mountain ranges, in the west by numerous longitudinal valleys and basins, and at altitudes of more than 900 m - bald mountains. In general, the Sikhote-Alin has an asymmetric transverse profile. The western macroslope is more gentle than the eastern one. Accordingly, the rivers flowing to the west are longer. This feature is reflected in the very name of the ridge. Translated from the Manchu language - the ridge of large western rivers.
№ Mountain Altitude (m)
1 Tordoki-Yani 2090 Khabarovsk Territory, Nanai district
2 Ko 2003 Khabarovsk Territory, district named after Lazo
3 Yako-Yani 1955 Khabarovsk Territory
4 Anik 1933 Primorsky Territory, Pozharsky District
5 Durhe 1903 Khabarovsk Territory, district named after. Lazo
6 Cloudy 1855 Primorsky Krai, Chuguevsky district
7 Bolotnaya 1814 Primorsky Territory, Pozharsky District
8 Sputnik 1805 Khabarovsk Territory, district im. Lazo
9 Acute 1788 Primorsky Territory, Terneisky District
10 Arseniev 1757 Primorsky Territory, Pozharsky District
11 High 1745 Primorsky Krai,
12 Snezhnaya 1684 Primorsky Territory, Chuguevsky District
13 Alder 1668 Primorsky Territory, Partizansky District
14 Lysaya 1554 Primorsky Territory, Partizansky/Lazovsky districts
15 Taunga 1459 Khabarovsk Territory
16 Izyubrinaya 1433 Primorsky Territory
Along the main ridge and some spurs there are several dozens of granite bald mountains with a height of 1500 to 2000 m with eternal (perennial) snowfields on the northern slopes, with areas of mountain tundra and alpine vegetation. In the mountains, especially along the main ridge and on the spurs closest to it, extensive forests have been preserved, mostly dark coniferous, but now there are already large massifs of deciduous trees. In some places, above the blue of the mountain taiga, rise like islands, bare peaks with alpine landscapes and snowfields.
You can trace a whole chain of these peaks: Heavenly Teeth (2178), Bolshoi Kanym (1870), Bolshoy Taskyl (1448), Church (1450), Suitcase (1858), Cross (1648), Bobrovaya (1673), Pukh-taskyl (1818) ), Chelbak-taskyl, Bear char, Chest, Kugu-tu, Belaya, etc.
Most of the high bald peaks are concentrated in the central part of the mountain system, in the area between 88°-89° east longitude and 55°-53° north latitude. This highest part of the Kuznetsk Alatau is known locally as Belogorye.
To the north of Big Taskyl the mountains go down. Along the main ridge, they already have a height of less than 1000 meters. In the northern part, the mountain system takes on a fan-shaped appearance and passes into ridges of hills stretching to the Trans-Siberian Railway.
WHITE RIVER, Ural
The Urals is rich in minerals and minerals. In the bowels of the Ural Mountains there are iron and copper ores, chromium, nickel, cobalt, zinc, coal, oil, gold, precious stones. The Urals has long been the largest mining and metallurgical base of the country. The riches of the Ural nature also include forest resources. The southern, subpolar and middle Urals provide the possibility of farming.
Along the southern and southeastern for hundreds of kilometers stretches the high ridge Khamar-daban - one of the most picturesque mountainous regions of Eastern Siberia. The peaks of Khamar-daban, which are "bald mountains" with stone placers, rise above the belt of woody vegetation, reaching more than 2000 m abs. high
The most elevated is the eastern part of Khamar-daban, where some peaks are up to 2300 m above sea level. m. The northern slopes of the ridge narrow steeply towards Baikal, the eastern slopes more gently approach the river valley. Selenga. Going into Lake Baikal, the spurs of Khamar-daban in many places form the most picturesque rocky capes.
Very picturesque mountains, many mountain lakes, waterfalls, caves and mountain rivers! Actively visited by tourists!
It stretches in a latitudinal direction in a strip, gradually narrowing from 200 to 80 km, from the upper reaches of the Abakan River to the junction with the ridges of the Eastern Sayan in the upper reaches of the Kazyr, Uda and Kizhi-Khem rivers. From the north, the Minusinsk basin adjoins the Western Sayan, and from the south - the Tuva basin.
The ridges of the Western Sayan are elongated mainly in the latitudinal direction.
The inner ridge is much lower than the Main one (up to 600 - 760 m above sea level). It stretches parallel to the Main and is separated from it by an inter-ridge depression of 10 - 25 km. In places, there are isolated low mountains and short ridges with flat tops, formed during the erosion of the Inner Ridge. These are the remnant mountains Mangup, Eski-Kermen, Tepe-Kermen and others - natural bastions on which fortress cities were built in the Middle Ages.
Above sea level is about 250 m, the maximum is 325 m. It lies to the north of the Inner and is separated from it by a depression 3 to 8 km wide. The outer ridge is most clearly expressed between Simferopol and Sevastopol. It gradually decreases to the north and imperceptibly passes into the Plain Crimea.
The Inner and Outer Ridges are not only lower than the Main Ridge, but are also distinguished by a flat, even surface, slightly inclined to the northwest. It is they who form the foothills of the Crimean mountains.
On the Kerch Peninsula, two regions are distinguished, delimited by the low Parpach Ridge. In the southwest it is an undulating plain with a variety of isolated uplands, in the northeast it is a hilly-ridged area.
The soils of Crimea are very diverse. Each physical-geographical region has its own species. Solonetzic and solonetzic soils predominate in the Sivash region; to the south, in the flat part of the peninsula, there are chestnut and so-called southern chernozems (heavy loamy and clayey with underlying loess-like rocks); mountain-meadow and mountain chernozems have formed on the yayla; on the slopes of the Main Ridge, covered with forests, brown mountain-forest soils are common. special brown soils similar to subtropical red soils.
(Ukrainian: Krimski Gory, Crimean Tatar: Qırım dağları, Kyrym dağlary), in the past also the Tauride Mountains - a mountain system that occupies the southern and southeastern part of the Crimean peninsula.
The mountain system is formed by three mountain ranges, stretching from Cape Aya in the vicinity of Balaklava in the west to Cape St. Elijah near Feodosia in the east. The length of the Crimean Mountains is about 160 km, the width is about 50 km. The outer ridge is a series of cuestas, gradually rising to a height of about 350 m. The inner ridge reaches a height of 750 m.
All researchers of the Crimea note that they are directed from the northeast to the southwest, separated by two longitudinal valleys. All three ridges have the same character of the slopes: from the north they are gentle, and from the south they are steep. If we take into account the age of the rocks, then the beginning of the first ridge should be considered Cape Fiolent, since the same rocks that make up the first ridge predominate here. The outer ridge stretches to the city of Stary Krym, the height of the ridge is from 149 m to 350 m. The inner ridge originates near Sevastopol (Sapun Gora) and also ends near the city of Stary Krym, the height is from 490 m to 750 m. The main ridge is in the west begins near Balaklava and ends with Mount Agarmysh, near the town of Stary Krym. The top surface of the main ridge is a wavy plateau and is called yayla.
(pinyin: Tiānshān shānmài, Kirg. Ala-Too, Kaz. Aspan-Tau, Tanir shyny, Tanir tau, Uzbek Tyan Shan, Mong. Tenger-uul) is a mountain system located in Central Asia on the territory of four countries: Kyrgyzstan, China (Xinjiang Uygur Autonomous Region), Kazakhstan and Uzbekistan.The name Tien Shan in Chinese means "heavenly mountains". According to E. M. Murzaev, this name is a tracing paper from the Turkic Tengritag, formed from the words: Tengri (Sky, God, divine) and tag (mountain).
The Tien Shan system includes the following orographic regions:
Northern Tien Shan: Ketmen, Zailiysky Alatau, Kungei-Alatau and Kirgizsky ridges;
Eastern Tien Shan: Borohoro, Iren-Khabyrga, Bogdo-Ula, Karlyktag Halyktau, Sarmin-Ula, Kuruktag ridges
Western Tien Shan: Karatau, Talas Alatau, Chatkal, Pskem and Ugam ranges;
Southwestern Tien Shan: ridges framing the Fergana Valley and including the southwestern slope of the Fergana Range;
Inner Tien Shan: from the north it is bounded by the Kirghiz ridge and the Issyk-Kul basin, from the south by the Kokshaltau ridge, from the west by the Ferghana ridge, from the east by the Akshiyrak mountain range.
The Tien Shan Mountains are considered one of the highest in the world, among them there are more than thirty peaks over 6000 meters high. The highest point of the mountain system is Pobeda Peak (Tomur, 7439 m), located on the border of Kyrgyzstan and the Xinjiang Uygur Autonomous Region of China; the next in height is the Khan-Tengri peak (6995 m) on the border of Kyrgyzstan and Kazakhstan.
Three mountain ranges diverge from the Central Tien Shan to the west, separated by intermountain basins (Issyk-Kul with Lake Issyk-Kul, Naryn, At-Bashyn, etc.) and connected in the west by the Ferghana Range.
In the Eastern Tien Shan there are two parallel mountain ranges (height 4-5 thousand meters), separated by depressions (height 2-3 thousand meters). Highly elevated (3-4 thousand m) leveled surfaces - syrts are characteristic. The total area of glaciers is 7.3 thousand km², the largest is South Inylchek. Rapids rivers - Naryn, Chu, Ili, etc. Mountain steppes and semi-deserts dominate: on the northern slopes of the meadow-steppe and forests (mainly coniferous), higher subalpine and alpine meadows, on the syrts the so-called cold deserts.
From west to east is 2500 km. Mountain system in Wed. and Center. Asia. Length from 3. to E. 2500 km. Alpine folding, the remains of ancient leveled surfaces are preserved at an altitude of 3000-4000 m in the form of syrts. Modern tectonic activity is high, earthquakes are frequent. The mountain ranges are composed of igneous rocks, and the basins are composed of sedimentary rocks. Deposits of mercury, antimony, lead, cadmium, zinc, silver, in the basins - oil.
The relief is predominantly alpine, with glacial forms, scree, above 3200 m permafrost is widespread. There are flat intermountain basins (Fergana, Issyk-Kul, Naryn). The climate is continental, temperate. Snowfields and glaciers. The rivers belong to the basins of internal flow (Naryn, Ili, Chu, Tarim, etc.), lakes. Issyk-Kul, Song-Kel, Chatyr-Kel.
The first European explorer of the Tien Shan in 1856 was Pyotr Petrovich Semyonov, who received the title "Semyonov-Tyan-Shansky" for his work.
PIK PUTIN
Prime Minister of Kyrgyzstan Almazbek Atambayev signed an order to name one of the peaks of the Tien Shan named after Russian Prime Minister Vladimir Putin.
"The height of this peak reaches 4,500 meters above sea level. It is located in the Ak-Suu river basin, on the territory of the Chui region," the office of the head of the Kyrgyz government said.
One of the peaks of the Tien Shan in the Issyk-Kul region of Kyrgyzstan bears the name of the first president of Russia, Boris Yeltsin.
7439 m) rises on the state border of the USSR and China. Nearby on the territory of the USSR rises Khan-Tengri peak (6995 m). This border high-mountain region with the highest ridges and largest glaciers, located to the east of the glaciated Akshiyrak massif, is now called by some researchers the Central Tien Shan, meaning its central position in the system of the entire Tien Shan (including the eastern, Chinese part). The space located to the west of this region is a high internal highlands, bordered on all sides by barriers of high mountain ranges (Kyrgyz and Terskey-Ala-Too from the north, Fergana from the southwest, Kakshaal-Too from the southeast), which formerly called the Central Tien Shan, received the apt name of the Inner Tien Shan. In addition, the Northern Tien Shan is distinguished, which includes the Ketmen, Kungei-Ala-Too, Kirghiz, Zailiysky Alatau, Chu-Ili mountains, and the Western Tien Shan, which includes the Talas Alatau and the ridges extending from it: Ugamsky, Pskemsky , Chatkal with Kuraminsky, Karatau.
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SOURCE OF INFORMATION AND PHOTO:
Team Nomads
M. F. Velichko. "Across the Western Sayan". M .: "Physical culture and sport", 1972.
Geography of the USSR
Nature of Baikal
Ural mountains
Mountains of Russia
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In our vast country, there are many mountain ranges that differ from each other in the height of their ridges, as well as in climatic conditions. Most of these massifs are little mastered by man, poorly populated, and therefore nature here managed to preserve its original, natural appearance.
Of all the mountain systems located in our country, the most remarkable, the most unknown, the most beautiful are the Sayans. These mountains are located in the south of Eastern Siberia and belong to the Altai-Sayan folded region. The mountain system consists of two ranges called the Western and Eastern Sayan. The Eastern Sayan is located almost at a right angle relative to the Western.
The Western Sayan stretched for about six hundred kilometers in length, and the Eastern Sayan for a thousand. Consisting of peaked and leveled ridges, which are separated by intermountain basins, the Western Sayan is sometimes considered a separate mountain system - the mountains of Tuva. Eastern Sayans - mountains, which are pronounced mid-mountain ranges; on them are located the water of which forms the rivers belonging to the Yenisei basin. Between the Sayan ridges there are more than a dozen basins, of various sizes and depths. Among them is Abakano-Minusinskaya, very well known in archaeological circles. The Sayans are relatively low mountains. The highest point of the Western Sayans is Mount Mongun-Taiga (3971 m), and the highest point of the Eastern Sayans is Munku-Sardyk (3491 m).
According to written documents and maps dating back to the 17th century, the Sayan Mountains were first considered as one object - a relatively small Sayansky Kamen ridge, now called the Sayansky ridge. Later this name was extended to a wider area. Abutting their southwestern part in the Sayans, they extend to the Baikal region.
The slopes of the Sayans are covered mainly with taiga, which turns into subalpine and alpine meadows, and in higher places - into mountain tundra. The main obstacle to agriculture is the presence of permafrost. In general, the Sayans are mountains covered with light larch-cedar and dark-coniferous spruce-cedar and fir forests.
There are two largest wildlife reserves on the territory of the Sayan Mountains. In Vostochny - the famous Stolby, famous for its rocks of volcanic origin, so popular among rock climbers. The Western Sayan Mountains are the territory of the Sayano-Shushensky Reserve, where wolverines, sables, lynxes, deer, musk deer and many other animals live, including those listed in the Red Book (for example, snow leopards, or
Man began to settle in the Sayan intermountains about forty thousand years ago, as evidenced by the remains of stone tools found at primitive sites. In the Western Sayan, traces of the Uyuk culture were found. So, in one of the burials in the Valley of the Kings on the Uyuk River - in the grave of a Scythian leader - 20 kilograms of gold items were found. The Russians began to settle here in the 17th century, having founded fortified settlements - stockades along the banks of local rivers, which at that time were the only transport route. And today the Sayans are a sparsely populated territory. The population prefers to live near roads and large rivers, although there are small peoples living far from civilization. So, in one of the hard-to-reach areas - Tofalaria - the Tofalari (Tofy) people live, the number of which is less than 700 people.
The Altai-Sayan mountainous country is located in the center of Asia and occupies the middle part of the southern belt of mountains, stretching from the Carpathians to the shores of the Pacific Ocean. It consists of Altai, the Kuznetsk Alatau, the Salair Ridge, the Kuznetsk Basin, the Western and Eastern Sayan Mountains, the East Tuva Highlands and the Tuva Basin. The boundaries of the Altai-Sayan mountainous country are defined by faults, displacement of block structures as a result of multiple tectonic movements. The border with the West Siberian Plain runs along fault ledges 300-500 m high; in the northeast - along ledges 400-500 m to the Central Siberian Plateau. In the southeast, the Eastern Sayan borders on the Baikal mountain country in the zone of the Baikal rift along the Tunkinsky graben. The state border with the Mongolian and Chinese People's Republics runs along the southern ridges and intermountain basins (lakes Zaisan and Ubsu-Nur) of Altai and Sayan. The Altai-Sayan mountainous country is a large block morphostructure with a complex mountain-hollow relief. The basis for the allocation of this territory to an independent physical and geographical country are:
- The dominance of medium-altitude and high-mountain fold-block mountain systems, separated by large and small basins. The modern appearance of the relief reflects the geostructures of the Paleozoic folded belts, uplifted by the latest tectonic movements up to 500-1000 m in intermountain basins and up to 3000 m in the mountains.
- Continental air masses predominate throughout the year and, under the conditions of mountain-hollow relief, create a sharply continental climate, especially in intermountain basins. The influence of the western circulation is actively manifested on the windward slopes and ridges from a height of 2000 m. This is reflected in the formation of the natural appearance of the forest and high mountain belts.
- A single structure of altitudinal zonation, expressed as a forest-meadow type with chars. The belt of forests (taiga) prevails. Treeless belts form steppes, alpine meadows and mountain tundra.
Botanists explore altitudinal zones, especially treeless territories - steppe intermountain basins and highlands, and continue to supplement the generalizing works of P. N. Krylov, as well as the works of K. A. Soboleva on the vegetation of Tuva and L. I. Kuminova on Altai.
Geological structure, history and relief
The orographic pattern of different mountain structures that make up the country is different. The general orographic pattern of the Altai-Kuznetsk region has the form of a "fan" turned to the west and northwest. This determines the free intrusion of air masses from the northwest, as well as the penetration of steppe complexes into the inner parts of Altai. Two directions prevail in the Sayans and the Tuva Highlands mountain systems - northwest and northeast.Therefore, the Sayan mountains form a mountain arc, the bulge of which is turned to the north.The central ridges of the entire arc rise to 2500-3000 m; to the north and south, the heights decrease to 900 m. The Sayan Mountains consist of two mountain systems : Western Sayan, abruptly breaking off to the Minusinsk and Tuva basins. The ridge is cut by a narrow rapids valley of the Yenisei. The Eastern Sayan extends from the northwest - from the left bank of the Yenisei River - to the southeast to the Tunkinsky graben. It is located between the Central Siberian plateau and intermountain basins - Minusinsk and Chulym-Yenisei, as well as the East Tuva Highlands.The Eastern Sayan serves as a watershed waiting for the basins of the Angara and Yenisei rivers. Its highest height - the city of Munku-Sardyk (3491 m) is located in the southeastern part. At the junction of the Western and Eastern Sayan, a mountain junction was formed with a peak - Grandiose Peak (2922 m). Altai-Sayan fold-block geostructures frame the Siberian platform from the southwest. They are attributed to a large heterogeneous structure, created in different eras and periods. The most ancient mountain-building movements occurred at the end of the Riphean - the beginning of the Cambrian. As a result, Baikal folded belts were created in the east of the Sayans. In the middle of the Cambrian - the beginning of the Devonian, structures of the Caledonian folding joined them: they formed the Sayans and a significant part of the Altai. The last folding (from the late Devonian to the end of the Permian) - Hercynian, or Varissian, manifested itself in the west of Altai. At the end of the Caledonian mountain building, in connection with the movement of the earth's crust and the appearance of faults, large intermountain depressions and troughs (Chulym-Yenisei, Minusinsk, Tuva) were laid on a folded base of different ages. Depressions continued to form into Hercynian folding, for example, the Kuznetsk trough, located between Salair and Kuznetsk Alatau. The folded complexes are penetrated by Paleozoic granitoids. In the Mesozoic, almost the entire territory was dry land. In the process of its denudation, the most ancient planation surfaces with weathering crust were created. In the Cenozoic, the destroyed Altai-Sayan structures experienced new tectonic movements, expressed in a smooth arched uplift, the formation of faults and the emergence of volcanoes (for example, the Oka group). Blocky vertical and horizontal displacements occurred along the faults: some sections rose by 1000-3000 m, while others sank or lagged behind in the uplift, creating intermountain basins and valleys. As a result of neotectonic movements, revived fold-block high mountains, uplands, middle mountains, low mountains and intermountain basins were formed on the folded Paleozoic belts. These morphostructures were changed by external processes, since the rise of the territory caused increased erosion, cooling of the climate, and the development of glaciation. Almost all mountains experienced ancient glaciations (2-3): the forms created by them are preserved in the relief: kars, troughs, sharp ridges and karlings, moraine ridges, hilly moraine and outwash plains. In a drier climate, loess deposits formed in the foothills on watersheds and in valleys (for example, in the interfluve of the Biya and Katun). External processes have created a complex and uneven-aged complex of erosion-denudation and nival-glacial morphosculpture. These types of relief, being at different levels, create morphological zonality.
The first belt is glacier-nival highlands with kars, cirques, trogs, carlings (examples are the Datunsky, Chuisky, Chikhachev ridges in Altai and Sayansky, Tunkinsky, Munku-Sardyk in the Sayan Mountains).
The second belt is the ancient peneplain. These are high mountain ranges with leveled surfaces and steep, often stepped slopes. Separate remnants in the form of flat domes or narrow ridges, composed of the hardest rocks, rise above the surface of the peneplain. The remains of an ancient slightly incised river network and traces of glacial accumulation have been preserved on the peneplain. The watersheds are not clearly expressed, in most cases they are flat and swampy (examples are the flat surfaces of the watersheds in the Sayans - "sarams or white mountains").
The third belt - erosion-denudation low mountains and mid-mountains - has heights from 500 to 1800-2000 m. These are smoothed rounded forms of low ridges, widespread in the western and northern parts of Altai, as well as in the north of the Sayans.
Climate
The climate of the Altai-Sayan mountainous country is sharply continental. It is characterized by very cold winters and cool summers. Its formation is significantly influenced by the western air masses, which are associated with the fallout of the main amount of precipitation, as well as the continental air of temperate latitudes in the foothills of the Altai and Sayan Mountains. Orographic conditions are important, which determine sharp climatic contrasts (uneven precipitation in the territory, vertical climatic zonality, temperature inversions, development of mountain-valley winds - foehns).
The influence of the westerly circulation is more pronounced on the windward slopes and ridges (above 2000 m). This is reflected in the formation of various natural complexes of the forest and high mountain belts, as well as modern mountain-valley glaciation. Noticeable differences in climate can be observed in certain parts of the country. Altai and Kuznetsk Alatau, to a greater extent than the Sayan Mountains and the Tuva Highlands, are influenced by western air masses and are located farther from the center of the Asian anticyclone. Therefore, the climate of Altai and Kuznetsk Alatau is less continental (less amplitude of annual temperatures and more precipitation). The climate reaches its greatest continentality in closed basins, especially in the Tuva basin. The winter weather regime determines the Asian maximum. Average January temperatures reach large limits: from -16...-18 °С in the foothills of Altai to -34 °С in the Tuva basin. In winter, weak southwesterly winds blow; sometimes they cross over the ridges, turn into foehns and contribute to an increase in temperature on the northern slopes. On the slopes of the mountains, the winter temperature is slightly higher, which is associated with temperature inversions. The greatest amount of snow is on the windward slopes of Altai and Sayan Mountains (up to 150-200 cm).
Summer in the mountains is cool, the westward transport increases, cyclonic activity and precipitation fall, in the west of the ridge. Katunsky - up to 2500 mm. In the basins - about 200-300 mm, and at least - 100-200 mm (in the Chui and Khemchinskaya). The average July temperature in the mountains is about +10-14.8 °С and more, in the foothills +16-18°С, and in the intermountain basins +19-20 °С. The annual amount of precipitation in the highest ranges reaches 1200-1500 mm. Climatic conditions and the ancient glacial relief of the highlands contribute to the development of modern glaciation. The largest number of glaciers is concentrated in Altai - 1300 glaciers with a total area of 900 km2 are known there. In the Sayan Mountains, only the highest massifs of the Eastern Sayan and the East Sayan Highlands have glaciation. The height of the snow border in the west of the region reaches 2300 m, and to the east it rises in Altai up to 3500 m in the Chikhachev Ridge and in the Sayans up to 2940 m on the Munku-Sardyk mountain.
Soils, vegetation and wildlife
At the western foothills of Altai and the Salair Ridge, the latitudinal extension of the steppe and forest-steppe natural zones of the plains of the Soviet Union ends. Steppes from Western Siberia enter the foothills of the Altai and intermountain basins. In the rest of the territory of the Altai-Sayan country, the steppe is distributed in isolation between mountain ranges covered with taiga. On the western slopes of Altai, they rise to 500-700 m, and in the inner regions of the mountains they enter along river valleys and intermountain basins to a height of 1000-1500 m. Under the steppes, chernozems and chestnut soils are formed under various conditions of relief, heat and moisture; In the foothills of the northwestern and northern Altai - ordinary chernozems, and to the north, in the foothills of the Salair Ridge and Kuznetsk Alatau - leached chernozems. In the arid foothills of the southern Altai, chestnut and solonetsous soils are formed. For intermountain basins, leached, ordinary, southern and mountain chernozems are characteristic, and in the driest places - mountain chestnut. The mountains are covered mainly with taiga spruce-fir, as well as larch, larch-cedar and pine forests. On the most humid slopes of the west and north of the Altai and Sayan Mountains, mountain gray forest soils have formed under the cedar-fir-aspen forests (black taiga). On the inner ridges with a more continental climate, under larch and pine forests, podzolic, brown-taiga acid non-podzolized soils dominate. In the Sayan and Tuva regions, where permafrost is widespread, frozen soils are formed - taiga podburs, which are often found east of the Yenisei.Significant areas are occupied by a high-mountain belt, consisting of shrubs (derniks), subalpine and alpine meadows, mountain tundra, in some places stone placers and glaciers. It is located at various heights. The lowest position of the lower border of the high mountain belt is in the northern part of the Kuznetsk Alatau - only at an altitude of 1100-1150 m. To the south and southeast of the country, this border rises higher and higher. For example, in Tuva, on the Sangilen highlands, it already reaches 2100-2300 m. The complex structure of the altitudinal belts of the Altai-Sayan mountainous country naturally changes both in the meridional and latitudinal directions. This pattern can be traced in all altitudinal zones. So, for example, significant differences in the high-mountain belt are observed between the Altai, the Sayan Mountains and the East Tuva Highlands. In the west (Altai), under conditions of excessive moisture, thick snow cover and low temperatures, subalpine and alpine meadows with a diverse species composition are widespread. Mountain-meadow soils have formed under the meadow vegetation. In the east (Sayan Mountains, Tuva Highlands), where the continentality of the climate is more pronounced, alpine and subalpine meadows are confined only to low, humid areas of high mountains, and mountain tundra dominates around, represented by communities of fruticose lichens on mountain tundra light, slightly humus, herbaceous-lichen soils. - on mountain tundra peaty soils, herbaceous dryad communities - on mountain tundra soddy soils. All the tundras of the Altai-Sayan mountainous country are similar in floristic composition and appearance to the northern lowland tundras. There are no similar tundras in the mountains of Central Asia and the Caucasus.
The fauna of the Altai-Sayan country is characterized by great diversity. This is due to the diversity of modern geographical landscapes (from the steppes to high-mountain tundra and glaciers), the history of their formation, as well as the border position of the country between two large zoogeographic sub-regions of the Paleoarctic region: the European-Siberian and Central Asian. The animal world consists of taiga, mountain-tundra and steppe species, among the latter there are animals of the Central Asian subregion. Four reserves were created in the mountains of Altai and the Sayano-Tuva Highlands: Azas (1985), Altai (1967), Sayano-Shushensky (1975, biospheric) and Stolby (1925). In each of them Rare natural complexes of Altai and Sayan are protected.The oldest reserve "Stolby" is located in the northern low-mountain spurs of the Eastern Sayan, not far from Krasnoyarsk. There are preserved syenite rocks destroyed by time - "Grandfather", "Berkut", "Feathers", etc., overgrown with larch and pine in the lower belt. And from heights from 500 to 800 m, all the peaks of the mountains are covered with spruce-fir and cedar forests. (area 869481 ha) is one of the largest nature reserves.It is located near Lake Teletskoye and higher - in the middle and high mountains of Altai on the watershed of the Ob and Yenisei rivers.Ancient cedar forests have been preserved among the diverse forest species. The largest areas are occupied by alpine meadows and mountain tundra where many ungulates live.Rare in Altai are argali and Altai snowcock.They are listed in the Red Books.The Sayano-Shushensky biosphere reserve is located on the left bank of the Yenisei near the deep-water narrow reservoir of the Sayano-Shushenskaya hydroelectric power station.Typical mountain landscapes of the Western Sayan are protected here. The reserve has for the protection of the Altai snowcock, snow leopard, red wolf and populations of the Siberian ibex. the Uva Highlands flows down the river. Azas and, flowing through the lacustrine moraine-hilly Todzha depression, flows to the right into the river. Big Yenisei (Biy-Khem). In 1946, on the river. Azas were discovered preserved settlements of Tuvan beavers. In the mid-70s, there were 35-45 individuals in the entire population.
In 1976, the Azassky reserve was organized there, on the basis of which the Azas reserve was created with an area of 337.3 thousand hectares to preserve the taiga-lake landscapes of the Todzhinskok depression and the only Upper Yenisei population of beavers.
Natural resources
In the bowels of the Altai-Sayan country, various and richest minerals are concentrated. The Kuznetsk Basin is home to the largest coal basin. Thick layers of coal (9-50 m) lie here at a shallow depth. In many sections, mining is carried out by open pit mining. Jurassic coals are developed in the Chulym-Yenisei and Tuva basins. In Gornaya Shoria, iron ore deposits are associated with intrusions. Polymetallic ores of Altai are also associated with Paleozoic intrusions. The largest deposits of polymetals (Leninogorskoe, Zyryanovskoe, Zmeinogorskoe, etc.) are confined to the northwest strike zone. In the Eastern and Western Sayan, among the Precambrian deposits, there are ferruginous quartzites. The deposits of high-quality graphite are concentrated in the Botogolsky ridge. Numerous sulfur and carbon dioxide springs emerge in the fault zones.A significant part of the mountains is covered with large tracts of mature and overmature forests, consisting of valuable tree species (larches, pines, spruces, fir, cedar, etc.). They are also important fishing and hunting grounds. Squirrel, sable, ermine, marten, column, deer are mined here. Muskrat, American mink are acclimatized, beaver is being restored.
The main places of extraction of squirrel and sable are located in the Eastern Sayan and East Tuva Highlands.
The rivers of the Altai-Sayan country have huge reserves of hydropower. The Krasnoyarsk and Sayano-Shushenskaya HPPs were built on the Yenisei. A project for the construction of a cascade of dams on the river. Katun. But with its deep analysis and wide discussion, it turned out that when the valley is flooded, the ecosystems of the unique and most valuable territories of the Altai Mountains will be destroyed. When drawing up the project, the environmental problems of the region were poorly taken into account. A number of rivers are used for timber rafting. Navigators Yenisei, Biya, Bukhta rm a. The climatic conditions of the Altai-Sayan country are favorable for the development of agriculture. Agriculture is concentrated mainly in the northern and western foothills, as well as in intermountain basins. Spring wheat, oats, millet, sunflower, potatoes are grown here. Throughout the territory, natural conditions are favorable for cattle breeding. In spring, cattle are grazed on steppe pastures, in hollows, and in summer they are driven to mountain meadows of the forest and high mountain belts. In winter, cattle are grazed on the mountain slopes, mainly of southern exposure, since it is warmer there than in the hollows, and the low snow cover makes it easy for the animals to forage.
mountain provinces
Altai
in the north and northwest it borders on the Kuznetsk Alatau, the Salair Ridge, Mountain Shoria and the West Siberian Plain. In the east, Altai adjoins the Sayano-Tuva highlands. In the west, the spurs of Altai descend to the Irtysh depression. The southern border runs along the tectonic fault between the Southern Altai and the Zaysan depression. Altai is divided into five parts: Southern, Eastern, Central, Northwestern and Northeastern. The Southern Altai includes large ranges (Southern Altai, Kurchumsky, Tarbagatai, Narymsky, etc.), located between the valleys of the Black Irtysh, Bukhtarma and the depression of the lake. Zaisan. In the western part, the height of the ridges is about 1200-2000 m, to the east the ridges gradually rise to 3500 m. The Southern Altai is little dissected. It is characterized by high difficult passes, steep northern slopes and relatively gentle southern ones. Eastern Altai is formed by ridges of various strikes: northeast, north and northwest with maximum heights of more than 3000 m (Sailugem, Shapshalsky, etc.). The Central Altai includes the main mountain ranges - the Katunsky ridge with Belukha (4506 m), the North Chuisky and South Chuisky ridges. To the west, the ridges decrease to 2600 m (Kholzun). Between the ridges there are intermountain depressions - steppes: Uimon, Abai, Kurai, Chui and the Ukok plateau. All of them are cut by river valleys. The North-Western Altai consists of medium-altitude ridges, fan-shaped extending from the ridges of the Central Altai - Terektinsky and Listvyag. North-Eastern Altai is located between the North Chuisky and Terektinsky ridges in the south, the Salair Ridge and Kuznetsky Alatau in the north. The ridges are separated by deep valleys and the Chulyshman highland, through which the river flows. Chulyshman, which flows into Lake Teletskoye. Altai is composed mainly of Paleozoic sedimentary, igneous and metamorphic rocks.The oldest rocks are Precambrian. These are crystalline schists occurring in the axial parts of anticlinoria (Katunsky, Terektinsky, etc.). The Cambrian is represented by a thick sequence of crystalline limestones, clay shales, basic effusives, tuffs and is distributed in the cores of anticlines in the northeastern part of Altai. Ordovician and Silurian deposits - consisting of green sandy-shale strata and conglomerates, widespread in the basins of the Chulyshman and Katun rivers. The northeastern part of Altai was created in the Caledonian folding. And in the south-west of Altai, at the end of the Carboniferous, Varisian (Hercynian) orogeny began. The Hercynian structures are composed of Paleozoic strata: in the north, Lower Paleozoic deposits are more common, and in the south, predominantly Upper Paleozoic. In the Mesozoic, Altai was subjected to denudation processes; an extensive peneplain surface was formed. Intensive recent tectonic movements have caused the rise of the territory, the formation of horsts and grabens. This, in turn, leads to increased erosion. The lines of young faults have a predominantly latitudinal trend; hot spring outcrops with a water temperature of 31-42 °C are confined to them. The height and width of the uplifted horsts are different: the narrowest and uplifted blocks are in the southern part of Altai, and towards the north they become wider and lower. As a result of movements, the surface of the peneplain turned out to be at different levels - from 500 to 3500 m. The first Quaternary glaciation reached its greatest thickness in Altai and covered significant areas of mountains and intermountain depressions - the Chui and Kurai steppes, on which glacial tongues emerged along the river valleys. In the interglacial period, tectonic blocky movements along the old and new fault lines were again manifested: the grabens of the Teletskoye and Markakol lakes were formed, and the movements of the northern ledge of Altai over the Priobsky plateau resumed. In connection with the change in the bases of erosion, there was an increase in the activity of rivers, a restructuring of the hydrographic network, and the erosion of moraine deposits of the first glaciation. The last glaciation was of the valley and cirque types. After the retreat of the glaciers in the upper reaches of the valleys, many cars, dammed lakes, hanging valleys remained, on which numerous waterfalls formed, especially in the valley of the river. Chulyshman and along the shores of Lake Teletskoye. Glaciers have changed the course of many major rivers. So, for example, the moraines of the glaciers of the Sarymsakty ridge blocked the flow of the river. Bukhtarmy to the west and directed it to the north, where the river used the valleys of other rivers. In the natural appearance of Altai, large intermountain depressions are of great importance. They extend between the ridges, while the height of the bottoms of the depressions increases towards the east. The excess of the ridges over the depressions reaches 2000-3500 m. So, for example, the slopes of the Terektinsky and Katunsky ridges rise with almost sheer walls above the Uimon basin. Intermountain depressions are of tectonic origin, but they have changed as a result of the activity of rivers, glaciers and lakes. Their bottoms are filled with moraines, fluvio-glacial, alluvial and lacustrine deposits. Modern rivers have cut through these deposits, forming a series of terraces. Steppes formed on the terraces: Chuiskaya, Kuraiskaya - on the river. Chuya, Uymonskaya - on the river. Katun. The steppes are located at different heights: the highest of them is Chuiskaya (1750 m), wooded slopes of the ridges rise along the edges of the steppe, the relative height of which is 2000 m and higher.
The climate of Altai is continental. It differs from the climate of the West Siberian Plain in greater mildness: winters are warmer, summers are cooler, and there is more precipitation. Arctic air masses, strongly transformed, reach the northern spurs of the mountains, penetrate the valleys into the interior and influence the types of weather.
The influence of western circulation in the formation of weather types is often decisive from a height of 1000-1200 m. The main amount of moisture falls from air masses coming from the Atlantic Ocean (up to 80%). They are distributed unevenly. In the west of Altai, the amount of precipitation reaches 1500 mm or more per year (for example, on the Katunsky ridge - up to 2500 mm), and in the southeast of Altai - up to 200-300 mm. The largest amount falls during the warm period of the year.
Winter in Altai is cold, with little snow in the foothills and in the intermountain basins and snowy in the mountains. and even severely frosty weather with temperature inversion.Thus, at an altitude of 450 m, the average temperature in February is -22.3 ° C, and at an altitude of 1000 m - only -12.5 ° C. In the Chui steppe, the average January temperature is -31.7 ° C, the absolute minimum reaches -60.2 ° C. The snow depth is only 7 cm, permafrost is developed at a depth of 1 m. In the foothills of the Southern Altai in winter, the average January temperature reaches -18 ° C, and at this time in the northern and western foothills -12.6 °С (Leninogorsk), -16 °С (Ust-Kamenogorsk).The absolute minimum reaches -50 °С. This is due to the activity of cyclones. Therefore, in the north and west of Altai, moderately frosty and significantly frosty weather prevails. ogoda. On the western slopes of the ridges (especially at altitudes above 1000 m) and in the valleys open to the west, due to the predominance of westerly moist winds, a large amount of snow falls.
Summer in Altai is much cooler and shorter than in neighboring flat steppes. In closed intermountain valleys and high plateaus in July, night frosts, temperature drops to -5 ° C, snowfalls and ice formation on lakes and swamps are possible. The average July temperature in the foothills reaches + 19 °С, and at an altitude of 2000 m + 8-10 °С. On some ridges already at an altitude of 2300 m there is a snow line. In the Southern Altai, under the influence of the dry tropical air of the deserts of Central Asia, dry weather is often repeated and it is rarely rainy. The average temperature in July is + 21.8 °С. Cloudy and rainy weather prevails in the Western and Northern Altai, so the warming process is weakened. The average temperature in July is + 18.4 °С. The maximum temperature reaches +37.5 °С in Chemal. In the intermountain basins of the Central Altai, due to the rise of the territory, it is cloudy and rainy, and dry weather is rare. These plains are sufficiently moistened and the average July temperature is + 15.8°C. Large foci of modern glaciation are concentrated in the high ridges of the Central, Southern and Eastern Altai. There are separate glaciers on the lower ridges, for example, on the Kholzun, Kuraisky and other ridges, the Katunsky ridge has the largest number of glaciers. Glaciers descend through deep valleys to a height of 1930-1850 m.
There are several main types of glaciers in Altai: valley, cirque, hanging - and several flat-top glaciers. The main area of glaciation is concentrated on the northern slopes. On the northern slope of the Katunsky ridge, the area of glaciation is estimated at 170 km2, and on the southern slope - only 62 km2. On the Yuzhno-Chuysky Ridge, 90% of the glaciation area is located on the northern slope. The river network in Altai is well developed, especially in its western and northern parts. The rivers originate on flat watersheds, often marshy (the sources of the Bashkaus river), from the edges of glaciers (the Katun and Argut rivers), from lakes (the Biya river). Watersheds do not always correspond to the highest parts of the ridges, since many of them are cut through by rivers. An example is the gorge of the river. Argut (a tributary of the Katun River), separating the Katunsky and South Chuisky ridges.
All rivers of Altai belong to the river basin. Ob (Katun, Biya, Chulyshman, etc.), and only small ones, flowing down from the eastern slopes of the Korbu and Abakansky ridges, enter the basin of the river. Yenisei. The main food of the rivers is snow and rain. The rivers of the high-mountain part of Altai are fed by snow and glaciers. They are characterized by a summer flood with a maximum in early July, a low and long winter low water, and a prolonged freeze-up (7 months). The rivers of the mountain-forest belt of Altai are characterized by spring-summer floods (70% of the annual flow) with a maximum at the end of May, summer and autumn floods, which sometimes exceed the flood. Rivers freeze in winter. The duration of freeze-up is 6 months. On the rapids, the current persists until the middle of winter. Through non-freezing rapids, water comes to the surface of the ice, forming ice. In Altai, there are many lakes of various sizes and origins. The largest of them are tectonic - Teletskoye and Markakol.
Teletskoye lake. located among the ridges at an altitude of 436 m above sea level. Its basin consists of two parts: meridional - southern and latitudinal - northern. The length of the lake is 78 km, the average width is 3.2 km. The shores are almost sheer and often rise to 2000 m. In many places near the shore, the depth immediately drops to 40 m. The maximum depth is 325 m. ranks fourth in the territory of the former USSR. Tectonic basin of Lake Teletskoye processed by the ancient Chulyshman glacier. The lake is flowing: many mountain rivers flow into it, but most of all it brings water from the river. Chulyshman. River flows out of it. Biya and takes out the main amount of incoming water. The water temperature on the surface is low (+ 14-16 °C), which is explained by the significant depth and mixing of water due to strong wind activity. Two types of winds arise over the lake: "Verkhovka" and "Nizovka". The first blows from the mouth of the Chulyshman to the source of the river. Bee. This is a hair dryer type wind; it brings clear and warm weather with low relative humidity (up to 30%), and with its high strength, the waves reach 1.2 m. Nizovka blows from the Biya River to the mouth of the Chulyshman. the formation of fogs and heavy rainfall.The lake is rich in fish.Telesky whitefish, Siberian grayling, perch, pike, burbot are of commercial importance.
Flora of Altai consists of 1840 species. It includes alpine, forest and steppe forms. About 212 endemic species are known, which is 11.5%. In the northwestern and western foothills, the steppes of the plains pass into mountain steppes and forest-steppes. On the slopes of the Altai Mountains, a forest belt dominates, giving way on the highest ridges to a belt of subalpine, alpine meadows and mountain tundra, above which glaciers are located on many high peaks. In the northern and western parts of Altai, the boundaries of all belts are lower than in the southern and eastern ones. So, for example, the lower border of forests in the west is at an altitude of 350 m, in Southern Altai - about 1000-1500 m. And only in the extreme northeast does the forest belt merge with the taiga of Mountain Shoria, Kuznetsk Alatau and Salair Ridge.
The steppes are located at different altitude levels and in a variety of morphological and climatic conditions, so they differ sharply from each other and are divided into two types.
1. Steppe hilly foothills.
Along the northwestern, western and southern foothills of the Altai stretch a continuous strip of steppe. The northern and western forb-turf-cereal and forb steppes consist of grasses (feather grass, fescue, fine-legged), forbs (anemone, geranium, iris, etc.). But with the rise of the foothills and the increase in precipitation, many bushes of honeysuckle, meadowsweet, wild rose, and bean appear. Under the steppes, ordinary chernozems and mountain chernozems are developed mainly on loess-like loams, turning into forest-steppes into mountain forest gray soils. Feather-fescue steppes and sagebrush semi-deserts on brown and light chestnut soils enter the Southern Altai from the Zaysan depression and the Irtysh valley. Among them, along the depressions, there are solonetzes and solonchaks. These plant groups on chestnut soils rise along the slopes to a height of 1000 m, and along the river valleys - up to 1500 m. The steppes are used as pastures, but part of their territory is plowed up, and millet, wheat, watermelons, and melons are cultivated there.
2. Mountain steppes
developed in separate patches along valleys, basins and plateaus. Their climate is more continental: due to the stagnation of cold air, the temperature is very low in winter, and summers are warm and humid. The parent rocks also significantly affect the appearance of the steppes: fluvioglacial and lacustrine deposits predominate. Rainwater quickly penetrates into deeper horizons, and the steppe remains dry. Therefore, xerophytic vegetation develops there on the southern chernozem and chestnut soils, and in some places on solonchaks. Subalpine meadow species appear in the steppes, such as edelweiss, astragalus and ostrich. Alpine steppes are developed in the southeastern part of Altai at altitudes of 1500-2200 m. Brown and chestnut carbonate soils and even solonchaks (on the floodplains of the Chuya steppe) form under a highly sparse herbaceous cover. The vegetation cover is formed by pebbly feather grass, astragalus, ostriches, caragana, etc. The lowest steppes are plowed under grain crops. Early frosts are detrimental to crops, so early ripening varieties of wheat, "uimonka", barley are cultivated here.
Forests of Altai
formed mainly by coniferous species: larch, spruce, pine, fir and cedar. The most common larch. Pine grows in the foothills and climbs the slopes to a height of 700 m. Larch occupies almost all mountain slopes in the central regions of Altai, often rising to the upper border of forests, where it forms larch-cedar forests together with cedar. Sometimes larch descends along the river valleys into the forest-steppe and steppe. Above 700 m, light larch forests dominate in the forest belt. They have a park character: the trees grow sparsely, the sun's rays penetrate freely. Therefore, in these forests there is an abundant and diverse grass cover, consisting of irises, lights, anemones. In the marginal parts of the mountains, the slopes are covered with aspen-fir forests, the so-called black taiga. Cedar forests are found in the upper parts of the forest belt. The cedar rises along the slopes of the mountains, often higher than other coniferous trees, forming the upper border of the forest belt. Various mountain-taiga podzolic, mountain brown forest and gray forest soils are developed under the forests. The forest belt in the direction from north to south and from west to east due to decreasing precipitation and increasing air dryness is reduced and rises to the mountains. The upper limit of forests in the Western and North-Western Altai is at an altitude of 1700-1800 m, in the Central Altai - 2000 m, in the south and east - 2300-2400 m. At the upper border of the forest, among individual trees, shrub thickets of dwarf birch with an admixture of juniper stlanets, willows, honeysuckle, and red currants are common. Thickets of shrubs alternate with tall grasses. The height of grass-forb subalpine meadows reaches 1 m; they consist of hedgehogs, oats, bluegrass. Many large-leaved dicots: mountaineer, umbrella. They are replaced by alpine meadows, which are characterized by a relatively low altitude. The herbs composing them are distinguished by large and brightly colored flowers: Siberian columbine with blue flowers, lights, or frying, orange, pansies from yellow to dark blue, white anemones, poppies, buttercups, gentian with deep blue goblet flowers. Under subalpine meadows, slightly humus soddy or cryptopodzolic soils are formed, and under alpine meadows - mountain meadow soils. Subalpine and alpine meadows reach up to 2800 - 3000 m. These rich meadows are used as mountain pastures for animal husbandry. Mountain tundra rises above the alpine meadows, bordering on eternal snows and glaciers. The tundra is characterized by an alternation of gravel or rocky soil, devoid of a soil layer and wetlands. In the moss-lichen mountain tundra with mosses and lichens grow dwarf birch and dwarf willow 50-70 cm high (dwarf birch tundra). Dryad tundras are located in places where wind activity is weakened and snow accumulates more in winter.
Animal world of Altai
also varied. Zoogeographically, its southeastern part stands out sharply in Altai, which belongs to the Central Asian subregion. In the high-mountain steppes (Chui, Kurai, Ukok plateau), the fauna, unlike the rest, has Mongolian features. Of the mammals, the dzeren antelope, mountain sheep (argali), snow leopard, or irbis, jumping jerboa, Mongolian marmot, Dahurian and Mongolian pikas live here; rare birds include the Indian goose, the Mongolian buzzard, the Mongolian bustard, and the saja. Argali, gazelle, snow leopard and bustard are listed in the Red Books. Altai mountain sheep at the beginning of the 19th century. was everywhere in the Altai-Sayan country. At present, it has become rare, endangered and lives in alpine kobresia meadows and mountain tundra of the Sailyugem, Chikhachev, and Southern Altai ridges. This is the northern limit of its range. Reindeer lives on the Chulyshman Upland. Of the rodents in the highlands, the Altai alpine vole is common - endemic to Altai, Altai pika, marmot; from birds - the Altai snowcock, or the Altai mountain turkey, is an endemic of Altai, listed in the Red Books. She flies poorly and avoids the forest. In the rocky tundra (up to a height of 3000 m) there is a white partridge, and in alpine and subalpine meadows - mountain pipit, Altai finch, red-billed jackdaw, etc. The northeastern part of Altai differs from other regions in the predominance of taiga fauna. Its typical representatives from mammals are columns, wolverine, bear, otter, sable, wolf, fox, maral, musk deer, white hare, squirrel, chipmunk, flying squirrel, ermine, Altai mole. Of the birds, the capercaillie, hazel grouse, deaf cuckoo, and nutcracker are widespread in the northern forests of Altai. In the rest of the territory of Altai, the fauna consists of representatives of the steppe, taiga and high-mountain species. For the steppe and forest-steppe landscapes, numerous ground squirrels, red duck, demoiselle crane are typical.
Tuva Basin and Tuva Highlands
located south of the Western and Eastern Sayan in the center of Asia and are characterized by exceptional isolation. The territory was formed in the Archean-Proterozoic and Caledonian folding. Cenozoic faults and blocky movements of the ancient peneplain of the East Tuva Highlands, the Tuva Basin and the Tannu-Ola Ranges largely determined the features of the modern relief. Young faults occurred mainly along the Caledonian and Precambrian lines: in the southeastern part of the highlands, the relief forms are subject to meridional lines, and in the northern and western parts - mainly latitudinal. These fault lines also determined the directions of the main river valleys. In the Neogene-Quaternary, after the outpouring of basalts, the uplift of the entire Sayano-Tuva highlands and the Tannu-Ola ranges began. The young tectonic movements of Tannu-Ola and the subsidence of neighboring basins are evidenced by dislocations of Paleogene-Neogene deposits, rectilinear fault sections of ancient denudation troughs on the southern slope of the ridge; hot springs along fault lines; frequent earthquakes; young erosion forms. Neotectonic movements created the revived fold-block highlands with intermountain basins. Morphostructures are composed of Precambrian, Lower Paleozoic rocks (Cambrian, Ordovician, Silurian), there are Devonian and Carboniferous outcrops, Jurassic deposits are common in the central part of the Tuva Basin. Of the minerals, deposits of gold, coal, and rock salt are known here. In the lakes of the basin, self-planting table and Glauber salts are formed. Numerous outcrops of mineral sulfur and carbon dioxide sources are confined to tectonic cracks in many regions. The East Tuva Plateau consists of plateaus, mountain ranges and basins. The highlands are composed mainly of Precambrian rocks cut through by ancient and young intrusions. Its large plateau is the Biy-Khemskoye, located north of the latitudinal section of the river valley. Biy-Khem (Big Yenisei). The plateau is elevated in the eastern part to 2300-2500 m. To the west, the surface gradually decreases to 1500 m. To the south of the Bii-Khem plateau, the Academician Obruchev Ridge extends, which is the watershed of the Bii-Khem and Ka-Khem (Small Yenisei) rivers. In the east, its heights reach 2895 m. The ridge is strongly dissected by glacial and river erosion. Its lowest parts have plateau-like, sometimes swampy watershed surfaces. In the East Tuva Highlands, intermountain basins lie between ridges and plateaus: the largest of them is Todzha. On the interfluves and in the valleys of the basin, traces of ancient glaciation are everywhere visible, expressed by accumulative forms and a large number of lakes plowed by a glacier and dammed by a moraine. In the northeastern part of the East Tuva Highlands, glaciers descended from ridges and plateaus, merging into two powerful tongues (up to 200 km long): along the Bii-Khem valley and along the Todzha depression. Glaciers more than 30 km wide descended to the west: their lower end lay at an altitude of 800-1000 m. The Tuva basin is bounded in the south by the northern steep slopes of the Tannu-Ola ridges, and in the south-west by the spurs of Altai and the Tsagan-Shibetu ridge, behind which is the largest alpine massif of Tuva is Mungun-Taiga (3970 m). The massif is formed by intrusion of granites. Modern glaciation is developed in its highest parts. The Tuva basin consists of several basins and small ridges and plateaus separating them. It is cut by the Yenisei and its left tributary - the river. Khemchik. Altitudes in the Yenisei valley are about 600-750 m, along the outskirts of the basin - 800-900 m, ridges and plateaus - up to 1800-2500 m. Within the basin along the foothills, small hills and gently sloping plumes are common, which are composed of gravel-sandy loam deposits. Deluvial-alluvial plains are widespread, occupying the central parts of the basins. On the sandy terraces of the rivers, eolian forms are developed, inspired by the prevailing northwestern winds. The Tannu-Ola ranges separate the Tuva basin from the endorheic Ubsunur basin. To the east of Tannu-Ola lies the Sangilen Highlands. The watershed between the basin of the Arctic Ocean and the endorheic region of Central Asia passes along it. Western Tannu-Ola reaches a height of 3056 m. It is composed of thick strata of sandstones, shales and Silurian and Devonian conglomerates. Aligned watersheds have separate bald hills and ancient hollows. In places, glacial forms - trogs - have been preserved. Eastern Tannu-Ola is a horst composed of limestones, volcanic rocks and granitoid intrusions. The gorst is split by large west-northwest-trending faults. Longitudinal depressions pass along the fault lines, dividing the ridges into separate ridges. The watershed ridges have a bald and erosive relief, alternating with flat swampy upland plains. The highest heights reach 2385-2602 m. The Sangilen highlands are composed of Proterozoic metamorphic schists, Cambrian marbles and granites. The main watershed of the ridge rises to a height of 2500-3276 m. Its surface has a predominantly smooth relief, but sharp ridges, glacial forms - troughs, kars and cirques are well expressed in places. To the south of the Tannu-Ola ranges lies the Ubsunur depression. Its bottom is covered with rubble and sandy deposits, above which rise individual ridges, hills and hills, composed of granites. The plain surface of the basin is dissected by rivers flowing from the Tannu-Ola ranges.Climate of Tuva
Sharply continental. It is characterized by large temperature amplitudes, winter temperature inversion, warm summers, low precipitation, uneven precipitation, and high air dryness. Winter is long, cold and dry. Winter types of weather are formed under the influence of the Asian maximum. In winter, the entire territory is filled with cold continental air of temperate latitudes, which accumulates and stagnates for a long time in the basins, contributing to strong cooling, the development of low temperatures and temperature inversion. There are no thaws for three months (December-February). The snow cover here is insignificant, its height is 10-20 cm. The average January temperature in the Tuva basin reaches -32.2 °С, and the absolute minimum in Kyzyl is -58 °С. Severe frosts contribute to deep freezing of the soil and its slow thawing in spring. Therefore, permafrost is preserved there. 
Summer in the mountains is short and cool, in the East Tuva Highlands it is cold and rainy, and in the hollows, where the air warms up intensively, it is warm and even hot. In the steppes of Tuva, the average July temperature is +19-20 °С, the maximum reaches +36.9 °С. In July, the temperature can drop to +3-6 °C. In elevated areas, the climate is more moderate, there are frosts in all summer months, the growing season is sharply reduced. Often there are hair dryers. In the foothills, the average temperature in July is +19 °С, and on the slopes of the mountains +14-16 °С. From the foothills to the passes, the summer period is shortened by 40 days. In summer, cyclonic activity (along the polar front) and the westerly transport of air masses intensify, bringing the bulk of precipitation, mainly in the form of showers. The annual amount of precipitation reaches its greatest value (400 mm or more) in the East Tuva Highlands: it often rains there in summer. In Kyzyl, precipitation is 198 mm per year, in the Ubsunur depression - 100-200 mm. In the basins, their western parts are the driest, since the western air masses descend into the basins along the slopes of the ridges and foehns are formed. The sharply continental climate and relief of the Sayano-Tuva Highlands have a significant impact on the development of agriculture.
The most important agricultural and cattle-breeding region is the Tuva Basin. Irrigation canals have been created in it, rain-fed and irrigated agriculture has been developed. They cultivate wheat, barley, fodder crops. Land areas are small. Most of the Tuva basin and almost the entire Ubsunur basin with the adjacent mountain-steppe territories are used as pastures.
The river network of the East Tuva Highlands is dense, which is primarily due to the dissected relief. Almost all rivers belong to the Yenisei basin, a small number of small rivers flowing down from the southern slopes of Tannu-Ola and Sangilen are directed to an endorheic basin. The rivers of the upper Yenisei basin flow in deep valleys and cut through the ridges, forming winding gorges up to 100-200 m deep. The rivers are fed mainly by rain and snowmelt, ground and glacial nutrition is negligible. High water on most of them begins in mid-April. Snowmelt at different heights occurs at different times, so the rivers remain full of water for a long time.
There are many lakes in Tuva at the headwaters of rivers, on watersheds, in river valleys and basins, but their sizes are small. A large number of moraine lakes are concentrated in the Todzha depression. Rivers and lakes are rich in fish; taimen, lenok, grayling, etc. are common in them.
The slopes of the mountains are covered with larch and larch-cedar forests, under which mountain gray forest soils, mountain podburs, taiga frozen and mountain taiga podzolic soils are formed. Huge forest tracts consist mainly of mature and overmature trees and have large reserves of timber and game fauna. In the fur trade, the first place is occupied by squirrel and sable. Maral, reindeer, roe deer, musk deer, elk are found in the forests, the latter is widespread in the basins of the Big and Small Yenisei. The mountain goat is found in the high mountain belt.
Small-turf-cereal serpentine-vostrets and tansy steppes dominate in the Tuva basin, and in the Ubsunur basin, along with steppes, semi-deserts on dark chestnut and light chestnut soils are also common. About 1/3 of the territory of Tuva is occupied by steppes. Almost the entire western part of the Tuva Basin is covered with flat and hilly steppes; they stretch in wide strips along the right bank of the river. Khemchik and pass into the eastern part of the basin - in the lower reaches of the Big and Small Yenisei. In the mountains, on dry rocky slopes and plateaus, isolated steppe areas are widespread. According to the species composition, the Tuva steppes are divided into two types:
1) grass-wormwood on chestnut soils, consisting of cold wormwood, couch grass and creeping, serpentine splayed and eastern feather grass. In some areas, shrub thickets of dwarf caragana are common;
2) stony-gravelly on stony and gravelly light-chestnut soils. They consist of pebble feather grass, couch grass, serpentine, wormwood, and hollywort. Grass-legume and grass-forb meadows dominate in the moist areas of the river valleys. Along the floodplains stretch a narrow strip of coastal forests, or urems, consisting of poplar, birch, aspen, and alder.
Relief - a set of irregularities of the earth's surface. There are two main landforms: plains and mountains. Plains are a form of relief with small (up to 200 m) differences in relative heights. Mountains are a form of relief with large (more than 200 m) differences in relative heights. Relative altitude is the elevation of one point on the earth's surface above another, while absolute altitude is the height of a place above sea level.
Most of Russia is occupied by plains. The mountains are located mainly in the south and east of our country, which leads to a general slope of the territory of Russia to the north.
Relief formation is influenced by internal and external forces. First of all, the main landforms depend on the tectonic structure of the territory. Platform areas - the ancient Russian and Siberian platforms or the young West Siberian plate - are characterized by plains: the East European Plain, the Central Siberian Plateau and the West Siberian Plain, respectively. On the territory of ancient platforms, all types of plains can be found: lowlands, uplands, and plateaus, while lowlands predominate on the territory of young platforms.
Lowland is a type of plains with absolute heights up to 200 m (Caspian lowland, West Siberian plain, North Siberian, Kolyma lowlands).
Elevation is a type of plains with absolute heights from 200 to 500 m (Central Russian, Smolepsko-Moscow, Valdai, Volga, Stavropol).
The plateau is a type of plains with absolute heights of more than 500 m (Central Siberian Plateau).
If the crystalline foundation of ancient platforms comes to the surface (shields), then elevated forms of relief arise - uplands (the Central Russian Upland on the Voronezh massif), plateaus (on the Anabar Shield - the Anabar Plateau) or even platform mountains (Khibiny on the Baltic Shield and the Aldan Highlands on the Aldan Shield ).
The largest plains of Russia are the East European (Russian), West Siberian Plain and the Central Siberian Plateau.
Folded areas (geosynclines) correspond to mountainous relief.
By absolute height, low, medium and high mountains are distinguished.
Low mountains are mountains with absolute heights below 2000 m (Khibiny, Ural Mountains, Byrranga).
The middle mountains are mountains with absolute heights from 2000 to 5000 m (Altai, Sayans, Aldan and Chukchi uplands, Verkhoyansk ridge, Chersky ridge, Sikhote-Alin).
High mountains are mountains with absolute heights of more than 5000 m (Great Caucasus).
For ancient mountains (Baikal, Caledonian and Hercynian folding), as a rule, low mountains (Urals) are characteristic, areas of medium (Mesozoic) folding correspond to medium-altitude mountains (Verkhoyansk Range, Chersky Range, Chukotka Highlands, Sikhote-Alin), and for young mountains (Cenozoic, Alpine or Pacific folding) are characterized by high mountains (Caucasus). The areas of young folding are characterized by active manifestations of seismicity and volcanism (Kamchatka and the Kuril Islands), where all the active volcanoes of Russia are located - Klyuchevskaya Sopka, Koryakskaya Sopka, Tolbachik, Shiveluch, Tyatya and others.
A special group is formed by renewed (or revived) mountains: these mountains are of ancient age, but in their history they have experienced additional uplifts and reach quite large absolute heights: the mountains of Southern Siberia - Altai, Sayan Mountains, Stanovoe Uplands and others.
The highest mountains in Russia are the Greater Caucasus, the highest point of which is the extinct volcano Elbrus - 5642 m. In Kamchatka there is the highest active volcano in the world in terms of cone height - Klyuchevskaya Sopka (4688 m).
The lowest point in Russia is the level of the Caspian Sea: -28 m.
The main external forces of relief formation are the activity of glaciers, wind, flowing waters and man.
As a result of ancient glaciation, moraine (glacial) landforms arose - “sheep foreheads” in Karelia, moraine hills and ridges (Valdai Upland, Smolensk-Moscow Upland, Northern Uvaly, Siberian Uvaly).
As a result of wind activity, eolian landforms are formed - dunes in deserts and remnants (for example, Krasnoyarsk pillars or Mount Koltso in the Kislovodsk region).
Under the influence of flowing waters, ravines and gullies are formed, which are characteristic of the southern part of the Russian Plain, as well as landslide and karst landforms.
Under the influence of human economic activity, spoil heaps (mountain dumps) and quarries are formed in places of mining, as well as mounds, etc.
2) The role of water transport in Russia has always been enormous. In which regions of the country is it especially high?
What natural features of rivers and lakes are important for the development of water transport? How do human activities and the development of science affect the possibilities of using water transport in the country's economy?
Water transport includes river (inland water) and sea transport.
The importance of river transport is greatest in the Volga region, the Volga-Vyatka region, the European North, in the north of Siberia and the Far East, where it accounts for more than a third of all transported goods.
The development of river transport requires large flat navigable rivers (Volga, Neva, Svir, Dnieper, Don, Northern Dvina, Ob, Irtysh, Yenisei, Angara, Lena, Amur, etc.) and lakes (Ladoga, Onega, etc.). For most regions of Russia, river transport is seasonal, due to ice formation in the winter season. A great difficulty for river transport in the north of Siberia and the Far East is ice jams that form in the spring. A huge role is played by navigable river channels (the Moscow Canal, the Volga-Baltic, the White Sea-Baltic, the Volga-Donskoy), which together with the system of rivers and lakes form a single deep-water system of the European part of Russia, thanks to which Moscow is called the “port of five seas”. The emergence of new types of ships (hydrofoils, hovercraft, river-sea, container ships, modern icebreakers) significantly expand the possibilities of river transport.
Maritime transport is of great importance in the coastal regions of Russia: in the North-Western region (Baltic Sea), in the North Caucasus (Azov-Black Sea and Caspian basins), in the European North and northern Siberia (access to the North Atlantic and the Northern Sea Route), and also in the Far East (Pacific basin). The development of maritime transport in Russia requires the modernization of existing and the construction of new deep-water ports, the modernization of the existing merchant fleet and the construction of modern specialized ships (ferries, tankers, gas carriers, container ships, lighter carriers, refrigerators, nuclear icebreakers, etc.), as well as the development of a cruise fleet. Without the development of water transport, it is impossible to develop the regions of the Far North and develop Russia's foreign trade.
