Universal learning activities. Knowledge, skills and abilities

ZUN is an abbreviation. It stands for "Knowledge - Ability - Skill".

What are the steps a person needs to go through to learn a new skill:

First, there is Interest in a new action (such interest can appear when observing someone's skill or skill).
The second level is the belief that any action can become a human action. And such a result can be achieved.
The third level is the acquisition of Knowledge. At this stage, a person has an idea of how this or that action is done. An important factor is the ability to reproduce all significant details.
The fourth level is the emergence of the Primary Skill. This means that a person knows how to do something with confidence. However, there is a limitation for the primary skill. It can be reproduced only in a situation familiar to a person, with given conditions. Also, a person must monitor his actions in order to complete everything accurately.
Fifth level - Real skill. This is when a person does something confidently in a wide range of situations.
The sixth level is the appearance of the Skill. These are actions that a person performs without mind control, without thinking, completely automatically.
The seventh level is Habit. These are actions that are performed by themselves without the will of a person. Such actions are performed naturally, by themselves, completely on the machine.
The eighth level is Need. These are actions that a person is so accustomed to that there is discomfort if they are not done.

The product of our cognitive activity is knowledge. They represent the essence reflected by the human consciousness, and are remembered in the form of judgments, specific theories or concepts.

Knowledge, skills and abilities - interconnection

What is knowledge?

Knowledge determines our skills and abilities, they are the basis of the moral qualities of a person, form his worldview and views of the world. The process of formation and assimilation of knowledge, skills, abilities is fundamental in the works of many scientists and psychologists, however, the concept of "knowledge" is defined in different ways. For some it is a product of knowledge, for others it is a reflection and ordering of reality or a way of consciously reproducing a perceived object.

Representatives of the animal world also have elementary knowledge, they help them in their life and the implementation of instinctive acts.

The assimilation of knowledge is the result

The assimilation of knowledge largely depends on the chosen path, the completeness of the mental development of the student depends on it. Knowledge by itself cannot provide a high level of intellectual development, but without them this process becomes unthinkable. The formation of moral views, volitional character traits, beliefs and interests occurs under the influence of knowledge, therefore they are an important and necessary element in the process of developing human abilities.

What are the types of knowledge?

The worldly kind of knowledge is based on worldly wisdom, common sense. This is the basis of human behavior in everyday life, it is formed as a result of a person's contact with the surrounding reality and the external aspects of being.
Artistic is a specific way of assimilation of reality through aesthetic perception.
Scientific knowledge is a systematic source of information based on theoretical or experimental forms of reflection of the world. Scientific knowledge can contradict worldly because of the limitations and one-sidedness of the latter. Along with scientific knowledge, there are also pre-scientific ones that preceded them.

The first knowledge the child receives in infancy

Assimilation of knowledge and its levels

The assimilation of knowledge is based on the active mental activity of the trainees. The whole process is controlled by the teacher and consists of several stages of assimilation.

At the first stage - understanding, the object is perceived, that is, it is distinguished from the general environment and its distinctive qualities are determined. The student has no experience in this type of activity. And his understanding informs about his ability to learn and perceive new information.
The second stage - recognition, is associated with the comprehension of the received data, the discernment of its connections with other subjects. The process is accompanied by the execution of each operation, using hints, a description of the action or hints.
The third level - reproduction, is characterized by active independent reproduction of the information understood and considered earlier, it is actively used in typical situations.
The next level of the process of mastering knowledge, the formation of skills and abilities is application. At this stage, the student includes the perceived knowledge in the structure of previous experience, is able to apply the acquired set of skills in atypical situations.
The final fifth level of assimilation is creative. At this stage, the field of activity for the student becomes known and understandable. Unforeseen situations arise in which he is able to create new rules or algorithms for resolving the difficulties that have arisen. The student's actions are considered productive and creative.

The formation of knowledge continues throughout life

The classification of the levels of knowledge formation makes it possible to qualitatively assess the assimilation of the material by the student.

The development of the student occurs from the first level. It is clear that if the level of knowledge of the student is characterized by the initial stage, then their role and value is small, however, if the student applies the information received in unfamiliar situations, then we can talk about a significant step towards mental development.

Thus, the assimilation and formation of skills is realized by comprehending and repeating information, understanding and applying it in familiar or new conditions or spheres of life.

What are skills and abilities, what stages does the process of their formation consist of?

There are still heated debates among scientists about what is higher in the hierarchical scheme of the formation of new knowledge, skills and abilities that characterizes mental development. Some emphasize the importance of skills, others convince us of the value of skills.

How skills are formed - diagram

A skill is the highest level of formation of an action; it is performed automatically, without awareness of the intermediate stages.

The ability is expressed in the ability to act consciously, which has not reached the highest degree of formation. When a student learns to perform any purposeful action, at the initial stage, he consciously performs all the intermediate steps, while each stage is fixed in his mind. The whole process is unfolded and realized, therefore, skills are first formed. As you work on yourself and systematically train, this skill improves, the time for completing the process is reduced, some intermediate steps are performed automatically, unconsciously. At this stage, we can talk about the formation of skills in performing an action.

Formation of skills in working with scissors

As you can see from what has been said, a skill eventually becomes a skill, but in some cases, when an action is extremely difficult, it may never develop into it. A schoolchild, at the initial stage of his learning to read, has difficulty combining letters into words. This assimilation process takes a lot of time and takes a lot of energy. When reading a book, many of us control only its semantic content, we read letters and words automatically. As a result of long trainings and exercises, the ability to read has been brought to the level of a skill.

The formation of skills and abilities is a long and time-consuming process. As a rule, this will take more than one year, and the improvement of skills and abilities takes place throughout life.

Skill Development Theory

Determining the level of mastery of actions by students occurs due to the following classification:

Zero level - the student does not own this action at all, lack of skill;
The first level - he is familiar with the nature of the action, it requires sufficient help from the teacher to complete it;
The second level - the student performs an action independently according to a model or template, imitates the actions of colleagues or a teacher;
The third level - he independently performs the action, each step is realized;
The fourth level - the student performs the action automatically, the formation of skills was successful.

Conditions for the formation and application of knowledge, skills and abilities

One of the stages of assimilation is the application of knowledge, skills and abilities. The nature and specificity of the subject determines the type of pedagogical organization of this process. It can be implemented with the help of laboratory work, practical exercises, solving educational and research problems. The value of the application of skills and abilities is great. The student's motivation is enhanced, knowledge becomes solid and meaningful. Depending on the uniqueness of the object under study, various methods of their application are used. Subjects such as geography, chemistry, physics involve the formation of skills using observation, measurement, problem solving and recording all the data obtained in special forms.

Development of skills in labor lessons

The implementation of skills in the study of humanitarian subjects occurs through the application of spelling rules, explanations, recognition of a specific situation where this application is appropriate.

The conditions for the formation of knowledge, skills and abilities are generalization, concretization and ensuring the sequence of operations. The study of these tasks makes it possible to avoid the formalism of knowledge, since the basis for solving problems is not only memory, but also analysis.

The process of forming new knowledge is inextricably linked with the following conditions:

Group 1 - conditions for motivating students' actions;
Group 2 - conditions for ensuring the correct execution of actions;
Group 3 - conditions for working out, nurturing the desired properties;
Group 4 - conditions for the transformation and phased development of the action.

General educational skills and abilities are those skills and abilities that are formed in the process of teaching many subjects, and not just one specific one. This issue should be given a lot of attention, but many teachers underestimate the importance of this task. They believe that in the process of learning, students acquire all the necessary skills on their own. This is not true. The processing and transformation of the information received by the student can be carried out in one way or another, using various methods and methods. Often the way the child works differs from the teacher's standard. The control of this process by the teacher is not always carried out, since it usually fixes only the final result (whether the problem is solved or not, whether the answer is meaningful or uninformative, whether the analysis is deep or superficial, whether the conditions are met or not).

Education and upbringing - differences

The child spontaneously develops some skills and techniques that turn out to be irrational or erroneous. The subsequent development of the child becomes unthinkable, the educational process is significantly hampered, and it is difficult to comprehend new knowledge and automate it.

Methods

The correct methods of forming knowledge, skills and abilities should be of no small importance in the learning process. Two main points can be noted. This is goal setting and organization of activities.

In cases where the teacher discovers that the student lacks a specific skill, it is important to realize whether the goal was set for the student, whether he realized it. Only selected students with a high level of intellectual development can independently determine and realize the value of the educational process. Lack of purpose - is considered the most common drawback of the organization of educational work. At first, the teacher can indicate one or another goal that the student should strive for when solving the problem. Over time, each student develops the habit of setting goals and motives for himself.

The motivation of each student is individual, so the teacher should focus on a wide range of motives. They can be social, aimed at achieving success, avoiding punishment, and others.

What is motivation - definition

The organization of activities consists in compiling a list of the main processes related to knowledge, skills and abilities. This list should include the most important issues, without which further progress is impossible. Next, you need to develop an algorithm for solving the problem or a sample, using which the student can independently or under the guidance of a teacher develop his own system of rules. Comparing the task with the received sample, he learns to overcome the difficulties and difficulties encountered on the educational path. Deepening and consolidating knowledge occurs in the case of generalization, analysis and comparison of the work performed by the students of the class.

School education is the beginning of the complex formation of knowledge, skills and abilities

The learning process is related to the ability of students to distinguish between the main and the secondary. For this, various tasks are offered in which it is necessary to highlight the most significant part of the text or words that are of secondary importance.

When training necessary to develop a skill, it is important to ensure their versatility and normal intensity. Over-processing one skill can prevent its proper application and inclusion in a coherent learning system. It is not uncommon for a student who has perfectly mastered a certain rule to make mistakes in dictation.

An integrated approach and pedagogical work are the conditions that guarantee the full-fledged education of the younger generation.

Similar content

2. Not so much knowledge as ability (COURT + SEN + ZUN + SDP).

3. Development of self-determination, individual responsibility for one's actions (SUM).

Conceptual Provisions

Natural conformity: development takes place according to a predetermined, genetically determined program, goes ahead of learning and determines it; spontaneity of free development of natural inclinations; "Based on the child", the creation of the most favorable conditions for revealing the child's natural abilities.

Free education and training. All without coercion, without violence: spiritual and bodily.

Freedom as a means of education.

Education and training adapt to the child, not he to them.

In the process of learning, the child himself goes through, comprehends all stages of development
humanity. Therefore, there is no need to truncate "childhood", to intellectualize development ahead of time.

Education is inseparable from education: all education is at the same time the education of certain personality traits.

Ecology of health, cult of health.

The cult of creativity, creative personality, the development of individuality by means of art.

Imitation as a means of learning.

The combination of European and Eastern cultures: the teachings of Christ and the idea of personality as a combination of the physical body and the ethereal, astral.

The unity of the development of the mind, heart and hand.

School for everyone.

Common life of teachers and students.

Content Features

Harmonious combination of intellectual, aesthetic and practical-labor aspects of education.

Wide additional education (museums, theater, etc.).

Intersubject communications.

Compulsory subjects of art: painting, eurythmy (the art of expressive movements) and the image of forms (complex patterns, graphics), music (playing the flute).

A large role is assigned to labor education. Features of the content by class - learning "by era": Preschool period: walk, talk; think;

I: prototypes and fairy tales; from image to letter; singing, eurythmy; knitting;

II: miracles and legends; letter; arithmetic; flute, drawing, manual labor;

III: creation of the world and the Old Testament; sheet music, shape drawing, crochet;

IV: gap between the general and the particular; fractions; European myths; ornament, canon, embroidery;

V: harmony and antiquity, Greece; decimals, orchestra, woodwork;

VI: physics, percentages, geometry, planing;

VII: space and the Renaissance; algebra, poetry, sewing;

VIII: revolutions, 19th century; economics, chemistry, composers, work with metal;

IX: ecology, technological progress and morality, art history, carpentry; X: politics, history, society, physics, dramaturgy, ceramics;

XI: society, literature, music, sculpture, bookbinding;

XII: cultural history, improvisation in all areas.

Features of the technique

A pedagogy of relationships, not demands.

Immersion method, "epochal" technique.

Education without textbooks, without rigid programs (didactic materials, additional literature).

Individualization (taking into account the progress of the individual in development).

Lack of division into classroom and extracurricular activities.

The student is brought to the discovery of the personal significance of ZUN and, on this motivational basis, masters the content of subjects (areas).

Collective cognitive creativity in the classroom.

Teaching independence and self-control.

Lots of play (study should be fun).

Denial mark.

Student position.

The child is at the center of the pedagogical system.

The right to choose everything: from the form of the lesson to its plan.

The child's right to make mistakes.

Freedom of choice.

The right to free creative search.

Responsible relationship with the team.
The position of the teacher.

The activity of the teacher is a priority, the teacher leads the children for 8 years in all subjects.

The teacher is a senior friend.

With children to the subject, and not with the subject to the children.

Not to give knowledge, but to let children live in the classroom; joint spiritual life of student and teacher.

Waiting for the maturation of the forces laid down by nature.

Do not tell the child "no", "no".

Do not make comments (lack of highlighting weak and strong).

Don't give bad marks.

Do not leave for the second year.

Accept the child as he is (all children are talented).

R. Steiner's position on religious education: free Christian education, which is outside the general routine of the school, is conducted as private education within its framework.

Very important aspects of Waldorf pedagogy are attention to the health of children, teacher-parental self-government.

Notes, modern counterparts

The Center for Waldorf Pedagogy has been created and is operating in Russia.

The Moscow Free Waldorf School (research director A.A. Pinsky) operates without the usual director, head teacher, and other usual administrative attributes of a mass school. All affairs are managed by an elected board of children, teachers and parents.

Work is not divided into classroom and extracurricular. These species are very closely intertwined. After the main lesson, painting, music, needlework, English and German are taught (from the first grade at the same time), as well as disciplines specific to the Waldorf school - eurythmy (the art of expressive movements) and the image of forms - drawing complex patterns, graphics.

The program provides for the agricultural cycle, the construction of a wooden house (at the level of a large model). It's in the elementary grades. And in the seniors - work with metal. All children also master needlework - learn to sew, embroider.

School L.N. Tolstoy. L.N. Tolstoy put into practice the idea of "free education" in the Yasnaya Polyana school organized by him for peasant children. If we imagine the “school of L.N. Tolstoy” as a technology, then we can note its maximalist concept:

Education, as the deliberate formation of people according to certain patterns, is fruitless, illegal, impossible;

Education corrupts, not corrects people;

The more spoiled a child is, the less he needs to be educated, the more freedom he needs.

In the last period of L.N. Tolstoy went to the other extreme - pedagogical moralism with a religious tinge.

L.N. Tolstoy brought his concept to the level of methodology by writing a number of textbooks for elementary school.

At present, in a number of Russian schools (Yasnaya Polyana, Tomsk) attempts are being made to restore the domestic technology of free education, based on the ideas of Leo Tolstoy.

Technology of free labor (S. Frenet)

Frenet Celestin (1896-1966) - the most prominent French teacher and thinker, a rural teacher from the town of Vane. Having joined the movement for a new education at the beginning of the 20th century, he created and until the end of his life led an experimental rural elementary school, where he implemented his alternative technology.

Technology classification parameters

According to the level of application: general pedagogical. According to the main factor of development: biogenic + sociogenic. According to the concept of assimilation: associative-reflex. By orientation to personal structures: SUD + ZUN + SDP. By the nature of the content: educational + teaching, secular, humanistic, general education.

According to the type of cognitive activity management: the system of small groups.

By organizational forms: alternative.

According to the prevailing method: problematic, self-developing.

In the direction of modernization: alternative.

Target Orientations

■ Comprehensive education.

Conceptual Provisions

Learning is a natural process, it takes place naturally, in accordance with development; taking into account the characteristics of the age and diversity of abilities of children.

Relations between children and value orientations in their minds are the priority of the educational process.

Socially useful work at all stages of education.

Great attention to school self-government.

Purposefully encouraged emotional and intellectual activity of children.

New material means of training and education are used (typography, handwritten teaching aids).

Organization Features

At Frenet's school:

There is no learning, but there is problem solving, trials, experimentation, analysis, comparison;

There is no homework, but questions are constantly asked - at home, on the street, at school;

There are no lessons from call to call;

No marks, but personal progress is noted - through peer evaluation
children and teachers;

There are no mistakes - there are misunderstandings, having figured out which together with everyone, you can avoid them;

There are no programs, but there are individual and group plans;

There is no traditional teacher, but the very forms of organizing a common cause are taught, designed by the teacher together with the children;

The teacher does not educate anyone, does not develop, but participates in solving common problems;

There are no rules, but the rules of the hostel accepted by the children themselves rule the class;

There is no instructive discipline, but the very feeling of one's own and collective security and joint movement disciplines;

There is no class in the general sense, but there is a community of children and adults.

Features of the technique

project method. The group builds collective projects that are discussed, accepted, hung on the walls (it can be any, even the most fantastic plans). The educator intervenes only when projects violate the freedom of others. During the project, each student can act as a teacher in relation to another.

The class is an open system for communication and participation of others: children invite to their place, go to others themselves, correspond, travel. Cooperation and cooperation are encouraged, but not competition and competition.

Self management. A cooperative is created at the school, headed by an elected council that directs the self-education of students. The summarizing procedure is based on childish self-management and self-organization and occurs regularly: for the younger ones every day, for the older ones less often, as needed.

The cult of information. It is important to have knowledge, but it is even more important to know where and how to get it. Information is available in books, audiovisual and computer media, personal communication with the owner of the information is preferred.

The self-expression of a child's personality is also associated with information: children write free texts, essays, make typographic types themselves, make clichés, and publish books.

Written language and reading skills are formed on the basis of children's free texts, which each child writes and reads publicly. The class selects the "text of the day", fixes it, and everyone rewrites this text, while everyone can make their own additions and "editor's" corrections.

School textbooks have been replaced by special cards containing a piece of information, a specific task or control questions. The student chooses for himself a specific set of cards (individual training program). Frenet created a prototype of programmed learning - a training tape, to which cards with information, an exercise, a question or task, and a control task were attached sequentially. With the help of the teacher, everyone makes an individual weekly plan, which reflects all types of his work.

The cult of labor. The school creates a school cooperative, of which all students are members. The daily routine provides for work in the workshops, garden, barnyard. The cooperative is led by an elected council, and a general meeting is held once a week. Much attention is paid to publicity. Everyone fills out four columns of a common newspaper sheet: “I did”, “I would like”, “I praise”, “I criticize”.

The cult of health. Caring for the child's health includes activities related to movement, physical labor, a vegetarian regimen, natural medicine techniques; the highest level here is the harmony of relations with nature.

Note. S. Frenet addressed his practical recommendations to an ungraded rural elementary school. However, the ideas, the pathos of the fight against the routine and inertia of the traditional education system make Frenet's technology relevant for all types of educational institutions.

At present, thousands of schools operate in France "according to Fresne". In Russia, the Association of Frenet Pedagogues is organized, spreading his ideas.

Technology of self-development (M. Montessori)

Montessori Maria (1870-1952) - Italian teacher, implemented the ideas of free education and early development in kindergarten and elementary school.

The technology of self-development was created as an alternative to the drill and dogmatism in education, common at the end of the 19th century. M. Montessori perceived the child as a being capable of independent development, and determined the main task of the school - to supply "food" for the natural process of self-development, to create an environment that would contribute to it.

Classification parameters

According to the level of application: general pedagogical.

On a philosophical basis: anthroposophical.

According to the main factor of development: biogenic + psychogenic.

According to the concept of assimilation: associative-reflex + gestalt.

By orientation to personal structures: SUM + SUD + SDP.

By the nature of the content: educational + teaching, secular, general education, humanistic.

According to the type of cognitive activity management: the system of small groups + "consultant" + "tutor".

By organizational forms: alternative, club, individual + group.

By approach to the child: anthropocentric.

According to the prevailing method: play + creative.

In the direction of modernization: natural.

Target Orientations

■Comprehensive development.

■Education of independence.

■ Connection in the child's mind of the objective world and mental activity.

Conceptual Provisions

Education should take place quite naturally in accordance with development - the child develops himself.

The appeal of the child to the teacher “Help me do it myself * - the motto of Montessori pedagogy.

The whole life of a child - from birth to civil maturity - is the development of his independence and independence.

Accounting for sensitivity and spontaneity of development.

The unity of individual and social development.

There is nothing in the mind that was not previously in the senses.

Abandoning the mission to educate children; instead of training, provide them with conditions for independent development and mastering of human culture.

The child's thinking must go through all the necessary stages: from object-active to visual-figurative, and only after that the abstract level is reached.

The child's consciousness is "absorbent", so the priority of didactics is to organize the environment for such "absorption".

Content Features

The idea of an educative (cultural-developing, pedagogical) environment. The forces of development are inherent in the child, but they may not be realized if there is no prepared environment. When creating it, first of all, sensitivity is taken into account - the highest susceptibility to certain external phenomena.

Montessori material is a part of the pedagogical preparatory environment that encourages the child to show the possibilities of his own development through amateur activity that corresponds to his individuality, and responds to the child's desire for movement.

Montessori materials are, according to Vygotsky, psychological tools, tools for mediated perception of the world. Taking an object from the shelf, the child concentrates on a specific goal, meditates, looks inward; manipulating it, imperceptibly acquires skills.

Until the age of 5, a child is a builder of himself out of anything. According to Montessori, he “refines” all his abilities - vision, hearing, diction, dexterity ... The educational environment for this period provides material for practical skills, the development of motor skills and sensory skills, hands, eyes, speech. Part of it is from everyday household items, different in size, shape, color, smell, weight, temperature, taste...

After 5 years, the development of consciousness takes place, the child turns into a researcher, begins to try everything, sort it out, ask about everything. Here you can acquaint the child with a huge number of objects and phenomena of the surrounding world (didactic materials are bright, visual). Mathematical materials are also here: numerical rods with plates of numbers, numbers made of paper with a rough surface, circles, geometric shapes, numerical material made of beads, etc.

The transition to the study of the text (as self-development) occurs in a child by the age of 8. By this time, the pedagogical environment includes letters of the alphabet, letters from rough paper, writing tools, texts, and a library.

Adult speech as a constructive material of the pedagogical environment contains stories, conversations, conversations, games. Adults support the manifestation of self-expression, speech development by listening to the child, answering questions.

In the school period, the whole system is the pedagogical environment: from the material base to the psychological way of life of the team. Literary and artistic creativity, music making are used. The place of Montessori materials is replaced by workshops, a stage, an easel, a sewing machine, baths with clay and plasticine.

0-3 years: subject-sensory orientation;

3-6 years: sensitivity to speech, language acquisition, visual-figurative thinking;

6-9 years old: mastering abstract actions;

9-12 years old: completion of the first, primary school concentration;

12-18 years old: gymnasium and senior level.

Features of the methodology and organization

In the Montessori kindergarten, toys are not the main element of the environment, they are replaced by a variety of materials and objects such as cubes, plates, beads, strings.

The main task here is skill training: the development of fine motor skills of the hand, tactile memory. As technology researcher M. Montessori E. Hiltunen points out, it is not the game that is the main activity of the preschooler, but “free work” - independent activity with objects.

School period. There are no unified training programs; everyone carries out a unique path of development given by nature and God.

There are no lessons at school. The day begins with a general circle. Teachers sometimes call this circle reflexive, because it is here that the first attempts to comprehend reality take place, to convey sensations or observations by means of the language and, through the description of the event and its analysis, come to the formulation of the question and approach the problem.

After the circle, everyone disperses to free work. Everyone chooses what he will do - mathematics, Russian, history, astronomy, literature, chemical or physical experiments. Someone is learning to write letters, and someone is preparing a report in the library. When this or that work is completely finished, the children show it to the teacher. The result is discussed.

What is a mark, children do not know, but they certainly receive an assessment of their work, most often in the form of approval from adults or other children. The main thing here is how the child evaluates himself.

No one gives children any tasks, no one explains a new topic, no one asks them at the blackboard. Free work is based on absolute trust in the child, on faith in his desire to know the world around him, bestowed by nature, on the wise patience of adults who are waiting for independent discoveries to be made.

In the middle of the day there is another common activity, which is slightly longer for older children. This is immersion in the subject. For 15-20 minutes, children of the same year of study gather together. Teachers call this circle didactic. Here, knowledge on a particular subject is usually brought into the system, concepts are clarified, terminology is introduced, new didactic material is given, reports and messages are listened to and discussed.

The structure of any didactic material fully corresponds to the internal logic of the formation of a certain concept. The arrangement of the material in the environment also reflects a certain logic of its gradual development, recorded in the study notebooks specially developed by teachers. The child has several such notebooks in three integrated subjects: native language, mathematics and space education (Montessori's term). Filling in the sheets one by one, the student, as it were, completes the logic of studying the subject, translates the material into the abstract, clarifies and systematizes his knowledge.

Position of the teacher: researcher, observer, organizer of the educational environment; respects the right of children to be different from adults and each other, the right to their individuality.

Position of the child: "Help me do it myself."

Note. M. Montessori's technology is rich in private ideas that are used today in many other local technologies and private methods. An example of such use is the technique of E.N. Potapova "Optimization of teaching 6-7-year-old children to write". It uses M. Montessori letter stencils and includes three steps:

1) training the small muscles of the hands by creatively drawing arbitrary figures using an engineering ruler and then shading them from left to right, top to bottom and bottom to top (in accordance with the elements of Russian writing, unlike, for example, Arabic);

2) remembering the spelling of a letter not only with the help of its visual perception, but also by turning on tactile memory, repeatedly (per lesson) feeling the letter with a sensitive pad of the index finger (the letter is cut out of fine sandpaper and pasted on cardboard);

3) repeated writing of letters, first through a letter stencil (letters are embossed through a copper plate), and then without it.

Thanks to the technique of E.N. Potapova's children learn to write calligraphically, their spelling vigilance increases and 20-30 hours of study time are saved.

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Today, society and the state put forward more and more new requirements for the results of schooling. In the standards of the first generation, the goal of education was the direct transfer of knowledge from the teacher to the students, and the result, showing the results of learning, was the mastery of a system of knowledge, skills and abilities. In the standards of the second generation, the concept of "ZUNs" is no longer used. The purpose of education is also changing. Now schools should produce people who not only mastered a set of certain knowledge and skills, but also know how to get them on their own. It is understood that graduates must have certain universal learning activities (ULA).

The concept of universal learning activities

Universal learning activities- this is a set of ways of various actions that contribute to the active self-development of the student, helping to independently master new knowledge, master social experience, and form a social identity. What is UUD according to GEF, in simple words? These are actions that help "teach a person to learn." Universality means:

Metasubject, character. The concept of UUD does not refer to any one academic subject.
Form the psychological abilities of students
They are the basis of any activity of the student.

Universal learning activities perform the following functions:

They create conditions for the comprehensive development of the individual on the basis of readiness for continuous education.
They contribute to the successful formation of skills, competencies, the assimilation of knowledge in various subject areas.
They provide the student with the opportunity to independently carry out the activities of learning, goal-setting, monitoring and evaluating the process and learning outcomes.

Universal learning activities include the following types:

personal
regulatory
cognitive
communicative

Personal universal learning activities

Personal UUD- these are actions that ensure the determination of the value-semantic orientation of students. They also contribute to the definition of a person of his place and role in society and the establishment of successful interpersonal relationships.

In educational activities, there are several types of actions:

self-determination in different areas: professional, personal;
meaning formation: awareness of the meaning and motive of learning, the connection between them;
Moral assessment of the acquired material, the ability to make a personal moral choice based on social values.

To form personal UUD, it is proposed to use the following methodological techniques and tasks:

Group projects. Students jointly choose an interesting and relevant topic, distribute roles within the group. Everyone contributes to the implementation of the project.
Portfolio management. The diary of individual achievements contributes to the creation of a situation of success, thereby increasing self-esteem and establishing self-confidence. The portfolio encourages the desire for self-improvement, the formation of positive personality characteristics.
Attraction of local history material for academic and extracurricular activities
Creative tasks

Characteristics of regulatory universal learning activities

Regulatory universal learning activities are actions that provide organization and correction of learning activities. This group includes:

goal setting: definition of the purpose and educational task;
Planning: establishing a sequence of actions in accordance with the established goal and taking into account the expected result;
Forecasting: the ability to predict the result and its characteristics;
Correction: the ability to make changes to the plan in case of discrepancy with the standard;
Grade: definition and awareness of what has been assimilated and still to be assimilated; assessment of what has been learned;
Self-regulation: the ability to overcome obstacles and conflicts that have arisen;

For the formation of regulatory UUD, several methodological approaches are proposed. First of all, the student must establish and understand the purpose of studying a topic. Without this, successful mastering of the material is impossible. To form the objectives of the lesson, students at the beginning of the lesson can be offered the following table:

The last column can be filled in at the end of the lesson, then you should change its name: “What new and interesting did I learn in the lesson?” Variations are possible in accordance with the topic of the lesson. For example, at the beginning of a history lesson on the topic “Religion of the Ancient Greeks”, there may be work with such a table:

To form a planning UUD, it is advisable to use the following techniques:

Planning
Discussion of a plan for solving a learning problem
Work with a deliberately changed (deformed by the teacher) plan, its adjustment

Characteristics of cognitive universal learning activities

Cognitive UUD These are general educational activities that include:

Self-setting cognitive goals
Finding and structuring the necessary information using various means
semantic reading
Modeling

In a number of cognitive UUDs, a group is distinguished logical universal actions. This:

Creating hypotheses and testing them
Establishing causal relationships
Definition of logical reasoning
Implementation of classifications, comparisons

The following techniques and methods contribute to the development of cognitive UUD: tasks for finding correspondences, compiling a cluster, a logical chain, developing test questions and answers to them, working with historical documents.

Communicative universal learning activities

Communicative UUD name the actions that provide social competence, contributing to the acquisition of skills for building a dialogue; enabling them to integrate into the social environment. These include:

Finding a safe way out of conflicts
Ability to formulate questions correctly
Ability to express thoughts fully and accurately
Control and correction of the partner's behavior in the group

For the development of communicative UUD, it is proposed to use such tricks:

Drafting clarifying questions or questions to the speaker
Making judgments
Making presentations or messages in front of an audience
Continuation and development of a classmate's judgment

Children really like the technique called “hot chair”. It is suitable for consolidating the material covered. Two people come to the board. One of them sits down on a chair called "hot" facing the class. He must not see the board. The second student writes a term or date on the board. The class must explain the meaning to the seated person, and he, in turn, should name the concept itself.

Such a simple technique as a story from an illustration also helps to develop communicative UUD. When compiling it, the student uses visual support, causing a passive vocabulary. In addition, illustrations can enliven the story itself, interest children, and encourage them to study the material.

A prominent place among the means that form communicative UUD is occupied by an educational discussion. This is the name given to the exchange of opinions on a particular problem. The discussion contributes to the acquisition of new knowledge, the development of the ability to defend one's opinion. There are many forms: forum, "court", debate, symposium, "round table", brainstorming, "aquarium" technique, "expert group meeting".

Criteria for the formation of UUD

To determine the degree of formation of the UUD, the following main criteria are used:

Regulatory Compliance
Compliance of the results of the development of UUD with the requirements prescribed in advance
Consciousness, completeness and reasonableness of actions
Criticality of actions

Contributing to the formation and development of UUD, the teacher helps students become active participants in the educational process. Having mastered the universal educational actions, the student will not get lost in the incessant flow of information, he will acquire a very important skill - “the ability to learn”.

The processing of sensory data in consciousness leads to the formation of representations and concepts. It is in these two forms that knowledge is stored in memory. The main purpose of knowledge is to organize and regulate practical activities.

Knowledge is a theoretically generalized socio-historical experience, the result of a person's mastery of reality, its knowledge.

Knowledge and action are closely intertwined. Actions with objects simultaneously provide knowledge about their properties and the possibility of using these objects. When we meet with unfamiliar objects, we strive first of all to gain knowledge about how to deal with them, how to use them. If we are dealing with a new technical device, then first of all we get acquainted with the instructions for its use. On the basis of the instruction, the movements are postponed in the form of motor representations. However, movement is usually not enough to properly handle the object. Certain theoretical knowledge is required about some properties of the device, about the patterns and features of the phenomena associated with it. This knowledge can be acquired from specialized literature and used when working with the device.

Knowledge raises activity to a higher level of awareness, increases a person's confidence in the correctness of its implementation. Performance of activity is impossible without knowledge.

In addition to knowledge, the necessary components of activity are skills and abilities. The ratio of these components is explained by psychologists ambiguously: some researchers believe that skills precede skills, others believe that skills arise before skills.

In addition, the concept of skill is also ambiguously interpreted. So, skill is sometimes reduced to knowledge of a particular case, understanding the sequence of its implementation. However, this is not yet a skill, but only a prerequisite for its occurrence. Yes, both a first-grader and a senior student can read, but these are qualitatively excellent skills in terms of their psychological structure. Therefore, one should distinguish between elementary skills that immediately follow knowledge and the first experience of actions, and skills that manifest themselves as mastery in performing activities that occur after the development of a skill. Elementary skills are actions that arise on the basis of knowledge as a result of imitation of actions or independent trial and error in handling an object. They can arise on the basis of imitation, from random knowledge. Skill - mastery arises on the basis of already developed skills and a wide range of knowledge. Thus, a necessary internal condition for skill is a certain skill in performing the actions that make up this activity.

So, skill is a person's readiness based on knowledge and skills to successfully perform a certain activity. Skills are consciously controlled parts of the activity, at least in the main intermediate points and the final goal.

The existence of a large number of activities determines the existence of a corresponding number of skills. These skills have both common features (what is necessary for any type of activity: the ability to be attentive, plan and control activities, etc.), and excellent features, due to the content of a particular type of activity.

Since an activity consists of various actions, the ability to perform it consists of a number of individual skills. The more complex the activity, the more advanced the mechanisms and devices that need to be controlled, the greater the skill of a person should be.

A skill is an action formed by repetition and is characterized by a high degree of comprehension and the absence of element-by-element conscious regulation and control.

Skills are components of a person's conscious activity that are performed completely automatically. If action is understood as a part of an activity that has a clearly defined conscious goal, then a skill can also be called an automated component of an action.

As a result of the repeated performance of the same movements, a person has the opportunity to perform a certain action as a single purposeful act, without setting himself a special goal of consciously choosing ways to perform it for her, and without specifically focusing attention on the performance of individual operations.

Due to the fact that some actions are fixed in the form of skills and pass into the plan of automated acts, the conscious activity of a person is freed from the need to regulate relatively elementary acts, and is directed to the implementation of complex tasks.

When automating actions and operations of their transformation into skills, a number of transformations occur in the structure of activity. First, automated actions and operations merge into a single holistic act called skill (for example, a complex system of movements of a person who writes a text, performs a sports exercise, performs a surgical operation, produces a detail of an object, gives a lecture, etc.). At the same time, superfluous, unnecessary movements disappear, and the number of erroneous ones drops sharply.

Secondly, control over an action or operation during their automation is shifted from the process to the final result, and external, sensory control is replaced by internal, proprioceptive. The speed of the action and operation increases sharply, becoming optimal or maximum. All this happens as a result of exercise and training.

The physiological basis for the automation of activity components, which are initially presented in its structure in the form of actions and operations and then turn into skills, is, as shown by N.A. Bernstein, the transition of the management of activity or its individual components to the subconscious level of regulation and bringing them to automatism.

Since skills are included in the structure of actions and various activities in large numbers, they interact with each other, forming complex systems of skills. The nature of their interaction can be different: from consistency to counteraction, from complete merging to mutually negative inhibitory influence - interference. Coordination of skills occurs when: a) the system of movements related to one skill corresponds to the system of movements related to another skill; b) when the implementation of one skill creates favorable conditions for the implementation of another (one of the skills serves as a means of better mastering the other); c) when the end of one skill is the actual beginning of another and vice versa. Interference occurs when one of the following contradictions appears in the interaction of skills: a) the system of movements that relate to one skill contradicts, does not agree with the system of movements that make up the structure of another skill; b) when, when moving from one skill to another, you actually have to relearn, destroy the structure of the old skill; c) when the system of movements related to one skill is partially contained in another skill already brought to automatism (in this case, when a new skill is performed, movements characteristic of a previously learned skill automatically occur, which leads to a distortion of the movements necessary for a new skill) d) when the beginning and end of sequentially performed skills do not coincide with each other. With full automation of skills, the phenomenon of interference is reduced to a minimum or completely disappears.

Important for understanding the process of skills formation is their transfer, that is, the distribution and use of skills formed as a result of performing certain actions and activities to others. In order for such a transfer to be fulfilled normally, it is necessary that the skill become generalized, universal, consistent with other skills, actions and activities, brought to automatism.

Skill, unlike skills, is formed as a result of coordination of skills, their combination into systems with the help of actions that are under conscious control. Through the regulation of such actions, optimal control of skills is carried out. It consists in ensuring the error-free and flexible execution of actions, that is, obtaining a reliable result of the action as a result. The action itself in a skill structure is controlled by its target. For example, elementary school students, when learning to write, perform actions related to writing individual elements of letters. At the same time, the skills of holding a pencil in the hand and performing elementary hand movements are performed, as a rule, automatically. The main thing in skill management is to ensure the accuracy of each action, its sufficient flexibility. This means the practical elimination of low quality work, variability and the ability to adapt the system of skills to the conditions of the activity, change from time to time, while maintaining positive work results. Thus, the ability to do something with one's own hands means that a person with such skills will always work well and is able to maintain a high quality of work under any conditions. The ability to teach means that the teacher is able to teach any normal student what he knows and can do himself.

One of the main qualities that belong to skills is that a person has the ability to change the structure of skills - skills, operations and actions that are part of the skills, the sequence of their implementation, while maintaining the end result unchanged. A skilled person can replace one material with another in the manufacture of any product, make it himself or use the available tools, other improvised means, in a word, he will find a way out in almost any situation.

Skill, unlike skills, is always based on active intellectual activity and necessarily includes thinking processes. Conscious intellectual control is the main thing that distinguishes skill from skills. The activation of intellectual activity in skills occurs at those moments when the conditions of activity change, non-standard situations arise that require the prompt adoption of reasonable decisions. Skill management at the level of the central nervous system is carried out by higher anatomical and physiological authorities than skill management, that is, at the level of the cerebral cortex.

Skills and abilities are divided into several types: motor, cognitive, theoretical and practical. Motor ones include a variety of movements, complex and simple, that make up the external, motor aspects of activity. There are special types of activity (for example, sports), entirely built on the basis of motor skills and abilities. Cognitive skills include the ability to search for, perceive, remember and process information. They correlate with the basic mental processes and involve the formation of knowledge. Theoretical skills and abilities are associated with abstract intelligence. They are manifested in the ability of a person to analyze, generalize the material, put forward hypotheses, theories, and transfer information from one sign system to another. Such skills and abilities of everything turn out to be in the creative work associated with obtaining the ideal product of thought. Practical skills are manifested in the performance of practical activities, the manufacture of a particular product. It is on their example that one can demonstrate the formation and manifestation of skills in its purest form.

Exercises are of great importance in the formation of all types of skills and abilities. Thanks to them, the automation of skills, the improvement of skills, activities in general. Exercises are necessary both at the stage of developing skills and abilities, and in the process of their preservation. Without constant, systematic exercise, skills and abilities often lose their quality.

Another element of activity is habit. It differs from skills and abilities in that it is a so-called unproductive element of activity. If the skills and abilities are associated with the solution of a task, providing for the receipt of a product and are flexible enough (in the structure of complex skills), then the habit is an inflexible (often unreasonable) part of a person’s mechanical activity and does not have a conscious goal or a pronounced productive end. Unlike mere habits, a habit can be consciously controlled to a certain extent. But it differs from skill in that it is not always reasonable and useful (bad habits). Habits as elements of activity is the least flexible part of it. Therefore, it is important that the child immediately consolidates good habits that have a positive impact on the formation of the personality as a whole.