Who carries out environmental monitoring? Environmental monitoring: types and subsystems
The concept of environmental monitoring Monitoring is a system of repeated observations of one or more elements of the natural environment in space and time with specific goals and in accordance with a pre-prepared program Menn 1972. The concept of environmental monitoring was first introduced by R. Clarifying the definition of environmental monitoring by Yu.
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Lecture No. 14
Environmental monitoring
- Concept of environmental monitoring
- Objectives of environmental monitoring
- Monitoring classification
- Assessment of the actual state of the environment (sanitary and hygienic monitoring, environmental)
- Forecast and assessment of the predicted state
1. Concept of environmental monitoring
Monitoring is a system of repeated observations of one or more elements of the natural environment in space and time with specific goals and in accordance with a pre-prepared program (Menn, 1972). The need for detailed information about the state of the biosphere has become even more obvious in recent decades due to the serious negative consequences caused by uncontrolled human exploitation of natural resources.
To identify changes in the state of the biosphere under the influence of human activity, an observation system is needed. Such a system is now commonly called monitoring.
The word “monitoring” entered scientific circulation from English-language literature and comes from the English word “ monitoring " comes from the word " monitor ", which in English has the following meaning: monitor, instrument or device for monitoring and constant control over something.
The concept of environmental monitoring was first introduced by R. Menn in 1972. at the UN Stockholm Conference.
In our country, Yu.A. was one of the first to develop monitoring theory. Israel. Clarifying the definition of environmental monitoring, Yu.A. Israel back in 1974 focused not only on observation, but also on forecasting, introducing the anthropogenic factor into the definition of the term “environmental monitoring” as the main cause of these changes. Monitoring environmentit calls a system of observation, assessment and forecast of anthropogenic changes in the state of the natural environment. (Fig.1) . The Stockholm Conference on the Environment (1972) marked the beginning of the creation of global environmental monitoring systems (GEMS/ GEMS).
Monitoring includes the followingmain directions activities:
- Observations of factors affecting the natural environment and the state of the environment;
- Assessment of the actual state of the natural environment;
- Forecast of the state of the natural environment. And an assessment of this condition.
Thus, monitoring is a multi-purpose information system of observation, analysis, diagnosis and forecast of the state of the natural environment, which does not include environmental quality management, but provides the necessary information for such management (Fig. 2).
Information system/monitoring/Management
Rice. 2. Block diagram of the monitoring system.
2. Objectives of environmental monitoring
- Scientific and technical support for monitoring, assessing the forecast of the state of the environment;
- Monitoring the sources of pollutants and the level of environmental pollution;
- Identification of sources and factors of pollution and assessment of the degree of their impact on the environment;
- Assessment of the actual state of the environment;
- Forecast of changes in the state of the environment and ways to improve the situation. (Fig.3.)
The essence and content of environmental monitoring consists of an ordered set of procedures, organized into cycles: N 1 observations, O 1 assessment, P 1 forecast and U 1 management. Then the observations are supplemented with new data, on a new cycle, and then the cycles are repeated on a new time interval H 2, O 2, P 2, U 2, etc. (Fig. 4.)
Thus, monitoring is a complex, cyclically functioning, constantly operating system that develops in a spiral over time.
Rice. 4. Scheme of monitoring functioning over time.
3. Classification of monitoring.
- According to the scale of observation;
- By objects of observation;
- According to the level of contamination of observation objects;
- By factors and sources of pollution;
- According to observation methods.
By scale of observation
|
Level name monitoring |
Monitoring organizations |
|
Global |
Interstate monitoring system environment |
|
National |
State environmental monitoring system for the territory of Russia |
|
Regional |
Regional and regional environmental monitoring systems |
|
Local |
City, district environmental monitoring systems |
|
Detailed |
Environmental monitoring systems for enterprises, fields, factories, etc. |
Detailed monitoring
The lowest hierarchical level is the detailed levelenvironmental monitoring implemented within territories and on the scale of individual enterprises, factories, individual engineering structures, economic complexes, fields, etc. Detailed environmental monitoring systems are the most important link in a higher-ranking system. Their integration into a larger network forms a local level monitoring system.
Local monitoring (impact)
It is carried out in heavily polluted places (cities, settlements, water bodies, etc.) and is focused on the source of pollution. IN
Due to the proximity to sources of pollution, all the main substances included in emissions into the atmosphere and discharge into water bodies are usually present in significant quantities here. Local systems, in turn, are combined into even larger regional monitoring systems.
Regional monitoring
It is carried out within a certain region, taking into account the natural nature, type and intensity of man-made impact. Regional environmental monitoring systems are united within one state into a single national monitoring network.
National monitoring
Monitoring system within one state. Such a system differs from global monitoring not only in scale, but also in the fact that the main task of national monitoring is to obtain information and assess the state of the environment in national interests. In Russia it is carried out under the leadership of the Ministry of Natural Resources. Within the framework of the UN environmental program, the task has been set to unite national monitoring systems into a single interstate network “Global Environmental Monitoring Network” (GEMN)
Global monitoring
The purpose of GSMS is to monitor changes in the environment on Earth as a whole, on a global scale. Global monitoring is a system for monitoring the state and forecasting possible changes in global processes and phenomena, including anthropogenic impact on the biosphere as a whole. GSMOS deals with global warming, problems of the ozone layer, forest conservation, drought, etc. .
By objects of observation
- Atmospheric air
- in populated areas;
- different layers of the atmosphere;
- stationary and mobile sources of pollution.
- Groundwater and surface water bodies
- fresh and salt waters;
- mixing zones;
- regulated water bodies;
- natural reservoirs and watercourses.
- Geological environment
- soil layer;
- soils.
- Biological monitoring
- plants;
- animals;
- ecosystems;
- Human.
- Snow cover monitoring
- Background radiation monitoring.
Pollution level of observation objects
- Background (basic monitoring)
These are observations of environmental objects in relatively clean natural areas.
2. Impact
Focuses on the source of pollution or individual polluting impact.
By factors and sources of pollution
1. Ingradient monitoring
This is a physical impact on the environment. These are radiation, thermal effects, infrared, noise, vibration, etc.
2. Ingredient monitoring
This is monitoring of a single pollutant.
By observation methods
1. Contact methods
2. Remote methods.
4. Assessment of the actual state of the environment
Assessment of the actual state is a key area within the framework of environmental monitoring. It allows you to determine trends in changes in the state of the environment; the degree of trouble and its causes; helps make decisions to normalize the situation. Favorable situations can also be identified, indicating the presence of ecological reserves of nature.
The ecological reserve of a natural ecosystem is the difference between the maximum permissible and actual state of the ecosystem.
The method for analyzing observation results and assessing the state of the ecosystem depends on the type of monitoring. Typically, the assessment is carried out using a set of indicators or conditional indices developed for the atmosphere, hydrosphere, and lithosphere. Unfortunately, there are no unified criteria even for identical elements of the natural environment. As an example, we will consider only individual criteria.
In sanitary and hygienic monitoring they usually use:
1) comprehensive assessments of the sanitary condition of natural objects based on a set of measured indicators (Table 1) or 2) pollution indices.
Table 1.
Comprehensive assessment of the sanitary condition of water bodies based on a combination of physical, chemical and hydrobiological indicators
The general principle for calculating pollution indices is as follows: first, the degree of deviation of the concentration of each pollutant from its MPC is determined, and then the resulting values are combined into a total indicator that takes into account the impact of several substances.
Let us give examples of calculating pollution indices used to assess atmospheric air pollution (AP) and surface water quality (WQ).
Calculation of the air pollution index (API).
In practical work, a large number of different ISAs are used. Some of them are based on indirect indicators of air pollution, for example, atmospheric visibility, transparency coefficient.
Various ISAs, which can be divided into 2 main groups:
1. Unit indices of air pollution by one impurity.
2.Comprehensive indicators of air pollution by several substances.
TO unit indices relate:
Coefficient for expressing the concentration of an impurity in MPC units ( A ), i.e. the value of the maximum or average concentration, reduced to the maximum permissible concentration:
a = Cί / MPCί
This API is used as a criterion for the quality of atmospheric air by individual impurities.
Repeatability (g ) concentrations of impurities in the air above a given level by post or by K posts of the city for the year. This is the percentage (%) of cases where single values of impurity concentration exceed a given level:
g = (m/n) ּ100%
where n - number of observations for the period under consideration, m - number of cases of exceeding one-time concentrations at the post.
IZA (I ) by an individual impurity - a quantitative characteristic of the level of atmospheric pollution by an individual impurity, taking into account the hazard class of the substance through standardization for the danger SO 2 :
I = (C g /PDKss) Ki
where I is an impurity, Ki - constant for various hazard classes in reducing the degree of harmfulness of sulfur dioxide, C g - average annual concentration of impurities.
For substances of different hazard classes Ki is accepted:
|
Hazard Class |
||||
|
Ki value |
The calculation of the API is based on the assumption that at the MPC level, all harmful substances are characterized by the same effect on humans, and with a further increase in concentration, the degree of their harmfulness increases at different rates, which depends on the hazard class of the substance.
This API is used to characterize the contribution of individual impurities to the overall level of air pollution over a given period of time in a given area and to compare the degree of air pollution by various substances.
TO complex indexes relate:
The comprehensive city air pollution index (CIPA) is a quantitative characteristic of the level of air pollution created by n substances present in the city atmosphere:
KIZA=
where Ii - unit index of atmospheric pollution by the i-th substance.
The comprehensive index of air pollution by priority substances is a quantitative characteristic of the level of air pollution by priority substances that determine air pollution in cities, calculated similarly to KIZA.
Calculations of the natural water pollution index (WPI)can also be performed using several methods.
Let us give as an example the calculation method recommended by the regulatory document, which is an integral part of the Rules for the Protection of Surface Waters (1991) - SanPiN 4630-88.
First, the measured concentrations of pollutants are grouped according to limiting signs of harmfulness - LPV (organoleptic, toxicological and general sanitary). Then, for the first and second (organoleptic and toxicological DP) groups, the degree of deviation (A i ) actual concentrations of substances ( C i ) from their maximum permissible concentration i , the same as for atmospheric air ( A i = C i /MPC i ). Next, find the sums of indicators A i , for the first and second groups of substances:
where S is the sum of A i for substances regulated by organoleptic ( S org ) and toxicological ( S tox ) LPV; n - number of summarized water quality indicators.
In addition, to determine WPI, the amount of oxygen dissolved in water and BOD are used 20 (general sanitary LPV), bacteriological indicator - the number of lactose-positive Escherichia coli (LPKP) in 1 liter of water, smell and taste. The water pollution index is determined in accordance with the hygienic classification of water bodies according to the degree of pollution (Table 2).
Comparing the corresponding indicators ( Sorg, Stox, BOD 20 etc.) with the estimated ones (see Table 2), determine the pollution index, the degree of pollution of the water body and the water quality class. The pollution index is determined by the most stringent value of the assessment indicator. So, if according to all indicators water belongs to quality class I, but the oxygen content in it is less than 4.0 mg/l (but more than 3.0 mg/l), then the WPI of such water should be taken as 1 and classified as class II quality (moderate degree of contamination).
The types of water use depend on the degree of water pollution of a water body (Table 3).
Table 2.
Hygienic classification of water bodies by degree of pollution (according to SanPiN 4630-88)
Table 3
Possible types of water use depending on the degree of pollution of the water body (according to SanPiN4630-88)
|
Degree of pollution |
Possible uses of the same object |
|
Acceptable |
Suitable for all types of water use by the population with virtually no restrictions |
|
Moderate |
Indicates the danger of using a water body for cultural and household chains. Use as a source of domestic drinking water supply without reducing the level of: chemical pollution at water treatment plants can lead to initial symptoms of intoxication in part of the population, especially in the presence of substances of the 1st and 2nd hazard classes |
|
High |
There is an absolute danger of cultural and domestic water use on a water body. It is unacceptable to use it as a source of domestic drinking water supply due to the difficulty of removing toxic substances during the water treatment process. Drinking water can lead to symptoms of intoxication and the development of isolated effects, especially in the presence of substances of hazard classes 1 and 2 |
|
Extremely high |
Absolutely unsuitable for all types of water use. Even short-term use of water from a water body is dangerous to public health |
To assess water quality, the services of the Ministry of Natural Resources of the Russian Federation use the methodology for calculating WPI only based on chemical indicators, but taking into account more stringent fishery MPCs. At the same time, there are not 4, but 7 quality classes:
I - very clean water (WPI = 0.3);
II - pure (WPI = 0.3 - 1.0);
III - moderately polluted (WPI = 1.0 - 2.5);
IV - polluted (WPI = 2.5 - 4.0);
V - dirty (WPI = 4.0 - 6.0);
VI - very dirty (WPI = 6.0 - 10.0);
VII - extremely dirty (WPI more than 10.0).
Assessment of the level of chemical contamination of soilcarried out according to indicators developed in geochemical and geohygienic studies. These indicators are:
- chemical concentration factor (K i),
K i = C i / C fi
where C i actual content of the analyte in the soil, mg/kg;
With fi regional background content of the substance in soil, mg/kg.
In the presence of maximum permissible concentration i for the soil type under consideration, K i determined by the multiple of exceeding the hygienic standard, i.e. according to the formula
K i = C i / MPC i
- total pollution index Z c , which is determined by the sum of the concentration coefficients of chemical substances:
Zc = ∑ K i (n -1)
Where n number of pollutants in the soil, K i - concentration coefficient.
The approximate rating scale of the danger of soil pollution according to the total indicator is presented in table. 3.
Table 3
|
Danger |
Change in health |
|
|
acceptable |
16 |
low level of morbidity in children, minimum functional deviations |
|
moderately dangerous |
16-32 |
increase in overall morbidity rate |
|
dangerous |
32-128 |
an increase in the overall morbidity rate; increase in the number of sick children, children with chronic diseases, disorders of the cardiovascular system |
|
extremely dangerous |
128 |
an increase in the overall morbidity rate; increase in the number of sick children, reproductive dysfunction |
Environmental monitoring is of particular importance in the global systemenvironmental monitoring and, first of all, in monitoring renewable resources of the biosphere. It includes observations of the ecological state of terrestrial, aquatic and marine ecosystems.
The following criteria can be used to characterize changes in the state of natural systems: balance of production and destruction; the amount of primary production, the structure of the biocenosis; rate of circulation of nutrients, etc. All these criteria are numerically expressed by various chemical and biological indicators. Thus, changes in the Earth's vegetation cover are determined by changes in the area of forests.
The main result of environmental monitoring should be an assessment of the responses of ecosystems as a whole to anthropogenic disturbances.
A response or reaction of an ecosystem is a change in its ecological state in response to external influences. It is best to evaluate the system's response by integral indicators of its state, which can be used as various indices and other functional characteristics. Let's look at some of them:
1. One of the most common responses of aquatic ecosystems to anthropogenic impacts is eutrophication. Consequently, monitoring changes in indicators that integrally reflect the degree of eutrophication of a reservoir, for example pH 100% , is the most important element of environmental monitoring.
2. The response to “acid rain” and other anthropogenic impacts may be a change in the structure of biocenoses of terrestrial and aquatic ecosystems. To assess such a response, various indices of species diversity are widely used, reflecting the fact that under any unfavorable conditions the diversity of species in the biocenosis decreases, and the number of resistant species increases.
Dozens of such indices have been proposed by different authors. The most widely used indices are those based on information theory, for example, the Shannon index:
where N - total number of individuals; S - number of species; N i is the number of individuals of the i-th species.
In practice, they deal not with the number of a species in the entire population (in a sample), but with the number of a species in a sample; replacing N i / N by n i / n , we get:
Maximum diversity is observed when the numbers of all species are equal, and minimum diversity is observed when all species except one are represented by one specimen. Diversity indices ( d ) reflect the structure of the community, weakly depend on the sample size and are dimensionless.
Y. L. Vilm (1970) calculated Shannon diversity indices ( d ) in 22 unpolluted and 21 polluted sections of different US rivers. In uncontaminated areas the index ranged from 2.6 to 4.6, and in polluted areas - from 0.4 to 1.6.
Assessment of the state of ecosystems based on species diversity is applicable to any type of impact and any ecosystem.
3. The system’s response may manifest itself in a decrease in its resistance to anthropogenic stress. As a universal integral criterion for assessing the stability of ecosystems, V.D. Fedorov (1975) proposed a function called the measure of homeostasis and equal to the ratio of functional indicators (for example, pH 100% or photosynthesis rate) to structural (diversity indices).
A feature of environmental monitoring is that the effects of impacts, subtle when studying an individual organism or species, are revealed when considering the system as a whole.
5. Forecast and assessment of the predicted state
Forecasting and assessing the predicted state of ecosystems and the biosphere are based on the results of monitoring the natural environment in the past and present, studying information series of observations and analyzing trends of changes.
At the initial stage, it is necessary to predict changes in the intensity of sources of impacts and pollution, to predict the degree of their influence: to predict, for example, the amount of pollutants in various environments, their distribution in space, changes in their properties and concentrations over time. To make such forecasts, data on human activity plans is needed.
The next stage is the forecast of possible changes in the biosphere under the influence of existing pollution and other factors, since changes that have already occurred (especially genetic ones) can last for many years. Analysis of the predicted state allows you to select priority environmental measures and make adjustments to economic activities at the regional level.
Forecasting the state of ecosystems is essential for managing the quality of the natural environment.
In assessing the ecological state of the biosphere on a global scale based on integral characteristics (averaged in space and time), remote observation methods play an exceptional role. The leading methods among them are those based on the use of space assets. For these purposes, special satellite systems are being created (Meteor in Russia, Landsat in the USA, etc.). Synchronous three-level observations using satellite systems, aircraft and ground services are especially effective. They make it possible to obtain information about the state of forests, agricultural lands, marine phytoplankton, soil erosion, urbanized areas, redistribution of water resources, atmospheric pollution, etc. For example, a correlation is observed between the spectral brightness of the planet’s surface and the humus content in soils and their salinity.
Satellite imaging provides ample opportunities for geobotanical zoning; allows us to judge population growth based on the area of settlements; energy consumption based on the brightness of night lights; clearly identify dust layers and temperature anomalies associated with radioactive decay; record increased concentrations of chlorophyll in water bodies; detect forest fires and much more.
In Russia since the late 60s. There is a unified national system of observation and control of environmental pollution. It is based on the principle of comprehensive observations of natural environments according to hydrometeorological, physicochemical, biochemical and biological parameters. Observations are organized according to a hierarchical principle.
The first stage is local observation points serving the city, region and consisting of control and measuring stations and a computer center for collecting and processing information (CIS). Then the data enters the second level - regional (territorial), from where the information is transferred to local interested organizations. The third level is the Main Data Center, which collects and summarizes information across the country. For this purpose, PCs are now widely used and digital raster maps are created.
Currently, the Unified State Environmental Monitoring System (USESM) is being created, the purpose of which is to provide objective, comprehensive information about the state of the natural environment. The Unified State Environmental Monitoring System includes monitoring of: sources of anthropogenic impact on the environment; pollution of the abiotic component of the natural environment; biotic components of the natural environment.
Within the framework of the Unified State Environmental Monitoring System, the creation of environmental information services is provided. Monitoring is carried out by the State Observation Service (SOS).
Observations of atmospheric air in 1996 were carried out in 284 cities at 664 posts. The observation network for surface water pollution in the Russian Federation as of January 1, 1996 consisted of 1928 points, 2617 sections, 2958 verticals, 3407 horizons located on 1363 water bodies (1979 - 1200 water bodies); of which - 1204 watercourses and 159 reservoirs. As part of the State Monitoring of the Geological Environment (SMGE), the observation network included 15,000 groundwater observation points, 700 observation sites for hazardous exogenous processes, 5 test sites and 30 wells for studying earthquake precursors.
Among all the blocks of the USEM, the most complex and least developed not only in Russia, but also in the world is the monitoring of the biotic component. There is no uniform methodology for the use of living objects either for assessing or regulating environmental quality. Consequently, the primary task is to determine biotic indicators for each of the monitoring blocks at the federal and territorial levels, differentiated for terrestrial, aquatic and soil ecosystems.
To manage the quality of the natural environment, it is important not only to have information about its condition, but also to determine damage from anthropogenic impacts, economic efficiency, environmental measures, and to master economic mechanisms for protecting the natural environment.
Actual condition
environment
Environmental conditions
environment
For the state
environment
And the factors on
influencing it
Forecast
price
Observations
Monitoring
observations
State forecast
Assessment of actual condition
Assessment of the predicted state
Regulation of environmental quality
ENVIRONMENTAL MONITORING
TASK
TARGET
OBSERVATION
GRADE
FORECAST
DECISION-MAKING
STRATEGY DEVELOPMENT
IDENTIFICATION
for changes in the state of the environment
proposed environmental changes
observed changes and identifying the effect of human activities
causes of environmental change associated with human activities
to prevent
negative consequences of human activity
optimal relations between society and the environment
Fig.3. Main tasks and purpose of monitoring
H 1
O 2
H 2
P 1
O 1
Monitoring as an information system. Ecological monitoring of the human environment: goals, objectives, objects. Structure of the monitoring system. Classification. Directions of state environmental monitoring and authorized state services. Environmental control.
Over the past decade, human impacts on the environment have increased dramatically around the world, leading to high rates of ecosystem change. Changes in the biosphere vary in magnitude, directionality, and are unevenly distributed in space and time. In the current situation, objective advanced information about the state of the natural environment, its changes and determination of trends of changes is important. Control is necessary both for natural changes in the natural environment and for anthropogenic impacts that superimpose on natural changes, enhancing them. In this regard, there was a need to organize special systems for monitoring and analyzing the state of the natural environment, primarily pollution and the effects they cause in the biosphere.
Monitoring – a multi-purpose information system for monitoring, analyzing and forecasting the state of an object or process.
Most often, the concept of monitoring is associated with the environment. Environmental monitoring (ecological monitoring) is a comprehensive system of interrelated work carried out according to scientifically based programs on regular monitoring of the state of the environment, assessment and forecast of its changes under the influence of natural and anthropogenic factors. Environmental monitoring provides warning information about critical situations that have arisen that are harmful to the health of people and other living organisms. Based on environmental monitoring data, recommendations are developed for further management decisions and corrective actions aimed at ensuring rational environmental management and preserving environmental quality.
For the first time the term “monitoring” (from Lat. monitor - cautionary) appeared in 1972 before the Stockholm UN Conference on the Environment in addition to the term “control”. It should be taken into account that the monitoring system itself only monitors and obtains information, not including environmental quality management activities, but is a source of information necessary for making environmentally significant decisions. Control also includes controls.
Environmental monitoring includes the following main activities :
Observation of factors affecting the natural environment and the state of the environment that changes as a result of this impact.
Assessment of the actual state of the natural environment.
Forecast of the state of the natural environment and assessment of this state. Forecasts can be short-term or long-term.
Subject of environmental monitoring :
environment;
Natural resources;
sources of anthropogenic impacts on the natural environment.
Goals :
environmental Safety;
environmental well-being;
rational use of natural resources.
Under environmental safety understand a state in which the interests of the individual, society, nature and the state are protected from potential threats created by anthropogenic or natural impacts on the environment.
The main task The environmental monitoring system is information support and support for decision-making procedures in the field of managing the state of the natural environment (SES) and environmental safety.
In Fig. Figure 4 shows the structure of the monitoring system.
Information System Management
(monitoring)
Observation assessment of actual
state Regulation
environmental quality
state forecast assessment of the predicted
(future) states
Rice. 4. Block diagram of the software monitoring system
The “observation” and “state forecast” blocks are closely related to each other. A forecast is possible only if there is information about the actual state (direct connection). The direction of the forecast should largely determine the structure and composition of the observation network (feedback).
Data obtained as a result of observation or forecast must be evaluated using specially selected criteria. Assessment, on the one hand, implies the determination of damage from the impact, on the other hand, the selection of optimal conditions for human activity. Information about the state of the natural environment and trends in its change should form the basis for the development of nature protection measures.
The results of assessing the current and predicted state of the biosphere make it possible to clarify the requirements for the observation subsystem (this constitutes the scientific justification for monitoring, justification for the composition and structure of the network and observation methods).
Objects of environmental monitoring :
sources and factors of anthropogenic impact on the natural environment, including sources of pollution, radiation, including potentially hazardous objects;
elements of the biosphere, including
Components of the natural environment - lands, subsoil, soils, surface and underground waters, atmospheric air, levels of radiation and energy pollution, as well as the ozone layer of the atmosphere and near-Earth space, which together provide favorable conditions for the existence of life on Earth;
Natural objects - natural ecological systems, natural landscapes and their constituent elements. Observations are also carried out on the responses of living organisms to influence, on changes in their structural and functional indicators;
- natural-anthropogenic objects - natural objects transformed in the process of economic activity or objects created by man and having recreational and protective significance;
- population groups exposed to environmental factors.
This approach covers monitoring the entire cycle of anthropogenic impacts - from sources of impacts to the influence and reactions of individual natural environments and complex ecological systems. Classification of monitoring and all its possible directions is a complex and cumbersome task. Let's take a closer look at the priority systems.
Monitoring of natural environments and objects carried out at various levels:
global(biosphere or background - within the framework of international programs and projects);
federal(for the territory of Russia as a whole);
territorial(within the territory of the corresponding subject of the Russian Federation);
local (within the limits of a natural-technogenic system used by a nature user who has received a license for a particular type of activity).
Global monitoring – reduction of global processes and phenomena, including anthropogenic impacts on the biosphere and warning of emerging extreme situations. For example, the weakening of the ozone shield, the impact of global air pollution on climate, assessment of ocean pollution, the creation of an international disaster warning system. The development and coordination of the Global Environmental Monitoring System (GEMS) is carried out by UNEP ( United Environment Program– UN Environment Program) and the World Meteorological Organization in the framework of various international programs and projects.
Environmental changes can occur due to natural causes and under the influence of human activities. In order to assess the changes introduced by human activity, it is necessary to know the background state of the biosphere. It is being studied on the basis of nature reserves that exist in a number of countries within the framework of background monitoring environment. In Russia, background monitoring stations are located in six biosphere reserves.
When carrying out global monitoring, Earth space remote sensing systems are used. They allow us to obtain unique information about the functioning of ecosystems, the consequences of natural disasters and environmental disasters.
Environmental monitoring at territorial level monitoring processes within the region. There are places (regions) where there are deviations from the statistical average, characteristic and natural in nature due to anthropogenic influences, for the entire biosphere.
Monitoring at the territorial level includes:
monitoring of sources and impact factors . Toxic substances that are most persistent and mobile and have toxic daughter products are primarily monitored. Among the sources, primarily factory chimneys, fields with introduced chemicals, cities, etc. are distinguished.
monitoring of natural environments – observations of changes in the atmosphere, hydrosphere, soil, cryosphere and biota.
impact monitoring – observations of anthropogenic impacts in particularly hazardous areas and points, study of discharges from a particular enterprise (in particular, monitoring of areas of direct impact). The measurement is made against the background of natural processes.
In Fig. Figure 5 shows the classification of successive monitoring stages.
Rice. 5. Classification of successive stages of monitoring.
Geophysical monitoring – determines the reaction of the abiotic component, both on the micro- and macroscale. Up to the reaction and determination of the state of large systems: weather and climate.
Biological monitoring – monitoring of biological objects (presence of species, their condition, appearance of random introduced species, etc.)
Biological monitoring includes observations:
for human health, the impact of the environment on humans;
for the most important populations both from the point of view of the existence of the ecosystem and from the point of view of great economic value (valuable varieties of fish);
behind populations - indicators;
genetic monitoring.
Animals or plants (bioindicators) are used as indicators of environmental pollution. Bioindicators are used at the earliest stage of contamination. If the pollution has gone as far as, for example, in Los Angeles, where alleys of rubber trees have been created - living trees can no longer grow there - then at this stage there is no point in resorting to the help of bioindicators. The main bioindicators are lichens, since they tolerate air pollution very poorly. In places with severe air pollution, a “lichen desert” is observed. They live only in areas with clean air. Some of their species are found only at a distance of 50-60 km from industrial cities.
Coniferous plants are very sensitive to sulfur dioxide. If emissions into the atmosphere are high, the spruce forest completely dies. A bioindication can be a change in plant growth, color (qualitative changes).
Animals and birds can serve as bioindicators. A decline in natural bird populations is a signal that also warns of danger to humans. Poisons accumulate in the body and eggs of birds. Heavy metals accumulate in the body of lizards. Based on their analysis, one can judge the pollution of the environment. Sea urchin eggs serve as highly sensitive and easily used bioindicators of toxic impurities in seawater.
Very often, physicochemical methods for analyzing environmental objects require a lot of time and money. Bioindicators allow you to quickly and inexpensively detect harmful substances. For example, when testing food products for mycotoxins released by molds, the crustacean Artemia is used, which is fed to aquarium fish. The crustacean larvae are treated with an extract from suspicious plant material, and the percentage of larval mortality is used to determine whether they are contaminated with mycotoxins. Various types of algae are selectively used in water analysis for the content of insecticides and herbicides.
Analytical chemistry has now achieved fairly high results in the sensitivity of the methods used: if in the 50s the limit of dreams was the threshold for detecting poison at 1 mg/kg, today its detection in an amount of 10 -6 mg/kg has become realistic. Three molecules of any compound among three billion molecules of the material being studied is enough. However, bioindicators are even more sensitive. Biological tests can detect 10 -9 mg/kg. The sample is introduced into mammalian cells and the reaction of these cells to the poison is measured. The accuracy of this method is undeniable.
Genetic monitoring – observation of possible changes in hereditary characteristics in various populations, including humans. In order to determine the reality of the threat to the health of future generations, research is carried out in three areas:
testing the toxic, mutagenic and carcinogenic activity of physical factors, chemicals and biological agents that are widespread in nature;
monitoring the level and spectrum of morbidity in various population groups living in conditions of varying degrees of environmental pollution;
determination of the magnitude of the genetic load in human populations with an attempt to assess the level and dynamics of the frequency of newly occurring mutations.
All researchers on these problems have joined forces within the framework of the “Society for Environmental Mutagens”. A common disadvantage of genetic monitoring is the limitation of the study of mutations to viable individuals, that is, the underestimation of lethal mutations. Partially, these data are supplemented by data obtained from the analysis of material from spontaneously aborted fetuses, stillbirths and records of infertility in men and women. It has been established that 50% of spontaneous abortions and at least 25% of congenital malformations are caused by mutations.
Decisions of state and municipal authorities aimed at normalizing the environmental situation, ensuring environmental safety and environmental well-being of the population must be adequate to this situation. The validity and efficiency of these decisions is determined by the availability of objective and timely information about the current and predicted environmental situation.
Under the environmental safety understand a state in which the interests of the individual, society, nature and the state are protected from any threats created by anthropogenic or natural impacts on the environment.
The mechanism that ensures the discovery of real relationships between sources of deformation of the natural environment, living conditions and health status of the population is a monitoring system.
Environmental monitoring (environmental monitoring)- This complex system carried out according to scientifically based programs interrelated work on regular monitoring on the state of the environment, assessment and forecast its changes under the influence of natural and anthropogenic factors.
The main task of environmental monitoring is to provide state authorities and local governments, organizations and citizens with timely, regular and reliable information about the state of the environment and its impact on public health, as well as forecasts of changes in the environmental situation, for the development and implementation of measures to improve the natural environment and ensuring environmental safety. Monitoring data is the basis for information support for decision-making, prioritization in the field of environmental activities in order to develop economic policies that adequately take environmental factors into account.
Environmental monitoring system is a set of mutually linked legal acts, management structures, scientific organizations and enterprises, technical and information means.
Objects of environmental monitoring are:
- components of the natural environment - lands, subsoil, soils, surface and underground waters, atmospheric air, levels of radiation and energy pollution, as well as the ozone layer of the atmosphere and near-Earth space, which together provide favorable conditions for the existence of life on Earth;
- natural objects - natural ecological systems, natural landscapes and their constituent elements;
- natural-anthropogenic objects - natural objects transformed in the process of economic activity or objects created by man and having recreational and protective significance;
- sources of anthropogenic impact on the natural environment, including potentially hazardous objects.
Since information about the state of the natural environment is primarily used to assess the impact of the habitat on the health of the population, monitoring objects often also include population groups exposed to environmental factors.
Monitoring of natural environments and objects is carried out at various levels:
Global (according to international programs and projects);
Federal (for the territory of Russia as a whole);
Territorial (within the territory of the relevant constituent entities of the Russian Federation);
Local (within the limits of a natural-technogenic system used by a resource user who has received a license for a particular type of activity).
The task global monitoring is to ensure observation, control and forecast of changes in the biosphere as a whole. Therefore, it is also called biosphere or background monitoring.
The development and coordination of the global environmental monitoring system (GEMS) is carried out by UNEP and the World Meteorological Organization within the framework of various international programs and projects. The main goals of these programs are:
Assessment of the impact of global air pollution on climate;
Assessment of pollution of the World Ocean and the impact of pollution on marine ecosystems and the biosphere;
Assess critical issues arising from agricultural activities and land use;
Creation of an international disaster warning system.
RF complex background monitoring stations are located in 6 biosphere reserves and are part of global international observation networks.
When implementing global monitoring programs, a special place is occupied by monitoring the state of the environment from space. Earth space remote sensing (ERS) systems make it possible to obtain unique information about the functioning of various ecosystems at the regional and global levels, and about the consequences of natural and environmental disasters. An example of a global monitoring program is the Environmental Observation System (EOS), implemented in the United States. It is based on the processing of data received from three satellites equipped with video spectrometers, radiometers, lidars, radio altimeters and other equipment.
State environmental monitoring in the Russian Federation it is carried out over the state of atmospheric air, water bodies, wildlife, forests, geological environment, land, specially protected natural areas, as well as sources of anthropogenic impact. Observation, assessment and forecast of the state of individual components of the natural environment and sources of anthropogenic impact are carried out within the framework of the relevant functional subsystem of environmental monitoring. The organization of monitoring within the framework of the functional subsystem is assigned to the relevant federal departments specially authorized by the Government of the Russian Federation.
Functional subsystems for monitoring the state of atmospheric air, soil pollution, surface waters on land and the marine environment (as part of monitoring surface water bodies) are combined into State Service for Monitoring Environmental Pollution (GSN), operating in Russia for more than a quarter of a century. Its organizational basis is the monitoring system of the Federal Service for Hydrometeorology and Natural Environment Monitoring (Roshydromet), which includes territorial bodies (administrations) and an observation network consisting of fixed and mobile posts, stations, laboratories and information processing centers.
The Roshydromet monitoring system provides the bulk of information on the state and pollution of the natural environment on the territory of the Russian Federation. Summarized data obtained by the State Observation Service are published in the annual State Report on the state of the natural environment and the impact of environmental factors on the health of the population of the Russian Federation.
Currently, the Roshydromet monitoring system monitors:
The state of air pollution in cities and industrial centers;
The state of soil contamination with pesticides and heavy metals;
The state of surface waters of land and seas;
Over the transboundary transport of pollutants in the atmosphere;
For the chemical composition, acidity of precipitation and snow cover; for background air pollution;
For radioactive contamination of the natural environment.
The entire range of work in the GOS, starting from planning the location of the observation network and ending with information processing algorithms, is regulated by the relevant regulatory and methodological documents.
Should be described in more detail State air pollution monitoring system . Observations of the level of air pollution in cities and industrial centers of Russia are carried out by territorial departments for hydrometeorology and environmental monitoring. Together with Roshydromet organizations, observations are carried out by sanitary and epidemiological supervision bodies and other departments licensed by Roshydromet.
Observations are made at stationary, route and mobile posts according to a full program 4 times a day or a shortened program - 3 times a day. The list of pollutants subject to control is established taking into account the volume and composition of emissions for each area as a result of a preliminary survey. The concentrations of both the main pollutants for all territories (suspended substances, carbon monoxide, nitrogen oxide and dioxide, sulfur dioxide) and substances specific to individual territories (ammonia, formaldehyde, phenol, hydrogen sulfide, carbon disulfide, hydrogen fluoride, acrolein, benzene) are determined. )pyrene, heavy metals, aromatic hydrocarbons, etc.). Simultaneously with air sampling, meteorological parameters are determined: wind direction and speed, air temperature and humidity, weather conditions, and gamma background levels. The collection and processing of the results of most analyzes is carried out within 24 hours.
In the event of weather conditions unfavorable for the dispersion of pollutants, so-called “storm warnings” are transmitted to the largest enterprises in the region to carry out measures to temporarily reduce emissions.
E environmental monitoring at the territorial level includes the following types of observations:
- emissions monitoring - monitoring of a source (or type of activity) that has a negative impact on the environment (emission of pollutants, electromagnetic radiation, noise, etc.);
- impact monitoring – observations of the impact on the natural environment related to the control of a specific source or type of anthropogenic activity (in particular, monitoring of areas of direct impact);
- monitoring of the natural environment and ecosystems - monitoring the state of components of the natural environment, natural resources, natural-technical systems, natural complexes, biological objects and ecosystems, as well as the anthropogenic impacts on them of the entire set of existing sources and activities (anthropogenic background monitoring).
At the territorial level, it is of particular importance monitoring of pollution sources environment and zones of their direct influence . This type of monitoring, unlike all others, is directly related to managing sources of pollution and ensuring the environmental safety of the population. The objects of monitoring are sources of pollution entering the environment belonging to industrial, agricultural, transport and other enterprises, as well as places of disposal (storage, burial) of toxic waste.
Monitoring is carried out within the framework of the powers of environmental authorities to state environmental control and is carried out in the form of targeted inspections of individual enterprises, complex inspections (city, enterprise). The number of such inspections is limited (1-2 per year).
Instrumental control is carried out by the technological inspection for control of pollution sources with analysis of samples in stationary conditions and in mobile laboratories.
The bulk of observations of sources is carried out within the framework of industrial environmental control . The scheme for organizing monitoring of pollution sources is shown in Fig. 10.1.
Environmental quality management consists of influencing natural resources users in such a way that the characteristics of environmental quality approach the standard characterized by the relevant standards. Control actions in this system can be of the following types:
Fig. 10.1. Scheme of organization of monitoring of the source of exposure
Changes in payment standards for environmental use, MPE, PDS standards; forced change in the technological process;
Changing the geographical location of a man-made object (up to the removal of production from the city);
Changing connections between objects.
The frequency of control actions lies in a wide range - from several years (with the planned establishment of MPE and MPD standards) to several hours (in the event of emergency situations or unfavorable weather conditions).
Thus, the monitoring system is a tool for obtaining the necessary information. What its effectiveness will be depends on the legal framework and the consistency of executive authorities in its application.
Environmental control
In order to ensure compliance with environmental protection requirements, norms, rules and state standards in the field of environmental protection by economic and other activities that have a negative impact on the natural environment, an environmental control system is being implemented.
Environmental control is a system of measures to prevent, detect and suppress violations of legislation in the field of environmental protection. The functioning of the environmental control system is the most important condition for ensuring environmental safety.
In the Russian Federation, state, industrial and public control is carried out in the field of environmental protection. Organization state environmental control entrusted to the specially authorized federal executive body, as well as state authorities of the constituent entities of the Russian Federation. The legislation prohibits the combination of state control functions in the field of environmental protection and management functions in the field of economic use of natural resources. State environmental control is implemented through inspections of any organizations and enterprises, regardless of their form of ownership, by state inspectors in the field of environmental protection. Full inspections cover the entire range of issues related to environmental activities. During targeted inspections, certain issues of environmental protection activities are monitored (the operation of gas and water treatment facilities, the condition of landfills, sludge reservoirs, the implementation of the environmental action plan, the implementation of previously issued instructions). Targeted inspections also include supervision of the progress of construction and reconstruction of facilities, inspection of enterprises based on applications and appeals from citizens.
State inspectors in the field of environmental protection, in the performance of their official duties, have broad rights and powers - from issuing orders to legal entities to eliminate environmental violations to suspending the activities of enterprises if they violate environmental legislation.
Industrial environmental control carried out by business entities that have or are capable of having a negative impact on the environment.
Industrial environmental control is limited to the framework of the technological production cycle and is aimed at confirming compliance by the enterprise - the user of natural resources with established environmental standards, regulations and rules, as well as the implementation of measures for the protection and improvement of the environment, rational use and restoration of natural resources. This goal is achieved subject to the organization of effective continuous monitoring of established indicators for each source of direct impact on the environment, which is associated with an environmental risk to the environment (as a result of disruption of the technological process, deviation from the design operating mode of equipment, man-made accidents and disasters).
Due to the imperfection of existing methods for controlling pollutants, assessing their toxicity, and spreading in the environment, the possibility of negative changes in natural environments under the influence of this enterprise cannot be ruled out. Taking this into account, the legislation provides for the obligation of the enterprise-user of natural resources to organize quality control of natural environments in the zone of its direct influence (local environmental monitoring).
Industrial environmental control solves the following problems:
Monitoring emissions into the atmosphere, wastewater discharges, water consumption and water disposal directly at the boundaries of the technological process (sources of emissions, discharges) to assess compliance with the standards of maximum permissible limits, maximum permissible limits and the effectiveness of regulating emissions into the atmosphere in particularly unfavorable weather conditions (NMC);
Monitoring the operating mode of technological and auxiliary environmental equipment and facilities associated with the formation, release and capture of pollutants, generation and storage of waste; assessment of environmental safety of products;
The main objects of industrial environmental control are:
Raw materials, materials, reagents, drugs used in production;
Sources of emissions of pollutants into the atmospheric air;
Sources of discharge of pollutants into water bodies, sewerage and wastewater systems;
Exhaust gas purification systems;
Wastewater treatment systems;
Recycling water supply systems;
Storage facilities and warehouses for raw materials and materials;
Waste disposal and disposal facilities;
Finished products.
In some cases, the scope of industrial environmental control includes individual natural objects (control of thermal and chemical pollution of reservoirs and watercourses, groundwater).
Control of hazardous waste is organized at all stages of its management: during waste generation, its accumulation, transportation, processing and neutralization, burial, as well as after burial by monitoring burial sites.
Industrial environmental control is carried out by the environmental protection service. Laboratories that implement the functions of industrial environmental control at an enterprise must be accredited and have the appropriate licenses.
Sources of emissions of harmful substances into the atmosphere and discharge of wastewater into water bodies that are subject to control are determined on the basis of established MPE and MPD standards, as well as statistical reporting data.
The number of sources of emissions and discharges, the list of pollutants subject to control, and the control schedule are annually agreed upon by enterprises and environmental organizations with the territorial divisions of the federal authorized bodies. The schedules indicate sampling points, sampling frequency and a list of controlled ingredients.
The list of the most dangerous air pollutants subject to control at sources consists of substances from three groups: basic (dust, carbon monoxide, nitrogen oxide and dioxide, sulfur dioxide); substances of the first hazard class; substances for which, according to observational data, a concentration of more than 5 MAC is registered in the controlled area.
The main method for monitoring atmospheric emissions and wastewater discharges should be direct instrumental measurements. The optimal scope of instrument control is established taking into account the characteristics of the technological regime. For large (main) sources of pollution, the organization of continuous automatic monitoring of emissions (discharges) must be provided.
Public environmental control carried out with the aim of realizing the rights of every person to a favorable environment and preventing environmental violations. Public environmental control involves public and other non-profit organizations in accordance with their charters, as well as citizens in accordance with the legislation of the Russian Federation. The results of public environmental control submitted to state authorities and local governments are subject to mandatory review.
10.5.Security questions
1.What is meant by the “presumption of environmental danger” of economic activity? What legislation establishes it?
2. In what cases is EIA carried out?
3.What is the subject of the state environmental assessment?
4.What is an environmental audit? What are environmental quality standards? Give an example of an environmental quality standard.
5.What is an environmental audit? What are environmental quality standards? Give an example of an environmental quality standard.
6.What are the standards for permissible environmental impact?
7.What is environmental safety?
8. Formulate the content and subject of environmental monitoring.
9. Levels, directions and types of environmental monitoring.
10. How is the “environmental standard” determined in the environmental monitoring system?
11.How is monitoring of sources of anthropogenic impact organized?
12.What are the objectives of industrial environmental control?
13.What is state environmental control? How is it carried out?
14.What is the difference between environmental control and environmental audit?
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The most important issue in the strategy for regulating the quality of environmental protection is the issue of creating a system capable of identifying the most critical sources and factors of anthropogenic impact on public health and environmental protection, identifying the most vulnerable elements and parts of the biosphere susceptible to such impacts.
Such a system is recognized as a system for monitoring anthropogenic changes in the state of the natural environment, capable of providing the necessary information for decision-making by the relevant services, departments, and organizations.
Environmental monitoring– a comprehensive system of observations, assessment and forecast of the state of the environment under the influence of natural and anthropogenic factors.
The basic principle of monitoring is continuous tracking.
The purpose of environmental monitoring is information support for the management of environmental activities and environmental safety, optimization of human relations with nature.
There are different types of monitoring depending on the criteria:
Bioecological (sanitary and hygienic),
Geoecological (natural and economic),
Biosphere (global),
Space,
Climatic, biological, public health, social, etc.
Depending on the severity of anthropogenic impact, impact and background monitoring are distinguished. Background (basic) monitoring– monitoring natural phenomena and processes occurring in a natural environment, without anthropogenic influence. Carried out on the basis of biosphere reserves. Impact monitoring- monitoring of anthropogenic impacts in particularly hazardous areas.
Depending on the scale of observation, global, regional and local monitoring are distinguished.
Global monitoring– monitoring the development of global biosphere processes and phenomena (for example, the state of the ozone layer, climate change).
Regional monitoring– monitoring natural and anthropogenic processes and phenomena within a certain region (for example, the state of Lake Baikal).
Local monitoring– monitoring within a small area (for example, monitoring the air condition in the city).
In the Russian Federation, the Unified State System of Environmental Monitoring (USESM) is functioning and developing, formed at three main organizational levels: federal, constituent entities of the Russian Federation and local (objective) with the aim of radically increasing the efficiency of the monitoring service. Based on the monitoring results, recommendations are developed to reduce the level of environmental pollution and a forecast for the future.
Monitoring systems are associated with environmental assessments and environmental impact assessments (EIA).
Standardization of environmental quality (ecological regulation)
Under environmental quality understand the degree to which a person’s living environment corresponds to his needs. The human environment includes natural conditions, workplace conditions and living conditions. Life expectancy, health, morbidity levels of the population, etc. depend on its quality.
Environmental regulation– the process of establishing indicators of the maximum permissible human impact on the environment. Its main goal is to ensure an acceptable balance between ecology and economics. Such rationing allows for economic activity and preservation of the natural environment.
In the Russian Federation the following are subject to rationing:
Physical impact factors (noise, vibration, electromagnetic fields, radioactive radiation);
Chemical factors - concentrations of harmful substances in air, water, soil, food;
Biological factors – the content of pathogenic microorganisms in the air, water, food.
Environmental standards are divided into 3 main groups:
Technological standards - established for various industries and processes, rational use of raw materials and energy, minimizing waste;
Scientific and technical standards - provide for a system of calculations and periodic revision of standards, monitoring the impact on the environment;
Medical standards determine the level of danger to public health.
Standardization of environmental quality– establishing indicators and limits within which changes in these indicators are allowed (for air, water, soil, etc.).
The purpose of standardization is to establish maximum permissible standards (environmental standards) for human impact on the environment. Compliance with environmental standards should ensure the environmental safety of the population, the preservation of the genetic fund of humans, plants and animals, and the rational use and reproduction of natural resources.
The standards for maximum permissible harmful effects, as well as methods for determining them, are temporary and can be improved as science and technology develop, taking into account international standards.
The main environmental standards for environmental quality and impact on it are as follows:
1. Quality standards (sanitary and hygienic):
Maximum permissible concentrations (MPC) of harmful substances;
Maximum permissible level (MAL) of harmful physical influences (radiation, noise, vibration, magnetic fields, etc.)
2. Impact standards (production and economic):
Maximum permissible emission (MPE) of harmful substances;
Maximum permissible discharge (MPD) of harmful substances.
3. Comprehensive standards:
Maximum permissible ecological (anthropogenic) load on the environment.
Maximum permissible concentration (MPC)- the amount of a pollutant in the environment (soil, air, water, food), which, with permanent or temporary exposure to a person, does not affect his health and does not cause adverse consequences in his offspring. MPCs are calculated per unit volume (for air, water), mass (for soil, food products) or surface (for workers’ skin). MPCs are established on the basis of comprehensive studies. When determining it, the degree of influence of pollutants is taken into account not only on human health, but also on animals, plants, microorganisms, as well as on natural communities as a whole.
Maximum permissible level (MAL)- this is the maximum level of exposure to radiation, vibration noise, magnetic fields and other harmful physical influences, which does not pose a danger to human health, the condition of animals, plants, or their genetic fund. MPL is the same as MPC, but for physical impacts.
In cases where MPC or MPL have not been determined and are only at the development stage, indicators such as TPC - approximately permissible concentration, or TAC - approximately permissible level, respectively, are used.
Maximum permissible emission (MPE) or discharge (MPD)- this is the maximum amount of pollutants that a given specific enterprise is allowed to emit into the atmosphere or discharge into a body of water per unit of time, without causing them to exceed the maximum permissible concentrations of pollutants and adverse environmental consequences.
A comprehensive indicator of environmental quality is the maximum permissible environmental load.
Maximum permissible ecological (anthropogenic) load on the environment (PDEN)– this is the maximum intensity of anthropogenic impact on the environment, which does not lead to a violation of the stability of ecological systems (or, in other words, to the ecosystem going beyond the limits of its ecological capacity).
The potential ability of the natural environment to tolerate one or another anthropogenic load without disrupting the basic functions of ecosystems is defined as capacity of the natural environment, or ecological capacity of the territory.
The resistance of ecosystems to anthropogenic impacts depends on the following indicators:
Stocks of animal and dead organic matter;
Efficiency of organic matter production or vegetation production;
Species and structural diversity.
The higher these indicators are, the more stable the ecosystem.
Approaches to classification of environmental monitoring
There are many different approaches to the classification of environmental monitoring. They are usually divided depending on the nature of the problems solved during the research process, or according to the levels of organization of the monitoring object, according to the living environments being studied, etc. This classification includes the entire block of varieties of environmental monitoring, various approaches to monitoring the dynamics of both abiotic and biotic components of the biosphere and the response of natural ecosystems to these changes.
Thus, environmental monitoring involves both geophysical and biological components, which determines the widest range of research methods and techniques used in its implementation. Environmental monitoring in general includes a very wide range of methods and methodological approaches, among which geophysical, chemical, and biological aspects are usually distinguished.
Note 1
An environmental monitoring system can be implemented at several levels that are not reducible to one another; for each of them there are specially developed programs. Among these levels, impact, regional and background monitoring are usually called.
The first of them is aimed mainly at monitoring the impact of specific objects on the environment, the second is not a study of the state of ecosystems in a certain region (it can be further subdivided according to the scale of the territory), and the third is to compare disturbed territories with reference ones.
Types of monitoring
Impact monitoring involves studying strong environmental impacts at a local scale. A program at this level of monitoring may include, for example, a study using special techniques of discharges or emissions of a particular enterprise. The ultimate task in this case is not so much to establish the structure and volumes of emitted substances, but to assess their harmful effects on the natural environment. Depending on the characteristics of the surrounding ecosystems, the same quantitative indicators of pollution can be practically harmless, or lead to catastrophic results. Due to the characteristics of the migration of pollutants in ecosystems, as well as the tendency of some of them to cumulate, impact monitoring should be quite long-lasting.
Regional monitoring usually involves the study of migration and transformation of pollutants in ecosystems, the study of the joint impact of various environmental, both natural and anthropogenic, factors characteristic of the study area. The subject of this level of monitoring is the state of the environment within a more or less extensive region.
Background monitoring carried out on the basis of natural standards - biosphere reserves, where there is no human economic activity. Its purpose is to record the background state of the environment, which is very important for comparative assessments of anthropogenic impact on transformed territories.
Monitoring the condition of specially protected natural areas characterized by its own specificity. Its main tasks are determined primarily by the uniqueness of objects and their function.
