The phenomenon of favoritism in the era of palace coups in Russia. Palace coups of the mid-18th century

The “Era of Palace Revolutions” is the period in the history of Russia in the second quarter of the 18th century, from 1725 to 1762. During these years, state policy was determined by individual groups of the palace nobility. They fought among themselves for power, actively intervened in resolving the issue of the heir to the throne, and carried out palace coups. During a 37-year period of political instability (1725–1762), the throne was occupied by six monarchs who gained the throne as a result of complex palace intrigues or coups.

The military force of the coups were the palace guard regiments. The Guard was not only a privileged part of the Russian army, it was a representative of the noble class, from whose midst it was formed and whose interests it represented.

The purpose of the palace coups was not to change the political structure of the country, but only to transfer power from one group of nobles to another. The political and economic role of the nobility increased during this period.

Peter I established a new order of succession to the throne, characteristic of an absolute monarchy: the ruler himself appoints an heir. But Peter himself died on January 30, 1725, without having time to bequeath his throne to anyone. A fierce struggle for power began (“passions at the throne”), during which the participants thought more about their personal ambitions than about the interests of the state and the people.
In 1725-1727 The empress was Peter's widow Catherine I, under whom A.D. Menshikov was the actual ruler. After her death in 1727-1730. The emperor was Peter II, the grandson of Peter I (the son of the executed Tsarevich Alexei, Peter Alekseevich’s own son from his first marriage). The favorites of Peter II were the princes Dolgorukov. In 1730-1740 The empress was Anna Ioannovna, the niece of Peter I (daughter of his co-ruler Ivan V). Anna's favorite was E. Biron. In the political life of the country, guards officers began to play a decisive role, being the support and driving force behind all palace coups. They were opponents of any restrictions on the imperial power, from which they directly received lands, awards, etc. for their services. In 1730, Anna Ioannovna first signed and then tore up the “Conditions”, the conditions that limited her power in favor of members Supreme Privy Council, the highest government body since 1726.
Ivan VI Antonovich was on the throne for only a few months. He was Anna Ioannovna's nephew. When he was proclaimed emperor, he was only six months old. At first, E. Biron was his regent, and after his forcible removal by Field Marshal Minich, his mother Anna Leopoldovna, who was incapable of ruling, became regent. In 1741, Peter I’s own daughter Elizaveta Petrovna overthrew the infant emperor and sent his entire entourage into exile. She ruled from 1741 to 1761, relying on her favorites and the guard. Elizaveta Petrovna was not married and had no children. After her death in December 1761, Peter III remained on the throne for six months, who was the natural grandson of Peter I, the son of his daughter Catherine, who died at the birth of the future Russian emperor. All of the rulers listed did not possess the virtues and energy of Peter the Great. Only Elizaveta Petrovna tried to imitate her outstanding father. Peter III was overthrown from the throne by his own wife Catherine in June 1762 and killed. Paul I was able to take the throne only after the death of his mother.
After the death of Peter I, the supreme power in the country twice ended up in the hands of minor children and five times in the hands of women, of whom only Elizaveta Petrovna and Catherine II ruled independently.

Slepchenko Olga Vladimirovna

The phenomenon of favoritism in the era of palace coups in Russia.

In dictionaries, the term “favorite” is defined as “a favorite; a person protected by a powerful or influential person, a temporary worker”, as well as “a favorite of a high-ranking person who benefits from such patronage” .

Favoritism is a kind of universal characteristic of the management system of an absolutist state, which should be fully considered an informal institution of power. The favorite, as a rule, had close personal relations with the sovereign and, in connection with this, received the opportunity to dispose of part of his unlimited power. Favoritism was one of the essential tools in the system of government of absolutism. It should be defined as the appointment to government posts and positions based on the personal interest of the monarch in the activities of a particular person. At the same time, favoritism is always a violation of the general principle of appointment to public positions. At the same time, he himself was the principle of functioning of the absolutist state. The favorite could limit himself to organizing his personal affairs, representing the type of “random person.”

At the same time, possessing certain personal qualities: the ability to take risks, political intuition, entrepreneurship and, finally, the desire to serve the Tsar and the Fatherland, the favorite could carry out his state activities, correlating them with the objective needs of the country and make a significant contribution to the implementation of the political course.

Favoritism has become widespread almost throughout the world. Russia was no exception. The galaxy of official favorites among the “ladies” was discovered by the boyar Prince V.V. Golitsyn. The favorite of Princess Sophia, being the “first minister”, led the Posolsky and a number of other orders .

Under Peter Iwith his talents and colossal efficiency, the “position” of the favorite was impossible and unnecessary. His “Charter on the Succession to the Throne,” adopted in 1722, gave equal rights to the throne to all members of the Romanov family. This led to the fact that after the death of PeterIThe “Era of Palace Coups” began, when people who had only a partial understanding of how to govern a state like Russia began to be elevated to the Russian throne.

Favoritism became widespread when women were placed on the throne. The favorites acted not only as lovers of the reigning persons, but also as their assistants. The degree of their influence on government affairs varied, but they all used their positions primarily for personal enrichment and careers. They influenced the appointment and dismissal of persons to government posts, “carried out trials and reprisals,” influenced the appointment of salaries, asked the empresses for rewards for themselves and their protégés, etc.

All women who ruled after Peter had favoritesIand even with him. It is known that the chamberlain cadet at the court of Tsarina Ekaterina Alekseevna, Willim Johann Mons, became her favorite. The management of villages and hamlets that belonged to the empress gradually became concentrated in his hands. He supervised the work of the abbess of those convents that were under the patronage of the queen. They began to send him reports on estates, estimates of income and expenses. Funds went through his hands for construction, sales and purchases on Catherine’s estates.

Despite the fact that Mons proved himself to be an intelligent and accurate performer of the tasks entrusted to him, he was young, good-looking, and had a reputation for being an extraordinary skill at flirting, composing love letters, and lavishing compliments. Being constantly close to Catherine, he could not help but attract her attention and favor.

However, historians do not have direct evidence that this attention developed into an intimate relationship. Indirect evidence is the death sentence passed on the chamberlain by Peter.

Elizaveta Petrovna limited herself to two official favorites: A. G. Razumovsky and I. I. Shuvalov. These were people of different social status, different levels of education. Both were endowed with enormous power and skillfully used it; they had huge property “grants” from Elizabeth. At the same time, both of the empress’s favorites tried to remain in the shadows, did not strive for ranks and titles, and did not beg them from the empress.

Under Catherine IIfavoritism reached unprecedented proportions. In accordance with her temperament and morals, and her inclination to do everything on a large scale, she gave this traditional order of things on the Russian throne unprecedented dimensions,she had 19 official favorites..

There were periods in Russian history when the influence of favorites on state policy was very significant. Such periods include the era of Anna Ioannovna’s reign, which was called “Bironovschina” - after the surname of the influential favorite E. Biron.

He was a strong, flexible, energetic and at the same time cruel, vindictive man, spoiled by the enormous power he had inherited. His personality and activities clearly reflected his era - a time of conflict between old and new, confrontation between oneself and someone else.

Biron owed his rise to the deep personal affection of the empress for him.Anna Ioannovna could not take a single step without her favorite, who had an immeasurable influence on the queen, who did not have her own views on the affairs of the empire.

The topic of favoritism is very interesting and important for consideration because by studying it, one can trace the influence of favorites, empresses, on the political life of the country, on the course of development of the history of the Russian State. Often, using the trust of the queens, the favorites came to the forefront of government activities, made decisions of enormous importance, and determined the life of the country.

In general, favoritism caused enormous material damage to Russia and led to the transfer of power from the true rulers to people not related to the royal court.

Dictionary of foreign words. M., 1964. P.667; Russian history. Educational dictionary-reference book. M., 1996. P. 259.

Coups and wars / Christopher Manstein. Burchard Minich. Ernst Minich. Unknown author. M., 1997. P.35.

Catherine (1725-1727). Lesson objectives. Anna Ioannovna (1730 -1740). Policy towards the Cossacks. Peter III Fedorovich (1761-1762). Compare the nature of the reign of Peter I and his successors. Changes in the city government system. Standard requirements. Peter II (1727-1730). Elizaveta Petrovna (1741-1761). Find manufactories on the map. Policy in the field of manufacturing production. Lesson plan. Table form.

“The era of palace coups 1725-1762” - Dictionary. Pyotr Fedorovich (1761-1762). Ekaterina Alekseevna (1762-1796). Palace coups 1725 – 1762 Palace coups. Lesson plan. Who is the contender for the throne? Catherine I (1725-1727). Conditions - conditions for invitation to the throne. Who was the actual ruler of the state. The princely family that actually ruled Russia under Peter II. Homework. 1730 “Verkhovniki” (Supreme Privy Council).

“Russia in the era of palace coups” - Head of the Theological College. The Supreme Privy Council was abolished. The period of the reign of Peter II. Choosing a new head of state. Hopes were not justified. Minikh. Formation of the nobility. A coup in favor of the daughter of Peter I. A decree limiting the period of service to the state - 25 years. Field Marshal Minich. Decree on the abolition of internal customs duties. Vice-Chancellor. Supreme Privy Council. Ivan Antonovich. Anton-Ulrich. Charter on the succession to the throne.

“Peter III” - Childhood years. Reign of Peter III. Fidgety, poorly educated, good-natured, trusting. Events of Peter III. Causes of death of Peter iii. A worthless monarch who had a negative attitude towards everything Russian - Catherine II, S.M. Solovyov, V.O. Klyuchevsky. Prussian influence. Yakov Yakovlevich Shtelin discovered a complete lack of knowledge. Peter III in the assessments of historians and contemporaries. Conspiracy participants. Instructions from Chancellor A.P. Bestuzhev-Ryumin.

“The era of palace coups” - The Battle of the village of Kunersdorf. Anna Ivanovna. Elizaveta Petrovna. Menshikov. The era of palace coups. Domestic policy. Rulers. "Anti-Bironovskaya" coalition. Battle of the village of Zorndorf. Main favorites. Seven Years' War. Palace coup. Catherine. John VI Antonovich. Peter. Battle of the village of Gross-Jägersdorf. Supreme Privy Council. Russian - Swedish war. Polish heritage. Favorism in the era of the palace.

"Peter 3" - Heir to the throne. By decree of February 21, 1762, Peter III abolished the Secret Chancellery. Emperor Peter III. Foreign policy of Peter III. The manifesto on the freedom of the nobility for the first time created in Russia a layer of free people independent of the state. CONSPIRACY. Politics of Peter III. Grand Duke Peter Fedorovich. Overthrow of Peter III. Prince Peter Fedorovich. Empress Elizabeth seriously considered declaring her great-nephew as heir.

The overstrain of the country's forces during the years of Peter's reforms, the destruction of traditions, and violent methods of reform caused an ambiguous attitude of various circles of Russian society towards Peter's legacy and created conditions for political instability.

From 1725, after the death of Peter, until Catherine 2 came to power in 1762, six monarchs and many political forces behind them replaced the throne. This change did not always take place peacefully and legally. Therefore, V. O. Klyuchevsky called this period “the era of palace coups.”

The main reason that formed the basis of the palace coups was the contradictions between various noble groups in relation to Peter's legacy. The split occurred along the lines of acceptance and non-acceptance of reforms. Both the new nobility, which emerged during the reign of Peter, and the aristocracy tried to soften the course of reforms. But each of them defended its narrow-class interests and privileges, which created fertile ground for internal political struggle. Palace coups were generated by an intense struggle between various factions for power. As a rule, it came down to the nomination and support of one or another candidate for the throne. At this time, the guard, which Peter raised as a privileged support of the autocracy, began to play an active role in the political life of the country. she now took upon herself the right to control the conformity of the personality and policies of the monarch with the legacy that the emperor left. The alienation of the masses from politics and their passivity served as fertile ground for palace intrigues and coups. To a large extent, palace coups were provoked by the unresolved problem of succession to the throne in connection with the adoption of the Decree of 1722, which broke the traditional mechanism of transfer of power.

Catherine's reign 1.1725 - 1727.

When Peter died, he left no heir. The opinion of the elite about his successor was divided: “chicks of Peter’s nest” A. D. Menshikov, P. A. Tolstoy, P. I. Yaguzhinsky, spoke for his second wife Catherine, and representatives of the noble nobility, D. M. Golitsyn, V. V. Dolgoruky , - for the grandson of Pyotr Alekseevich. The outcome of the dispute was decided by the guards who supported the empress.

The accession of Catherine led to a sharp increase in the role of Menshikov, who became the de facto ruler of the country. Attempts to somewhat curb his lust for power with the help of what was created under the empress

The Supreme Privy Council (SPC), to which the first collegiums and the Senate were subordinate, did not lead to anything.

The temporary worker decided to strengthen his position through the marriage of his daughter with Peter’s young grandson. P. Tolstoy, who opposed this plan, ended up in prison.

In May 1727, Catherine died, appointing Peter's grandson, Pyotr Alekseevich, as her successor.

Reign of Peter II.1727 - 1730.

Peter was declared emperor under the regency of the Military-Technical Cooperation. Menshikov's influence at court increased, he even received the rank of generalissimo. But, having alienated old allies and failed to gain new ones, he soon lost influence on the young emperor (with the help of the Dolgorukys and member of the military technical cooperation A.I. Osterman) and in September 1727 he was arrested and exiled with his family to Berezov, where he soon died. The overthrow of Menshikov was essentially a coup d'etat, since the composition of the military-technical cooperation changed (in which aristocratic families began to predominate), and Osterman began to play a key role; the regency of the military-technical cooperation was put to an end, Peter II declared himself the rightful ruler; a course was outlined aimed at revising Peter's reforms.

Soon the court left St. Petersburg and moved to Moscow, which attracted the emperor’s attention due to the presence of richer hunting grounds. The sister of the Tsar's favorite, Ekaterina Dolgorukaya, was engaged to the Emperor, but during preparations for the wedding, he died of smallpox. The question of succession to the throne arose again, since there was no will again.

The reign of Anna Ioannovna. 1730-1740

In the conditions of the political crisis, the Military-Technical Cooperation, which by that time consisted of 8 people (5 seats belonged to the Dolgorukys and Golitsyns), invited the niece of Peter I, Duchess of Courland Anna Ioannovna (a widow who did not have strong ties in Russia), to the throne. After a meeting in Mitau with V.L. Dolgoruky, Anna Ioannovna, agreeing to accept the throne, signed condition that limited her power:

She pledged to rule together with the military-technical cooperation, which was actually turning into the highest governing body of the country;

- without the approval of the Military Technical Cooperation, it did not have the right to legislate, impose taxes, manage the treasury, declare war and make peace, grant and take away estates, ranks above the rank of colonel;

- the guard was subordinate to the military-technical cooperation;

- Anna undertook not to marry and not to appoint an heir;

- if any of these conditions were not met, she was deprived of the crown.

However, upon arriving in Moscow, Anna Ioannovna very quickly understood the difficult internal political situation (various noble groups proposed projects for the political reorganization of Russia) and, having found the support of part of the nobility and the guard, she broke the rules and restored the autocracy in full.

Politics A.I.:

— liquidated the military-technical cooperation, creating in its place a Cabinet of Ministers headed by Osterman;

- since 1735, the empress’s signature was equal to the signatures of three cabinet ministers,

— repressed the Dolgorukys and Golitsyns;

— satisfied some of the demands of the nobility:

a) limited the service life to 25 years,

b) canceled that part of the Decree on Single Inheritance, which limited the right of nobles to dispose of estates when transferred by inheritance;

c) made it easier to obtain an officer rank by allowing infants to enroll in military service

d) created a cadet corps of nobles, upon completion of which officer ranks were awarded.

— by the decree of 1836, all working people, including civilian employees, were declared “eternally given away,” i.e., they became dependent on the owners of the factories.

Not trusting the Russian nobility and not having the desire or ability to delve into state affairs herself, A.I. surrounded herself with people from the Baltic states. The key role was played by her favorite E. Biron. Some historians call the period of A.I.'s reign "Bironovshchina", believing that its main feature was the dominance of the Germans, who neglected the interests of the state, demonstrated contempt for everything Russian and pursued a policy of arbitrariness towards the Russian nobility.

In 1740, A.I. died, appointing the son of Anna Leopoldovna’s niece, the baby Ivan Antonovich (Ivan YI), as heir. Biron was appointed regent under him. The head of the military college, Field Marshal Minich, carried out another coup d'etat, pushing aside Biron, but, in turn, was pushed out of power by Osterman.

The reign of Elizabeth Petrovna. 1741-1761.

On November 25, 1741, Peter's daughter, relying on the support of the guard, carried out another coup d'etat and seized power. The peculiarities of this coup were that E.P. had broad support from ordinary people of the cities and lower guards, and also that this coup had a patriotic overtones, because was directed against the dominance of foreigners, and foreign diplomats (the Frenchman Chetardie and the Swedish ambassador Nolken) tried to take part in its preparation.

Politics E.P.:

- restored the institutions created by Peter and their status: having abolished the Cabinet of Ministers, returned the significance of the highest state body to the Senate, restored the Berg - and Manufactory - Collegium.

- brought closer Russian and Ukrainian nobles, who were distinguished by their great interest in the affairs of the country. Thus, with the active assistance of I.I. Shuvalov, Moscow University was opened in 1755;

— internal customs were destroyed, import duties were increased (protectionism)

- on the initiative of I. Shuvalov, the transition began from the poll tax (a direct tax that was paid only by peasants and townspeople) to indirect taxes (which were also paid by all non-taxable classes).

— Income from the sale of salt and wine tripled;

- the death penalty was abolished

- social policy was aimed at transforming the nobility into a privileged class and strengthening serfdom, which was expressed in the landowners receiving the right to sell their peasants as recruits (1747) and exile them to Siberia (1760).

Russia entered the war against Prussia on the side of the coalition of Austria, France, Sweden and Saxony.

The Seven Years' War began in 1756, ended in 1763 and brought the army of Frederick II to the brink of disaster, and only the death of H.P. on December 25, 1761 saved Prussia from complete defeat. Her heir, Peter III, who idolized Frederick, left the coalition and concluded a peace treaty, returning to Prussia all the lands lost in the war.

During the 20 years of H.P.’s reign, the country managed to rest and accumulate strength for a new breakthrough, which occurred in the era of Catherine II.

Reign of Peter III. 1761 - 1762

E.P.'s nephew, Peter III (the son of Anna's elder sister and the Duke of Holstein) was born in Holstein and from childhood was brought up in hostility to everything Russian and respect for everything German. By 1742, he turned out to be an orphan and E.P. invited him to Russia, immediately appointing him as her heir. In 1745 he was married to the Anhalt-Zerbian princess Sophia Frederick Augustus (Ekaterina Alekseevna).

Peter alienated the nobility and the guards with his pro-German sympathies, unbalanced behavior, signing peace with Frederick, introducing Prussian uniforms, and his plans to send the guards to fight for the interests of the Prussian king in Denmark.

In 1762, he signed a manifesto granting liberty and freedom to the Russian nobility, which

Then he abolished the Secret Investigation Office;

- stopped persecuting schismatics,

- decided to secularize church and monastic lands,

- prepared a decree on the equalization of all religions.

All these measures met the objective needs of Russia's development and reflected the interests of the nobility.

But his personal behavior, indifference and even dislike for Russia, mistakes in foreign policy and insulting attitude towards his wife, who managed to gain respect from the nobility and the guard, created the preconditions for his overthrow. In preparing the coup, Catherine was guided not only by political pride, the thirst for power and the instinct of self-preservation, but also by the desire to serve Russia.

Russian foreign policy in the mid-18th century.

Objectives: maintaining access to the Baltic Sea; influence on Poland and the solution of the Black Sea problem.

1733-1734. As a result of Russia's participation in the "War for the Polish Heritage", it was possible to place the Russian protege Augustus 3 on the Polish throne.

1735-1739. As a result of the war with Turkey, Russia returned Azov.

1741-1743. The war with Sweden, which sought to take revenge for the defeat in the Northern War and return the Baltic Sea coast. Russian troops captured almost all of Finland and forced Sweden to abandon revenge.

1756-1762. Seven Years' War.

Russia found itself drawn into a war between two European coalitions - Russian-Franco-Austrian and Anglo-Prussian. The main reason is the strengthening of Prussia in Europe. In August 1757, the Russian army under the command of Field Marshal S. F. Apraksin, only thanks to the corps of P. A. Rumyantsev, defeated the Prussian army near the village of Gross-Jägersdorf. Without continuing the offensive, the army retreated to Memel. Elizabeth removed Apraksin. The new commander-in-chief V.V. Fermor occupied Koenigsberg in the winter of 1758. In the summer, in the battle of Zorndorf, the Russian army lost 22.6 thousand (out of 42 thousand), and the Prussian army lost 11 thousand (out of 32 thousand). The battle ended almost in a draw. In 1759, the Russian army was replenished with new cannons - “unicorns” (light, mobile, rapid-fire), General P. A. Saltykov became the new commander. On August 1, 1759, Russian-Austrian troops defeated the Prussian army near the village of Kunersdorf. P

In 1760, the detachments of Totleben and Chernyshov captured Berlin. Prussia's position was hopeless. Russia announced its intention to annex East Prussia. Peter 3, who ascended the throne after the death of Elizabeth, broke with his allies and made peace with Frederick, returning all the captured territories.

Results of the era of "palace coups"

Palace coups did not entail changes in the political, much less social, system of society and boiled down to a struggle for power among various noble groups pursuing their own, most often selfish, goals. At the same time, the policies of each of the six monarchs had their own characteristics, sometimes important for the country. In general, the socio-economic stabilization and foreign policy successes achieved during the reign of Elizabeth Petrovna created the conditions for more accelerated development.

The era of palace coups in Russia.

In 1725, Russian Emperor Peter I died without leaving a legal heir and without transferring the throne to the chosen one. Over the next 37 years, there was a struggle for power between his relatives - contenders for the Russian throne. This period in history is usually called " era of palace coups».

A feature of the period of “palace coups” is that the transfer of supreme power in the state was not carried out by inheriting the crown, but was carried out by guards or courtiers using forceful methods.

Such confusion arose due to the lack of clearly defined rules of succession to the throne in a monarchical country, which caused the supporters of one or another contender to fight among themselves.

The era of palace coups 1725-1762.

After Peter the Great, the following sat on the Russian throne:

• Catherine I - the emperor's wife,
• Peter II - grandson of the emperor,
• Anna Ioannovna - the emperor's niece,
• Ioann Antonovich is the great-nephew of the previous one,
• Elizaveta Petrovna - daughter of Peter I,
• Peter III is the nephew of the previous one,
• Catherine II is the wife of the previous one.

In general, the era of revolutions lasted from 1725 to 1762.

Catherine I (1725–1727).

One part of the nobility, led by A. Menshikov, wanted to see the emperor’s second wife, Catherine, on the throne. The other part is the grandson of Emperor Peter Alekseevich. The dispute was won by those who were supported by the guard - the first. Under Catherine, A. Menshikov played a major role in the state.

In 1727, the Empress died, appointing the young Peter Alekseevich as successor to the throne.

Peter II (1727–1730).

Young Peter became emperor under the regency of the Supreme Privy Council. Gradually Menshikov lost his influence and was exiled. Soon the regency was abolished - Peter II declared himself ruler, the court returned to Moscow.

Shortly before his wedding to Catherine Dolgoruky, the emperor died of smallpox. There was no will.

Anna Ioannovna (1730–1740).

The Supreme Council invited the niece of Peter I, Duchess of Courland Anna Ioannovna, to rule in Russia. The challenger agreed to conditions limiting her power. But in Moscow, Anna quickly got used to it, enlisted the support of part of the nobility and violated the previously signed agreement, returning autocracy. However, it was not she who ruled, but the favorites, the most famous of whom was E. Biron.

In 1740, Anna died, having designated her great-nephew baby Ivan Antonovich (Ivan VI) as heir under regent Biron.

The coup was carried out by Field Marshal Minich, the fate of the child is still unclear.

Elizaveta Petrovna (1741–1761).

The guards again helped Peter I’s own daughter seize power. On the night of November 25, 1741, Elizaveta Petrovna, who was also supported by commoners, was literally brought to the throne. The coup had a bright patriotic overtones. His main goal was to remove foreigners from power in the country. Elizaveta Petrovna's policy was aimed at continuing her father's affairs.

Peter III (1761–1762).

Peter III is the orphaned nephew of Elizabeth Petrovna, the son of Anna Petrovna and the Duke of Holstein. In 1742 he was invited to Russia and became heir to the throne.

During Elizabeth's lifetime, Peter married his cousin, Princess Sophia Frederica Augusta of Anhalt-Zerb, the future Catherine II.

Peter's policy after the death of his aunt was aimed at an alliance with Prussia. The behavior of the emperor and his love for the Germans alienated the Russian nobility.

It was the emperor’s wife who ended the 37-year leapfrog on the Russian throne. She was again supported by the army - the Izmailovsky and Semenovsky Guards regiments. Catherine was brought to the throne as Elizabeth had once been.

Catherine proclaimed herself empress in June 1762, and both the Senate and the Synod swore allegiance to her. Peter III signed the abdication of the throne.

General characteristics of the era of palace coups

The era of palace coups is a time period (37 years) in the political life of Russia in the 18th century, when the seizure of political power was carried out by a series of palace coups. The reason for this was the lack of clear rules for succession to the throne, accompanied by the struggle of court factions and carried out, as a rule, with the assistance of guard regiments. The desire of the nobles and boyars to regain the power, freedom and privileges lost under Peter I. The overstrain of the country's forces during the years of Peter's reforms, the destruction of traditions, and violent methods of reform caused an ambiguous attitude of various circles of Russian society towards Peter's legacy and created conditions for political instability.
From 1725 after the death of Peter I and until Catherine II came to power in 1762, six monarchs and many political forces behind them replaced the throne. This change did not always take place peacefully and legally, which is why this period of V.O. Klyuchevsky, not entirely accurately, but figuratively and aptly called it “the era of palace coups.”

The struggle for power after the death of Peter I

Dying, Peter did not leave an heir, having only managed to write with a weakening hand: “Give everything...”. Opinion at the top about his successor was divided. “Chicks of Peter’s nest” (A.D. Menshikov, P.A. Tolstoy, I.I. Buturlin, P.I. Yaguzhinsky, etc.) spoke for his second wife Ekaterina, and representatives of the noble nobility (D.M.

Golitsyn, V.V. Dolgoruky and others) defended the candidacy of their grandson, Pyotr Alekseevich. The outcome of the dispute was decided by the guards who supported the empress.
The accession of Catherine 1 (1725-1727) led to a sharp strengthening of the position of Menshikov, who became the de facto ruler of the country. Attempts to somewhat curb his lust for power and greed with the help of the Supreme Privy Council (SPC) created under the empress, to which the first three collegiums, as well as the Senate, were subordinate, led nowhere. Moreover, the temporary worker decided to strengthen his position through the marriage of his daughter with Peter’s young grandson. P. Tolstoy, who opposed this plan, ended up in prison.
In May 1727, Catherine 1 died and, according to her will, 12-year-old Peter II (1727-1730) became emperor under the regency of the VTS. Menshikov's influence at court increased, and he even received the coveted rank of generalissimo. But, having alienated old allies and not gaining new ones among the noble nobility, he soon lost influence on the young emperor and in September 1727 he was arrested and exiled with his entire family to Berezovo, where he soon died.
A significant role in discrediting Menshikov’s personality in the eyes of the young emperor was played by Dolgoruky, as well as a member of the Military Technical Cooperation, the Tsar’s educator, nominated to this position by Menshikov himself - A.I. Osterman is a deft diplomat who knew how, depending on the balance of power and the political situation, to change his views, allies and patrons.
The overthrow of Menshikov was, in essence, an actual palace coup, because the composition of the military-technical cooperation changed, in which aristocratic families began to predominate (Dolgoruky and Golitsyn), and A.I. began to play a key role. Osterman; the regency of the military-technical cooperation was put to an end, Peter II declared himself a full-fledged ruler, surrounded by new favorites; a course was outlined aimed at revising the reforms of Peter I.
Soon the court left St. Petersburg and moved to Moscow, which attracted the emperor due to the presence of richer hunting grounds. The sister of the Tsar's favorite, Ekaterina Dolgorukaya, was engaged to Peter II, but during preparations for the wedding he died of smallpox. And again the question of the heir to the throne arose, because With the death of Peter II, the Romanov male line was cut short, and he did not have time to appoint a successor.

Prerequisites for palace coups

The main reason that formed the basis of the palace coups was the contradictions between various noble groups in relation to Peter's legacy. It would be a simplification to consider that the split occurred along the lines of acceptance and non-acceptance of reforms. Both the so-called “new nobility”, which emerged during the years of Peter thanks to their official zeal, and the aristocratic party tried to soften the course of reforms, hoping in one form or another to give a respite to society, and, first of all, to themselves. But each of these groups defended their narrow-class interests and privileges, which created fertile ground for internal political struggle.
Palace coups were generated by an intense struggle between various factions for power. As a rule, it most often came down to the nomination and support of one or another candidate for the throne.
At this time, the guard began to play an active role in the political life of the country, which Peter raised as a privileged “support” of the autocracy, which, moreover, took upon itself the right to control the conformity of the personality and policies of the monarch with the legacy that its “beloved emperor” left.
The alienation of the masses from politics and their passivity served as fertile ground for palace intrigues and coups.
To a large extent, palace coups were provoked by the unresolved problem of succession to the throne in connection with the adoption of the Decree of 1722, which broke the traditional mechanism of transfer of power.

Prerequisites for the palace coup

Causes of palace coups

1) Contradictions between various noble factions in relation to Peter’s legacy. 2) An intense struggle between various groups for power, which most often boiled down to the nomination and support of one or another candidate for the throne. 3) The active position of the guard, which Peter raised as a privileged support of the autocracy, which, moreover, took upon itself the right to control the compliance of the personality and policies of the monarch with the legacy that its beloved emperor left. 4) Passivity of the masses, absolutely far from the political life of the capital. 5) Exacerbation of the problem of succession to the throne in connection with the adoption of the Decree of 1722, which broke the traditional mechanism of transfer of power.

1) Moving away from the national political tradition, according to which the throne is only for the direct heirs of the king, Peter himself prepared a crisis of power. 2) After the death of Peter, a large number of direct and indirect heirs laid claim to the Russian throne; 3) The existing corporate interests of the nobility and family nobility were revealed in their entirety. When analyzing the era of palace coups, it is important to pay attention to the following points. Firstly, the initiators of the coups were various palace groups who sought to elevate their protégé to the throne. Secondly, the most important consequence of the coups was the strengthening of the economic and political positions of the nobility. Thirdly, the driving force behind the coups was the Guard. Indeed, it was the guard during the period under review that decided the question of who should be on the throne.

Supreme Privy Council

SUPREME PRIVATE COUNCIL - the highest body of state power in the Russian Empire (1726-1730); created by decree of Catherine I Alekseevna on February 8, 1726, formally as an advisory body under the empress, in fact it decided all the most important state affairs. During the accession of Empress Anna Ivanovna, the Supreme Privy Council tried to limit the autocracy in its favor, but was dissolved.

After the death of Emperor Peter I the Great (1725), his wife Ekaterina Alekseevna ascended the throne. She was not able to independently govern the state and created the Supreme Privy Council from among the most prominent associates of the late emperor, which was supposed to advise the empress what to do in this or that case. Gradually, the sphere of competence of the Supreme Privy Council included the resolution of all the most important domestic and foreign policy issues. The collegiums were subordinate to him, and the role of the Senate was reduced, which was reflected, in particular, in the renaming from the “Governing Senate” to the “High Senate”.

Initially, the Supreme Privy Council consisted of A.D. Menshikova, P.A. Tolstoy, A.I. Osterman, F.M. Apraksina, G.I. Golovkina, D.M. Golitsyn and Duke Karl Friedrich of Holstein-Gottorp (son-in-law of the Empress, husband of Tsarevna Anna Petrovna). A struggle for influence ensued between them, in which A.D. won. Menshikov. Ekaterina Alekseevna agreed to the marriage of the heir to Tsarevich Peter with Menshikov’s daughter. In April 1727 A.D. Menshikov achieved the disgrace of P.A. Tolstoy, Duke Karl Friedrich was sent home. However, after the accession of Peter II Alekseevich to the throne (May 1727), A.D. fell into disgrace. Menshikov and the Supreme Privy Council included A.G. and V.L. Dolgorukovs, and in 1730 after the death of F.M. Apraksina - M.M. Golitsyn and V.V. Dolgorukov.

The internal policy of the Supreme Privy Council was aimed mainly at solving problems associated with the socio-economic crisis that the country was experiencing after the long Northern War and the reforms of Peter I, primarily in the financial sector. Members of the council (“the supreme leaders”) critically assessed the results of Peter’s reforms and were aware of the need to adjust them in accordance with the real capabilities of the country. The financial issue was at the center of the activities of the Supreme Privy Council, which the leaders tried to solve in two directions: by streamlining the system of accounting and control over state income and expenses and by saving money. The leaders discussed issues of improving the systems of taxation and public administration created by Peter, reducing the army and navy and other measures aimed at replenishing the state budget. The collection of poll taxes and recruits was transferred from the army to the civil authorities, military units were withdrawn from rural areas to cities, and some noble officers were sent on long vacations without payment of salary. The capital of the state was again moved to Moscow.

In order to save money, the leaders liquidated a number of local institutions (court courts, offices of zemstvo commissars, Waldmaster offices) and reduced the number of local employees. Some of the minor officials who did not have a class rank were deprived of their salaries, and they were asked to “feed from business.” Along with this, the positions of governor were restored. The leaders tried to revive domestic and foreign trade, allowed previously prohibited trade through the Arkhangelsk port, lifted restrictions on trade in a number of goods, abolished many restrictive duties, created favorable conditions for foreign merchants, and revised the protective customs tariff of 1724. In 1726, an alliance treaty was concluded with Austria, which determined Russia’s behavior in the international arena for several decades.

In January 1730, after the death of Peter II, the rulers invited the Dowager Duchess of Courland Anna Ivanovna to the Russian throne. At the same time, on the initiative of D.M.

Golitsyn, it was decided to carry out a reform of the political system of Russia through the actual elimination of the autocracy and the introduction of a limited monarchy of the Swedish model. To this end, the leaders invited the future empress to sign special conditions - “conditions”, according to which she was deprived of the opportunity to make political decisions on her own: make peace and declare war, appoint her to government posts, change the taxation system. Real power passed to the Supreme Privy Council, the composition of which was to be expanded to include representatives of the highest officials, generals and aristocracy. The nobility generally supported the idea of ​​limiting the absolute power of the autocrat. However, negotiations between the supreme leaders and Anna Ivanovna were conducted in secret, which aroused suspicion among the masses of nobles of a conspiracy to usurp power in the hands of the aristocratic families represented in the Supreme Privy Council (Golitsyns, Dolgorukies). The lack of unity among the supporters of the supreme leaders allowed Anna Ivanovna, who arrived in Moscow, relying on the guard and some of the court officials, to carry out a coup: on February 25, 1730, the empress broke the “conditions”, and on March 4, the Supreme Privy Council was abolished. Later, most members of the Supreme Privy Council (with the exception of Osterman and Golovkin, who did not support the Golitsyns and Dolgorukovs) were subjected to repression.

Causes of palace coups

It is believed that Peter I prepared the era of palace coups in Russia by issuing a decree on succession to the throne in 1722. This decree allowed any relative of the emperor, regardless of gender and age, to lay claim to the royal throne. Since families in the 18th century. were large, then, as a rule, there were many candidates for the imperial crown: wives and children, cousins, grandchildren and nephews... The absence of a single legal heir led to increased palace intrigues and a struggle for power.

Features of palace coups

Role of the Guard

In the struggle for power, the one who was supported by the guard, called upon to protect the capital and the imperial palace, won. It was the guard regiments that became the main force behind palace coups. Therefore, every contender for the throne, trying to enlist the support of the guards, promised them money, estates and new privileges.

In 1714, Peter I issued a decree prohibiting the promotion to officers of nobles who did not serve as privates in the guard.

Therefore, by 1725, in the guards regiments, not only the officers, but also the majority of the privates were from the nobility. Thanks to its social homogeneity, the guard was able to become the main force in palace coups.

The guards units during this period were the most privileged in the Russian army. The guards did not participate in hostilities and performed exclusively ceremonial and palace service in the capital. The salary of private guards was much higher than that of army and navy officers.

Favoritism

Often, as a result of a palace coup, persons unprepared to govern the state ended up on the throne. Therefore, the consequence of the coups was favoritism, that is, the rise of one or several favorites of the monarch, who concentrated enormous power and wealth in their hands.

Social system of Russia

An important feature of the palace coups should be noted: they did not lead to significant changes in the social system of Russia. Emperors and favorites changed, as did the emphasis in domestic and foreign policy, but the following always remained unchanged: a) the absolute power of the monarch; b) serfdom; c) political lack of rights of the people; d) a course to expand the privileges of the nobility at the expense of other classes. The stability of power was ensured by a growing and strengthening bureaucracy.

History of palace coups

On this page there is material on the following topics:

• Video of palace coups after the death of Peter 1: sequence and reasons

• The role of the guard in palace coups

• The era of palace coups table the method of coming to power

• The fourth palace coup in Russia

• Explain why the palace coup of internal politics was ruled by the monarchy

Questions for this article:

• Why was Peter I forced to issue a decree on succession to the throne?

• What important events occurred in 1740, 1741, 1741 - 1743, 1756-1763, 1761, 1762?

• What is a palace coup?

• What are the causes and features of palace coups in Russia?

• What role did the guard play in palace coups?

• What is favoritism?

• Make a table “The era of palace coups.”

• How did the positions of the Russian nobility strengthen in 1725-1761?

Material from the site http://WikiWhat.ru

Palace coups: causes and main events

The death of Emperor Peter I in 1725 led to a long crisis of power. According to the figurative expression of V. O. Klyuchevsky, this period of our history was called “palace revolutions.” For 37 years from the death of Peter I to the accession of Catherine II (1725-1762), the throne was occupied by six reigning persons who received the throne as a result of complex palace intrigues or coups.

Reasons for palace coups:

1. moving away from the national political tradition, according to which the throne passed only to the direct heirs of the tsar, Peter himself prepared a “crisis of power” (by failing to implement the Decree of 1722 on the succession to the throne, without appointing an heir for himself);

2. after the death of Peter, a large number of direct and indirect heirs laid claim to the Russian throne;

3. the existing corporate interests of the nobility and high-born nobility manifested themselves in their entirety.

Palace coups, that they were not state coups, that is, they did not pursue the goal of radical changes in political power and government structure

When analyzing the era of palace coups, it is important to pay attention to the following points.

1. The initiators of the coups were various palace groups who sought to elevate their protégé to the throne.

2. The most important consequence of the palace coups was the strengthening of the economic and political positions of the nobility.

3.The driving force behind the coups was the Guard.

Catherine's reign I (1725-1727). The guard took Catherine's side.

In 1726, under Catherine I, the Supreme Privy Council was established, which, according to historian S. F. Platonov, replaced Peter the Great's Senate. The Supreme Privy Council included A.D. Menshikov, F. M. Apraksin, G. I. Golovkin, D. M. Golitsyn, A. I. Osterman and P. A. Tolstoy. The Council was not an oligarchic body limiting autocracy. It remained a bureaucratic, albeit very influential, institution in the system of absolutism, placed under the control of the empress.

During this period of time the following happened:

Reduction of bureaucratic structures;

Revision of customs tariff;

Changing the deployment of the army and its contents;

Elimination of the self-government system;

Restoring the importance of the county as the main territorial-administrative unit;

Changing the taxation system, reducing the capitation tax.

In general, the activities of Catherine I and her “supreme leaders” were characterized by a rejection of the broad reform program of Peter I and a reduction in the role of the Senate. Trade and industry, which lost financial and administrative support from the state in the post-Petrine era, were placed in unfavorable conditions. The beginning of an audit of the results of Peter's reforms.

Peter II (1727-1730). Shortly before her death in 1727, Catherine I signed a will that determined the sequence of succession to the throne. The closest heir was determined to be Peter II.

The throne was taken by 12-year-old Peter II under the regency of the Supreme Privy Council.

The Supreme Privy Council under Peter II underwent significant changes. In it, all affairs were carried out by four princes Dolgoruky and two Golitsyns, as well as A.I. Osterman. The Dolgorukies came to the fore. Peter II died on the day of his wedding (with Ivan Dolgoruky's sister Catherine). The Romanov dynasty was cut short in the male line. The question of the emperor had to be decided by the Supreme Privy Council.

The short stay in power of young Peter II did not make significant changes in the state and public life of Russian society. The relocation of the royal court from St. Petersburg to Moscow at the end of 1727, the abolition of the Chief Magistrate in 1728.

Anna Ioannovna (1730-1740). After long consultations, the leaders chose the senior line of the dynasty, associated with the brother of Peter I - Ivan V.

Golitsyn and V.L. Dolgoruky developed the so-called conditions - the conditions under which Anna Ioannovna could accept the Russian crown from the hands of the rulers:

No new laws should be issued;

Do not start a war with anyone and do not make peace with anyone;

Do not burden loyal subjects with any taxes;

Do not dispose of treasury revenues;

Noble ranks above the rank of colonel are not welcome;

The nobility's life, property and honor cannot be taken away;

Do not favor estates and villages.

Just two weeks after arriving in Moscow, Anna broke down in front of the leaders and declared “her perception of autocracy.” The Supreme Privy Council in 1731 was replaced by a Cabinet of three ministers headed by A. I. Osterman. Four years later, Anna Ioannovna equated the signatures of three cabinet ministers with one of her own.

Main directions of domestic policy:

Abolition of the Supreme Privy Council and the return of the Senate to its former significance;

The return of Peter's system of placing regiments in the provinces and the responsibility of landowners for payments to their peasants;

Continuation of the punitive policy towards the Old Believers;

Creation of a new body - the Cabinet of Ministers (1731);

Resumption of the activities of the Secret Chancellery;

The establishment of a cadet corps (1732), after which noble children received officer ranks;

Abolition of indefinite service for nobles (1736). In addition, one of the sons of a noble family was released from service to manage the estate.

During the reign of Anna Ioannovna, the autocracy was strengthened, the responsibilities of the nobles were reduced and their rights over the peasants were expanded.

Ivan VI Antonovich. After the death of Anna Ioannovna in 1740, according to her will, the Russian throne was inherited by her great-grandson, Ivan Antonovich. Anna's favorite E.I. Biron was appointed regent until he came of age, but less than a month later he was arrested by the guards on the orders of Field Marshal B.K. Minich. His mother Anna Leopoldovna was proclaimed regent for the royal child.

Elizaveta Petrovna (1741-1761). The next coup d'état was carried out with the direct participation of the guards of the Preobrazhensky Regiment.

The period of Elizabeth's reign was marked by the flourishing of favoritism. On the one hand, it was an indicator of the dependence of the nobility on royal generosity, and on the other hand, it was a unique, albeit rather timid, attempt to adapt the state to the demands of the nobility.

During the reign of Elizabeth, certain transformations were carried out:

1. there was a significant expansion of noble benefits, the socio-economic and legal position of the Russian nobility was strengthened;

2. an attempt was made to restore some of the orders and government institutions created by Peter I. For this purpose, the Cabinet of Ministers was abolished, the functions of the Senate were significantly expanded, the Berg and Manufactory Collegiums, the chief and city magistrates were restored;

3. many foreigners were eliminated from the spheres of public administration and the education system;

4. a new supreme body was created - the Conference at the Highest Court (1756) to resolve important state issues, which largely duplicated the functions of the Senate;

5. the empress tried to develop new legislation;

6. there was a tightening of religious policy.

In general, Elizabeth’s reign did not become the “second edition” of Peter’s policies. Elizabeth's policy was distinguished by caution, and in some aspects, unusual gentleness. By refusing to sanction death sentences, she was actually the first in Europe to abolish the death penalty.

Peter III (December 25, 1761 - June 28, 1762). After the death of Elizabeth Petrovna in 1761, 33-year-old Peter III became Emperor of Russia.

Peter III announced to Frederick II the intention of Russia to make peace with Prussia separately, without allies France and Austria (1762). Russia returned to Prussia all the lands occupied during the Seven Years' War, refused indemnity to compensate for the losses incurred and entered into an alliance with the former enemy. In addition, Peter began to prepare for a completely unnecessary war with Denmark for Russia. In society this was perceived as a betrayal of Russian national interests.

During the six-month reign of Peter III, 192 decrees were adopted.

The secularization of church lands in favor of the state was announced, which strengthened the state treasury (the decree was finally implemented by Catherine II in 1764);

He stopped the persecution of Old Believers and wanted to equalize the rights of all religions.

Liquidation of the Secret Chancellery and the return from exile of people convicted under Elizaveta Petrovna;

Trade monopolies, which hampered the development of entrepreneurship, were abolished;

Freedom of foreign trade was proclaimed, etc.

Politically wise and economically expedient, these internal changes did not add to the emperor's popularity. His denial of everything Russian as “archaic,” the break with traditions, and the reshaping of many orders according to the Western model offended the national feelings of the Russian people. The fall of Emperor Peter III was a foregone conclusion, and it occurred as a result of a palace coup on June 28, 1762. Peter was forced to abdicate the throne, and a few days later he was killed.

Socio-economic development. A distinctive feature of Russia's social development was a significant expansion of the privileges of the nobility, the acquisition of which was facilitated by the relative instability of state power.

The 37-year period of political instability (1725-1762) that followed the death of Peter I was called the “Era of Palace Revolutions.” During this period, state policy was determined by individual groups of the palace nobility, who actively intervened in resolving the issue of the heir to the throne, fought among themselves for power, and thus carried out palace coups. Also, the decisive force in the palace coups was the guard, a privileged part of the regular army created by Peter (these are the famous Semenovsky and Preobrazhensky regiments, in the 30s two new ones were added to them, the Izmailovsky and Horse Guards). Her participation decided the outcome of the matter: which side the guard was on, that group would win. The Guard was not only a privileged part of the Russian army, it was a representative of an entire class (the nobility), from whose midst it was almost exclusively formed and whose interests it represented. The reason for the intervention of certain groups of the palace nobility in the political life of the country was the Charter “on the succession to the throne” issued by Peter I on February 5, 1722, which abolished “both orders of succession to the throne that were in force before, both the will and the conciliar election, replacing both with personal appointment, at the discretion of the reigning sovereign." Peter I himself did not take advantage of this charter. He died on January 28, 1725, without appointing a successor. Therefore, immediately after his death, a struggle for power began between representatives of the ruling elite. Also, palace coups testified to the weakness of absolute power under the successors of Peter I, who were unable to continue reforms with energy and in the spirit of a pioneer and who could govern the state only relying on their entourage. Favoritism flourished in full bloom during this period. Temporary favorites received unlimited influence on state policy.

The only heir of Peter I in the male line was his grandson - the son of the executed Tsarevich Alexei Peter. Grouped around the grandson were mainly representatives of the high-born feudal aristocracy, now a few boyar families. Among them, the leading role was played by the Golitsyns and Dolgorukys, and they were also joined by some of Peter I’s associates (Field Marshal Prince B.P. Sheremetev, Field Marshal Nikita Repnin, etc.). But the wife of Peter I, Catherine, laid claim to the throne. Peter's two daughters, Anna (married to a Holstein prince) and Elizabeth, who was still a minor by that time, were also heirs. The decree of February 5, 1722, which abolished the old rules of succession to the throne and ratified the personal will of the testator into law, contributed greatly to the ambiguity of the general situation. The figures of Peter the Great's era, who were always at odds with each other, temporarily rallied around Catherine's candidacy. They were: A.D. Menshikov, P.I. Yaguzhinsky, P.A. Tolstoy, A.V. Makarov, F. Prokopovich, I.I. Buturlin and others. The issue of a successor was resolved by the quick actions of A. Menshikov, who, relying on the guard, carried out the first palace coup in favor of Catherine I (1725-1727) and became an all-powerful temporary worker under her.

In 1727, Catherine I died. According to her will, the throne passed to 12-year-old Peter II (1727-1730). The affairs of the state continued to be managed by the Supreme Privy Council. However, changes took place in it: Menshikov was removed and exiled with his family to the distant Western Siberian city of Berezov, and the Tsarevich’s educator Osterman and two princes Dolgoruky and Golitsyn entered the Council. Ivan Dolgoruky, who had a huge influence on the young emperor, became Peter II's favorite.

In January 1730, Peter II dies of smallpox, and the question of a candidate for the throne again arises. The Supreme Privy Council, at the suggestion of D. Golitsyn, chose the niece of Peter I, the daughter of his brother Ivan, the Dowager Duchess of Courland Anna Ioannovna (1730-1740), but limited her power. The “sovereigns” offered the throne to Anna under certain conditions - conditions, according to which the empress actually became a powerless puppet. The reign of Anna Ioannovna (1730-1740) is usually assessed as a kind of timelessness; the empress herself is characterized as a narrow-minded, uneducated woman with little interest in state affairs, who did not trust the Russians, and therefore brought a bunch of foreigners from Mitau and from various “German corners”. “The Germans poured into Russia like rubbish from a leaky bag - they surrounded the courtyard, settled in the throne, and climbed into all the lucrative positions in government,” Klyuchevsky wrote. The guards, protesting against the conditions, demanded that Anna Ioanovna remain the same autocrat as her ancestors. Upon arrival in Moscow, Anna was already aware of the mood of wide circles of the nobility and the guard. Therefore, on February 25, 1730, she broke her standards and “committed herself to sovereignty.” Having become an autocrat, Anna Ioannovna hastened to find support for herself mainly among foreigners who occupied the highest positions at court, in the army and in the highest government bodies. A number of Russian surnames also fell into the circle of people devoted to Anna: relatives Saltykovs, P. Yaguzhinsky, A. Cherkassky, A. Volynsky, A. Ushakov. Anna Biron's Mittava favorite became the de facto ruler of the country. In the system of power that developed under Anna Ioannovna without Biron, her confidant, a rude and vindictive temporary worker, not a single important decision was made at all.

According to Anna Ioannovna's will, her great-nephew, Ivan Antonovich of Brunswick, was appointed as her heir. Biron was appointed regent under him. A palace coup was carried out against the hated Biron just a few weeks later. His mother Anna Leopoldovna was proclaimed ruler under the young Ivan Antonovich. However, there were no changes in policy; all positions continued to remain in the hands of the Germans. On the night of November 25, 1741, the grenadier company of the Preobrazhensky Regiment carried out a palace coup in favor of Elizabeth, the daughter of Peter I (1741-1761). Under Elizabeth, there were no fundamental changes in the composition of the ruling elite of the state apparatus - only the most odious figures were removed. So, Elizabeth appointed A.P. as chancellor. Bestuzhev-Ryumin, who was at one time Biron’s right hand and creation. The highest Elizabethan dignitaries also included brother A.P. Bestuzhev-Ryumina and N.Yu. Trubetskoy, who by 1740 was the Prosecutor General of the Senate. The observed certain continuity of the top circle of people who actually exercised control over the key issues of foreign and domestic policy testified to the continuity of this policy itself. Despite all the similarities of this coup with similar palace coups in Russia in the 18th century. (apex character, guard striking force), it had a number of distinctive features. The striking force of the November 25 coup was not just the guard, but the lower ranks of the guards - people from the tax-paying classes, expressing the patriotic sentiments of broad sections of the capital's population. The coup had a pronounced anti-German, patriotic character. Wide layers of Russian society, condemning the favoritism of German temporary workers, turned their sympathies towards Peter's daughter, the Russian heiress. A feature of the palace coup on November 25 was that Franco-Swedish diplomacy tried to actively interfere in the internal affairs of Russia and, in exchange for offering assistance to Elizabeth in the struggle for the throne, to obtain from her certain political and territorial concessions, which meant a voluntary renunciation of the conquests of Peter I.

Elizabeth Petrovna's successor was her nephew Karl-Peter-Ulrich - Duke of Holstein - the son of Elizabeth Petrovna's elder sister Anna, and therefore on his mother's side - the grandson of Peter I. He ascended the throne under the name of Peter III (1761-1762) on February 18, 1762 The Manifesto was published on granting “the entire Russian noble nobility liberty and freedom,” i.e. on exemption from compulsory service. The “Manifesto,” which removed the age-old conscription from the class, was received with enthusiasm by the nobility. Peter III issued Decrees on the abolition of the Secret Chancellery, on allowing schismatics who had fled abroad to return to Russia, with a ban on prosecution for schism. However, soon the policies of Peter III aroused discontent in society and turned metropolitan society against him. Particular dissatisfaction among the officers was caused by Peter III's refusal of all conquests during the victorious Seven Years' War with Prussia (1755-1762), which was waged by Elizaveta Petrovna. A conspiracy was ripe in the guard to overthrow Peter III. As a result of the latter, in the 18th century. In the palace coup carried out on June 28, 1762, the wife of Peter III was elevated to the Russian throne and became Empress Catherine II (1762-1796).

Thus, palace coups did not entail changes in the political, much less social, system of society and boiled down to a struggle for power among various noble groups pursuing their own, most often selfish, interests. At the same time, the specific policies of each of the six monarchs had their own characteristics, sometimes important for the country. In general, the socio-economic stabilization and foreign policy successes achieved during the reign of Elizabeth created the conditions for more accelerated development and new breakthroughs in foreign policy that would occur under Catherine II. Historians see the reasons for palace coups in the decree of Peter I “on changing the order of succession to the throne”, in the clash of corporate interests of various groups of the nobility. With the light hand of V.O. Many historians assessed Klyuchevsky from the 1720s to the 1750s. as a time of weakening of Russian absolutism. N.Ya. Eidelman generally considered palace coups as a peculiar reaction of the nobility to the sharp increase in the independence of the state under Peter I and as historical experience showed, he writes, referring to the “unbridledness” of Peter’s absolutism, that such a huge concentration of power is dangerous both for its bearer and for the ruling class itself." V.O. himself Klyuchevsky also associated the onset of political instability after the death of Peter I with the “autocracy” of the latter, who decided, in particular, to break the traditional order of succession to the throne (when the throne passed through a direct male descendant line) - the charter of February 5, 1722 gave the autocrat the right to appoint a successor for himself at his own request. “Rarely has autocracy punished itself so cruelly as in the person of Peter with this law on February 5,” concluded Klyuchevsky. Peter I did not have time to appoint an heir for himself; the throne, according to Klyuchevsky, turned out to be given “to chance and became its toy”: it was not the law that determined who should sit on the throne, but the guard, which was the “dominant force” at that time. Thus, the reasons that determined this era of revolutions and temporary workers were rooted, on the one hand, in the state of the royal family, and on the other, in the peculiarities of the environment that managed affairs.