What does the systems approach consider? Systematic approach to management

Concept, tasks and stages of a systems approach.

The systems approach is used in all areas of knowledge, although it manifests itself differently in different areas. Thus, in technical sciences we are talking about systems engineering, in cybernetics - about control systems, in biology - about biosystems and their structural levels, in sociology - about the possibilities of a structural-functional approach, in medicine - about the systemic treatment of complex diseases (collagenosis, systemic vasculitis etc.) general practitioners (system doctors).
The very nature of science lies in the desire for unity and synthesis of knowledge. Identifying and studying the features of this process is the task of modern research in the field of the theory of scientific knowledge.
Essence the systems approach is both simple and complex; both ultra-modern and ancient, like the world, for it goes back to the origins of human civilization. The need to use the concept of “system” has arisen for objects of various physical natures since ancient times: Aristotle drew attention to the fact that the whole (i.e., the system) is irreducible to the sum of the parts that form it.
The need for such a concept arises in cases where it is impossible to depict, imagine (for example, using a mathematical expression), but it is necessary to emphasize that it will be large, complex, not completely immediately understandable (with uncertainty) and whole, unified. For example, “solar system”, “machine control system”, “circulatory system”, “education system”, “information system”.
Very well, the features of this term, such as orderliness, integrity, the presence of certain patterns, are manifested to display mathematical expressions and rules - “system of equations”, “number system”, “system of measures”, etc. We do not say: “a set of differential equations” or “a set of differential equations” - namely, “a system of differential equations” in order to emphasize order, integrity, and the presence of certain patterns.
Interest in system representations manifests itself not only as a convenient generalizing concept, but also as a means of posing problems with great uncertainty.
Systems approach– this is a direction in the methodology of scientific knowledge and social practice, which is based on the consideration of objects as a system. The systematic approach guides researchers towards revealing the integrity of an object, identifying diverse connections and bringing them together into a single theoretical picture.
A systems approach appears to be “the only way to bring together the pieces of our fragmented world and achieve order instead of chaos.”
The systems approach develops and shapes a specialist’s holistic dialectical-materialistic worldview and, in this regard, is fully consistent with the modern tasks of our society and the country’s economy.
Tasks, which are solved by a systematic approach:
o plays the role of an international language;
o allows you to develop methods for researching and designing complex objects (for example, an information system, etc.);
o develops methods of cognition, research and design methods (design organization systems, development management systems, etc.);
o allows you to combine the knowledge of various, traditionally separated disciplines;
o allows you to deeply, and most importantly, in conjunction with the created information system, explore the subject area.
A systematic approach cannot be perceived as a one-time procedure, as the implementation of a sequence of certain actions that gives a predictable result. A systems approach is usually a multi-cycle process of cognition, searching for causes and making decisions to achieve a certain goal, for which we create (select) some artificial system.
It is obvious that the systematic approach is a creative process and, as a rule, it does not end with the first cycle. After the first cycle, we are convinced that this system is not functioning efficiently enough. Something is in the way. In search of this “something,” we enter a new cycle of a spiral search, again analyze prototypes (analogues), consider the systemic functioning of each element (subsystem), the effectiveness of connections, the validity of restrictions, etc. Those. We are trying to eliminate this “something” through levers within the system.
If the desired effect cannot be achieved, it is often advisable to return to the choice of system. Perhaps it is necessary to expand it, introduce other elements into it, provide for new connections, etc. In the new, expanded system, the possibility of obtaining a wider range of solutions (outputs) increases, among which the desired one may be found.
When studying any object or phenomenon, a systematic approach is required, which can be presented as a sequence of the following stages:
o identifying the object of study from the total mass of phenomena and objects. Determination of the contour, limits of the system, its main subsystems, elements, connections with the environment.
o Establishing the purpose of the study: determining the function of the system, its structure, control mechanisms and functioning;
o determination of the main criteria characterizing the purposeful action of the system, the main restrictions and conditions of existence (functioning);
o identifying alternative options when choosing structures or elements to achieve a given goal. If possible, it is necessary to take into account factors affecting the system and options for solving the problem;
o drawing up a model of the system’s functioning, taking into account all significant factors. The significance of factors is determined by their influence on the defining criteria of the goal;
o optimization of the functioning model or operation of the system. Selection of solutions based on efficiency criteria in achieving the goal;
o designing optimal structures and functional actions of the system. Determination of the optimal scheme for their regulation and management;
o monitoring the operation of the system, determining its reliability and performance.
o Establishing reliable feedback on performance results.
The systems approach is inextricably linked with materialist dialectics and is a concretization of its basic principles at the present stage of development. Modern society did not immediately recognize the systems approach as a new methodological direction.
In the 30s of the last century, philosophy was the source of the emergence of a generalizing direction called systems theory. The founder of this direction is considered to be L. von Bertalanffy, an Italian biologist by primary profession, who, despite this, made his first report at a philosophical seminar, using the terminology of philosophy as the initial concepts.
It is necessary to note the important contribution to the formation of systemic ideas of our compatriot A.A. Bogdanov. However, due to historical reasons, the universal organizational science “tectology” he proposed did not find distribution and practical application.

System analysis.

Birth systems analysis (SA) - the merit of the famous company "RAND Corporation" (1947) - US Department of Defense.
1948 - Weapon Systems Evaluation Group
1950 - weapons cost analysis department
1952 - The creation of the B-58 supersonic bomber was the first development delivered as a system.
System analysis required information support.
The first book on systems analysis, not translated here, was published in 1956. It was published by RAND (authors A. Kann and S. Monk). A year later, “Systems Engineering” by G. Good and R. Makol appeared (published here in 1962), which sets out the general methodology for designing complex technical systems.
The SA methodology was developed in detail and presented in the book “Military Economics in the Nuclear Age” published in 1960 by C. Hitch and R. McKean (published here in 1964). In 1960, one of the best textbooks on systems engineering was published (A. Hall “Experience in Methodology for Systems Engineering”, translated in 1975), presenting the technical development of problems in systems engineering.
In 1965, a detailed book by E. Quaid, “Analysis of Complex Systems for Solving Military Problems,” appeared (translated in 1969). It presents the foundations of a new scientific discipline - systems analysis (the method of optimal choice when solving complex problems under conditions of uncertainty -> a revised course of lectures on systems analysis, read by employees of the RAND Corporation for senior specialists of the US Department of Defense and Industry).
In 1965, S. Optner’s book “System Analysis for Solving Business and Industrial Problems” was published (translated in 1969).
The second stage of the historical development of the systems approach(company problems, marketing, audit, etc.)
o Stage I - study of the final results of a systematic approach
o Stage II - initial stages, selection and justification of goals, their usefulness, conditions
implementation, connections with previous processes
Systems research
o Stage I - Bogdanov A.A. - 20s, Butlerov, Mendeleev, Fedorov, Belov.
o Stage II - L. von Bertalanffy - 30s.
o Stage III - The birth of cybernetics - systems research received a new birth on a solid scientific basis
o Stage IV - original versions of the general theory of systems, having a common mathematical apparatus - 60s, Mesarovich, Uemov, Urmantsev.

Belov Nikolai Vasilievich (1891 - 1982) - crystallographer, geochemist, professor at Moscow State University - methods for deciphering the structures of minerals.
Fedorov Evgraf Stepanovich (1853 – 1919) mineralogist and crystallographer. Modern structures of crystallography and mineralogy.
Butlerov Alexander Mikhailovich – structural theory.
Mendeleev Dmitry Ivanovich (1834 – 1907) – Periodic table of elements.

The place of systems analysis among other scientific areas
System analysis is considered the most constructive of the applied areas of systems research. Regardless of whether the term “system analysis” is applied to planning, developing the main directions of development of an industry, enterprise, organization, or to the study of the system as a whole, including goals and organizational structure, work on system analysis is distinguished by the fact that it always a methodology for conducting, researching, and organizing the decision-making process is proposed; an attempt is made to highlight the stages of research or decision-making and propose approaches to performing these stages in specific conditions. In addition, these works always pay special attention to working with the goals of the system: their emergence, formulation, detailing, analysis and other issues of goal setting.
D. Cleland and V. King believe that system analysis should provide “a clear understanding of the place and meaning of uncertainty in decision making” and create a special apparatus for this. The main goal of system analysis- detect and eliminate uncertainty.
Some define systems analysis as “formalized common sense.”
Others do not see the meaning even in the very concept of “systems analysis”. Why not synthesis? How can you disassemble a system without losing the whole thing? However, worthy answers to these questions were instantly found. Firstly, the analysis is not limited to dividing uncertainties into smaller ones, but is aimed at understanding the essence of the whole, identifying factors that influence decision-making on the construction and development of the system; and secondly, the term “systemic” implies a return to the whole, to the system.
Systems research disciplines:
Philosophical and methodological disciplines
Systems theory
Systems approach
Systemology
System analysis
Systems Engineering
Cybernetics
Operations research
Special disciplines

System analysis is located in the middle of this list, since it uses approximately equal proportions of philosophical and methodological concepts (characteristic of philosophy, systems theory) and formalized methods and models (for special disciplines). Systemology and systems theory make more use of philosophical concepts and qualitative concepts and are closer to philosophy. Operations research, systems engineering, cybernetics, on the contrary, have a more developed formal apparatus, but less developed means of qualitative analysis and formulation of complex problems with great uncertainty and with active elements.
The areas under consideration have much in common. The need for their use arises in cases where the problem (problem) cannot be solved by individual methods of mathematics or highly specialized disciplines. Despite the fact that initially the directions were based on different basic concepts (operations research - “operation”, cybernetics - “control”, “feedback”, systemology - “system”), later they operate with many of the same concepts elements, connections, goals and means, structure. Different directions also use the same mathematical methods.

System analysis in economics.
When developing new areas of activity, it is impossible to solve a problem using only a mathematical or intuitive method, since the process of their formation and development of procedures for setting problems often drags on for a long period. As technology and the “artificial world” develop, decision-making situations have become more complex, and the modern economy is characterized by such features that it has become difficult to guarantee the completeness and timeliness of setting and solving many economic design and management problems without the use of techniques and methods for setting complex problems, which develop the generalized directions discussed above, and in particular, system analysis.
In the method of systems analysis, the main thing is the process of setting the problem. In economics, you do not need a ready-made model of an object or a decision-making process (mathematical method); you need a methodology that contains tools that allow you to gradually form a model, justifying its adequacy at each step of formation with the participation of decision-makers. Problems whose solution was previously based on intuition (the problem of managing the development of organizational structures) are now unsolvable without system analysis.
To make “weighted” design, management, socio-economic and other decisions, a wide coverage and comprehensive analysis of factors that significantly influence the problem being solved is required. It is necessary to use a systematic approach when studying a problem situation and use systems analysis tools to solve this problem. It is especially useful to use the methodology of a systems approach and systems analysis when solving complex problems - putting forward and choosing a concept (hypothesis, idea) of a company's development strategy, developing qualitatively new markets for products, improving and bringing the company's internal environment into line with new market conditions, etc. .d.
To solve these problems, specialists in preparing decisions and developing recommendations for their selection, as well as persons (group of persons) responsible for making decisions, must have a certain level of culture of systems thinking, a “systems view” to cover the entire problem in a “structured » view.
Logical systems analysis is used to solve “weakly structured” problems, the formulation of which has a lot of vagueness and uncertainty and therefore cannot be presented in a completely mathematical form.
This analysis is complemented by mathematical analysis of systems and other methods of analysis, such as statistical and logical. However, the scope of its application and implementation methodology differ from the subject and methodology of formal mathematical systems research.
The concept “systemic” is used because the research is based on the category “system”.
The term “analysis” is used to characterize the research procedure, which consists of dividing a complex problem into separate, simpler subproblems, using the most appropriate special methods for solving them, which then allows one to construct and synthesize a general solution to the problem.
System analysis contains elements inherent in scientific, in particular quantitative, methods, as well as an intuitive-heuristic approach, which depends entirely on the art and experience of the researcher.
According to Allen Enthoven's definition: “Systems analysis is nothing more than enlightened common sense, at the service of which analytical methods are put in place. We apply a systematic approach to the problem, trying to explore the task facing us as widely as possible, determine its rationality and timeliness, and then provide the decision maker with the information that will best help him choose his preferred path to solving the problem."
The presence of subjective elements (knowledge, experience, intuition, preferences) is associated with objective reasons that arise from the limited ability to apply precise quantitative methods to all aspects of complex problems.
This side of the system analysis methodology is of significant interest.
First of all, the main and most valuable result of system analysis is recognized not as a quantitative solution to the problem, but as an increase in the degree of its understanding and the essence of various solutions. This understanding and various alternatives for solving the problem are developed by specialists and experts and presented to decision-makers for constructive discussion.
System analysis includes the methodology for conducting research, identifying the stages of research and a reasonable choice of methods for performing each of the stages in specific conditions. Particular attention in these works is paid to defining the goals and model of the system and their formalized representation.
Systems research problems can be divided into analysis problems and synthesis problems.
The objectives of the analysis are to study the properties and behavior of systems depending on their structures, parameter values and characteristics of the external environment. The tasks of synthesis are to select the structure and such values of the internal parameters of systems so that, given the characteristics of the external environment and other restrictions, the specified properties of the systems are obtained.

System analysis- a set of methodological tools used to prepare and justify decisions on complex problems of a political, military, social, economic, scientific and technical nature. It relies on a systems approach, as well as a number of mathematical disciplines and modern management methods. The main procedure is the construction of a generalized model that reflects the relationships of the real situation: the technical basis of system analysis is computers and information systems.

Where does the system start?

Need research
Philosophers teach that everything starts with a need.
Needs research is that before developing a new system, it is necessary to establish whether it is needed? At this stage, the following questions are raised and resolved:
o whether the project satisfies a new need;
o Is its effectiveness, cost, quality, etc. satisfactory?
Growing needs determine the production of more and more new technical means. This growth is determined by life, but it is also determined by the need for creativity inherent in man as a rational being.
The field of activity whose task is to study the living conditions of man and society is called futurology. It is difficult to argue against the point of view that the basis of futurological planning should be carefully verified and socially justified needs, both existing and potential.
Needs give meaning to our actions. Failure to satisfy a need causes a state of tension aimed at eliminating the discrepancy.
When creating the technosphere, establishing needs acts as a conceptual task. Establishing a need leads to the formation of a technical problem.
Formation should include a description of the set of conditions necessary and sufficient to satisfy the need.

Clarification of the task (problem)
Seeing that a situation requires research is the first step of the researcher. A problem that has not been solved before, as a rule, cannot be formulated precisely until the answer is found. However, you should always look for at least a tentative formulation of a solution. There is a deep meaning in the thesis that “a well-posed problem is half solved,” and vice versa.
Understanding what the problem is means making significant progress in research. And vice versa - to misunderstand the problem means to direct the research along the wrong path.
This stage of creativity is directly related to the fundamental philosophical concept of purpose, i.e. mental anticipation of the result.
The goal regulates and directs human activity, which consists of the following basic elements: goal determination, forecasting, decision, implementation of action, control of results. Of all these elements (tasks), defining the goal comes first. Formulating a goal is much more difficult than following an accepted goal. The goal is specified and transformed in relation to performers and conditions. The transformation of the goal involves its further definition due to the incompleteness and delay of information and knowledge about the situation. A higher order goal always contains an underlying uncertainty that must be taken into account. Despite this, the goal must be specific and unambiguous. Its staging should allow for the initiative of the performers. "It is much more important to choose the 'right' goal than the 'right' system," pointed out Hall, author of a book on systems engineering; choosing the wrong goal means solving the wrong problem; and choosing the wrong system simply means choosing a suboptimal system.
Achieving goals in complex and conflict situations is difficult. The surest and shortest path is to find a new progressive idea. The fact that new ideas can refute previous experience does not change anything (almost according to R. Ackoff: “When the path forward is forbidden, the best way out is the reverse”).

State of the system.

In general, the values of the system outputs depend on the following factors:
o values (states) of input variables;
o initial state of the system;
o system functions.
This leads to one of the most important tasks of system analysis - establishing cause-and-effect relationships between the system's outputs and its inputs and state.

1. System state and its assessment
The concept of state characterizes an instantaneous “photograph” of a time “slice” of the system. The state of a system at a certain point in time is the set of its essential properties at that point in time. In this case, we can talk about the state of the inputs, internal state and state of the outputs of the system.
The state of the system inputs is represented by a vector of input parameter values:
X = (x1,...,xn) and is actually a reflection of the state of the environment.
The internal state of the system is represented by a vector of values of its internal parameters (state parameters): Z = (z1,...,zv) and depends on the state of the inputs X and the initial state Z0:
Z = F1(X,Z0).

Example. Condition parameters: car engine temperature, psychological state of a person, wear and tear of equipment, skill level of work performers.

The internal state is practically unobservable, but it can be estimated from the state of the outputs (values of the output variables) of the system Y = (y1...ym) thanks to the dependence
Y= F2(Z).
In this case, we should talk about output variables in a broad sense: not only the output variables themselves, but also the characteristics of their change - speed, acceleration, etc. can act as coordinates reflecting the state of the system. Thus, the internal state system S at time t can be characterized by a set of values of its output coordinates and their derivatives at this point in time:
Example. The state of the Russian financial system can be characterized not only by the ruble to dollar exchange rate, but also by the rate of change of this exchange rate, as well as the acceleration (deceleration) of this rate.

However, it should be noted that the output variables do not completely, ambiguously and untimely reflect the state of the system.

Examples.
1. The patient has a high temperature (> 37 °C). but this is characteristic of various internal states.
2. If an enterprise has low profits, then this can happen in different states of the organization.

2. Process
If a system is capable of transitioning from one state to another (for example, S1→S2→S3...), then it is said to have behavior - a process occurs in it.

In the case of a continuous change of states, the process P can be described by a function of time:
P=S(t), and in the discrete case - by a set: P = (St1 St2....),
In relation to the system, two types of processes can be considered:
external process - a sequential change of influences on the system, i.e. a sequential change of environmental states;
internal process - a sequential change in system states, which is observed as a process at the output of the system.
The discrete process itself can be considered as a system consisting of a set of states connected by the sequence of their changes.

3. Static and dynamic systems
Depending on whether the state of the system changes over time, it can be classified as a static or dynamic system.

A static system is a system whose state remains virtually unchanged over a certain period.
A dynamic system is a system that changes its state over time.
So, we will call dynamic systems those systems in which any changes occur over time. There is one more clarifying definition: a system whose transition from one state to another does not occur instantly, but as a result of some process, is called dynamic.

Examples.
1. Panel house - a system of many interconnected panels - a static system.
2. The economy of any enterprise is a dynamic system.
3. In what follows, we will be interested only in dynamic systems.

4. System function
The properties of the system are manifested not only by the values of the output variables, but also by its function, therefore, determining the functions of the system is one of the first tasks of its analysis or design
The concept of “function” has different definitions: from general philosophical to mathematical.

Function as a general philosophical concept. The general concept of function includes the concepts of “purpose” (purpose) and “ability” (to serve some purpose).
Function is the external manifestation of the properties of an object.

Examples.
1. The door handle has a function to help open it.
2. The tax office has the function of collecting taxes.
3 The function of an information system is to provide information to the decision maker.
4. The function of the painting in the famous cartoon is to cover a hole in the wall.
5. The function of the wind is to disperse smog in the city.
The system can be single- or multifunctional. Depending on the degree of impact on the external environment and the nature of interaction with other systems, functions can be distributed in increasing ranks:

o passive existence, material for other systems (footrest);
o maintenance of a higher order system (switch in the computer);
o opposition to other systems, environment (survival, security system, defense system);
o absorption (expansion) of other systems and the environment (destruction of plant pests, drainage of swamps);
o transformation of other systems and environments (computer virus, penitentiary system).

Function in mathematics. A function is one of the basic concepts of mathematics, expressing the dependence of some variables on others. Formally, a function can be defined as follows: An element of a set Ey of arbitrary nature is called a function of an element x defined on a set Ex of arbitrary nature if each element x from the set Ex corresponds to a single element y? Ey. The element x is called the independent variable, or argument. The function can be specified by: an analytical expression, a verbal definition, a table, a graph, etc.

Function as a cybernetic concept. The philosophical definition answers the question: “What can a system do?” This question is valid for both static and dynamic systems. However, for dynamic systems, the answer to the question: “How does it do this?” is important. In this case, speaking about the function of the system, we will mean the following:

The function of the system is a method (rule, algorithm) of converting input information into output.

The function of a dynamic system can be represented by a logical-mathematical model connecting the input (X) and output (Y) coordinates of the system - the “input-output” model:
Y = F(X),
where F is an operator (in a particular case, a certain formula), called a functioning algorithm, - the entire set of mathematical and logical actions that need to be performed in order to find the corresponding outputs Y from given inputs X.

It would be convenient to represent the operator F in the form of some mathematical relations, but this is not always possible.
The concept of a “black box” is widely used in cybernetics. A “black box” is a cybernetic model or an “input-output” model in which the internal structure of an object is not considered (either absolutely nothing is known about it, or such an assumption is made). In this case, the properties of an object are judged only on the basis of an analysis of its inputs and outputs. (Sometimes the term “gray box” is used when something is still known about the internal structure of an object.) The task of system analysis is precisely to “lighten” the “box” - transform black into gray, and gray into white.
Conventionally, we can assume that the function F consists of the structure St and parameters :
F=(St,A),
which to some extent reflects, respectively, the structure of the system (composition and interconnection of elements) and its internal parameters (properties of elements and connections).

5. System operation
Functioning is considered as the process of the system realizing its functions. From a cybernetic point of view:
The functioning of the system is the process of processing input information into output.
Mathematically, the operation can be written as follows:
Y(t) = F(X(t)).
Operation describes how the state of a system changes when the state of its inputs changes.

6. System function status
The function of a system is its property, so we can talk about the state of the system at a given point in time, indicating its function, which is valid at that point in time. Thus, the state of the system can be considered in two aspects: the state of its parameters and the state of its function, which, in turn, depends on the state of the structure and parameters:

Knowing the state of a system function allows one to predict the values of its output variables. This is successful for stationary systems.
A system is considered stationary if its function remains virtually unchanged during a certain period of its existence.

For such a system, the response to the same impact does not depend on the moment of application of this impact.
The situation becomes significantly more complicated if the system function changes over time, which is typical for non-stationary systems.
A system is considered non-stationary if its function changes over time.

The nonstationarity of the system is manifested by its different reactions to the same disturbances applied in different periods of time. The reasons for the non-stationary nature of the system lie within it and consist in changes in the function of the system: structure (St) and/or parameters (A).

Sometimes the stationarity of a system is considered in a narrow sense, when attention is paid to changes only in internal parameters (system function coefficients).

A system is called stationary if all its internal parameters do not change over time.
A non-stationary system is a system with variable internal parameters.
Example. Let's consider the dependence of profit from the sale of a certain product (P) on its price (P).
Let this dependence be expressed today by a mathematical model:
P=-50+30C-3C 2
If after some time the market situation changes, then our dependence will also change - for example, it will become like this:
P=-62 + 24C -4C 2

7. Dynamic system modes
It is necessary to distinguish three characteristic modes in which a dynamic system can be: equilibrium, transition and periodic.

Equilibrium mode (equilibrium state, state of equilibrium) is a state of the system in which it can remain for as long as desired in the absence of external disturbing influences or under constant influences. However, one must understand that for economic and organizational systems the concept of “equilibrium” is applied rather conditionally.
Example. The simplest example of equilibrium is a ball lying on a plane.
By transition mode (process) we mean the process of movement of a dynamic system from some initial state to some of its steady state - equilibrium or periodic.
A periodic regime is a regime in which the system reaches the same states at regular intervals.

State space.

Since the properties of the system are expressed by the values of its outputs, the state of the system can be defined as a vector of values of output variables Y = (y 1 ,..,y m). It was said above (see question No. 11) that among the components of the vector Y, in addition to the direct output variables, arbitrary ones appear from them.
The behavior of a system (its process) can be depicted in different ways. For example, with m output variables there may be the following forms of process image:
o in the form of a table of values of output variables for discrete times t 1 ,t 2 …t k ;
o in the form of m graphs in coordinates y i - t, i = 1,...,m;
o in the form of a graph in an m-dimensional coordinate system.
Let's focus on the last case. In an m-dimensional coordinate system, each point corresponds to a certain state of the system.
The set of possible states of the system Y (y ∈ Y) is considered as the state space (or phase space) of the system, and the coordinates of this space are called phase coordinates.
In phase space, each of its elements completely determines the state of the system.
The point corresponding to the current state of the system is called the phase, or representing, point.
The phase trajectory is the curve that the phase point describes when the state of the unperturbed system changes (with constant external influences).
The set of phase trajectories corresponding to all possible initial conditions is called a phase portrait.
The phase portrait records only the direction of the velocity of the phase point and, therefore, reflects only a qualitative picture of the dynamics.

It is possible to construct and visually represent a phase portrait only on a plane, i.e., when the phase space is two-dimensional. Therefore, the phase space method, which in the case of two-dimensional phase space is called the phase plane method, is effectively used to study second-order systems.
The phase plane is a coordinate plane in which any two variables (phase coordinates) that uniquely determine the state of the system are plotted along the coordinate axes.
Fixed (special or stationary) are points whose position in the phase portrait will not change over time. Singular points reflect positions of equilibrium.

Systems approach- direction of the methodology of scientific knowledge, which is based on the consideration of an object as a system: an integral complex of interconnected elements (I. V. Blauberg, V. N. Sadovsky, E. G. Yudin); sets of interacting objects (L. von Bertalanffy); sets of entities and relationships (Hall A.D., Fagin R.I., late Bertalanffy)

Speaking about a systems approach, we can talk about a certain way of organizing our actions, one that covers any type of activity, identifying patterns and relationships in order to use them more effectively. At the same time, the systems approach is not so much a method of solving problems as a method of setting problems. As they say, “A question asked correctly is half the answer.” This is a qualitatively higher way of cognition than just an objective one.

Basic principles of the systems approach

Integrity, which allows us to simultaneously consider the system as a single whole and at the same time as a subsystem for higher levels.

Hierarchical structure, that is, the presence of a set (at least two) elements arranged on the basis of the subordination of lower-level elements to higher-level elements. The implementation of this principle is clearly visible in the example of any specific organization. As you know, any organization is an interaction of two subsystems: the managing and the managed. One is subordinate to the other.

Structuring, allowing you to analyze the elements of the system and their relationships within a specific organizational structure. As a rule, the process of functioning of a system is determined not so much by the properties of its individual elements as by the properties of the structure itself.

Plurality, which allows the use of many cybernetic, economic and mathematical models to describe individual elements and the system as a whole.

Systematicity, the property of an object to have all the characteristics of a system.

Features of the systems approach

Systems approach- this is an approach in which any system (object) is considered as a set of interconnected elements (components), having an output (goal), input (resources), connection with the external environment, feedback. This is the most complex approach. The systems approach is a form of application of the theory of knowledge and dialectics to the study of processes occurring in nature, society, and thinking. Its essence lies in the implementation of the requirements of the general theories systems, according to which each object in the process of its research should be considered as a large and complex system and at the same time as an element of a more general system.

A detailed definition of a systems approach also includes the mandatory study and practical use of the following its eight aspects:

- system-element or system-complex which consists in identifying the elements that make up a given system. In all social systems one can find material components (means of production and consumer goods), processes (economic, social, political, spiritual, etc.) and ideas, scientifically-conscious interests of people and their communities;

- systemic-structural which consists in clarifying the internal connections and dependencies between the elements of a given system and allowing one to get an idea of the internal organization (structure) of the system under study;

- system-functional, which involves identifying the functions for which the corresponding systems have been created and exist;

system-target, meaning the need for scientific determination of the goals and subgoals of the system, their mutual coordination with each other;

- system-resource, which consists in carefully identifying the resources required for the functioning of the system, for the system to solve a particular problem;

- system-integration, which consists in determining the totality of qualitative properties of the system, ensuring its integrity and distinctiveness;

- system-communication, meaning the need to identify external connections of a given system with others, that is, its connections with the environment;

- systemic-historical, which makes it possible to find out the conditions during the emergence of the system under study, the stages it has passed through, the current state, as well as possible prospects for development.

Almost all modern sciences are built on a systemic principle. An important aspect of the systematic approach is the development of a new principle for its use - the creation of a new, unified and more optimal approach (general methodology) to cognition, for applying it to any cognizable material, with the guaranteed goal of obtaining the most complete and holistic understanding of this material.

A significant place in modern science is occupied by a systematic method of research or (as is often said) a systems approach.

Systems approach- a direction of research methodology, which is based on considering an object as an integral set of elements in a set of relationships and connections between them, that is, considering an object as a system.

Basic concepts of the systems approach: “system”, “element”, “composition”, “structure”, “functions”, “functioning” and “goal”. Let's expand on them to fully understand the systems approach.

System - an object whose functioning, necessary and sufficient to achieve its goal, is ensured (under certain environmental conditions) by a set of its constituent elements that are in appropriate relationships with each other.

Element - an internal source unit, a functional part of the system, the own structure of which is not considered, but only its properties necessary for the construction and operation of the system are taken into account. The “elementary” nature of an element lies in the fact that it is the limit of division of a given system, since its internal structure in a given system is ignored, and it appears in it as a phenomenon that in philosophy is characterized as simple. Although in hierarchical systems an element can also be considered as a system. What distinguishes an element from a part is that the word “part” only indicates the internal belonging of something to an object, while “element” always denotes a functional unit. Every element is a part, but not every part - element.

Compound - a complete (necessary and sufficient) set of elements of the system, taken outside its structure, that is, a set of elements.

Structure - relationships between elements in a system that are necessary and sufficient for the system to achieve its goal.

Functions - ways to achieve a goal based on the appropriate properties of the system.

Operation - the process of realizing the appropriate properties of the system, ensuring it achieves its goal.

Target is what the system must achieve based on its functioning. The goal may be a certain state of the system or another product of its functioning. The importance of the goal as a system-forming factor has already been noted. Let us emphasize it again: an object acts as a system only in relation to its goal. The goal, requiring certain functions for its achievement, determines through them the composition and structure of the system. For example, is a pile of building materials a system? Any absolute answer would be wrong. Regarding the purpose of housing - no. But as a barricade, a shelter, probably yes. A pile of building materials cannot be used as a house, even if all the necessary elements are present, for the reason that there are no necessary spatial relationships, that is, structures, between the elements. And without structure, they represent only a composition - a set of necessary elements.

The focus of the systems approach is not on studying the elements as such, but primarily on the structure of the object and the place of the elements in it. In general main points of the systems approach the following:

1. Study of the phenomenon of integrity and establishment of the composition of the whole and its elements.

2. Study of the patterns of connecting elements into a system, i.e. structure of the object, which forms the core of the systems approach.

3. In close connection with the study of structure, it is necessary to study the functions of the system and its components, i.e. structural and functional analysis of the system.

4. Study of the genesis of the system, its boundaries and connections with other systems.

Methods for constructing and justifying theories occupy a special place in the methodology of science. Among them, explanation occupies an important place - the use of more specific, in particular, empirical knowledge to understand more general knowledge. The explanation could be:

a) structural, for example, how the motor is designed;

b) functional: how the motor operates;

c) causal: why and how it works.

When constructing a theory of complex objects, the method of ascent from the abstract to the concrete plays an important role.

At the initial stage, cognition moves from the real, objective, concrete to the development of abstractions that reflect individual aspects of the object being studied. By dissecting an object, thinking, as it were, kills it, imagining the object dismembered, dismembered by the scalpel of thought.

A systems approach is an approach in which any system (object) is considered as a set of interconnected elements (components) that has an output (goal), input (resources), communication with the external environment, and feedback. This is the most complex approach. The systems approach is a form of application of the theory of knowledge and dialectics to the study of processes occurring in nature, society, and thinking. Its essence lies in the implementation of the requirements of the general theory of systems, according to which each object in the process of its study should be considered as a large and complex system and, at the same time, as an element of a more general system.

A detailed definition of a systems approach also includes the mandatory study and practical use of the following its eight aspects:

1. system-element or system-complex, consisting in identifying the elements that make up a given system. In all social systems one can find material components (means of production and consumer goods), processes (economic, social, political, spiritual, etc.) and ideas, scientifically-conscious interests of people and their communities;

2. system-structural, which consists in clarifying the internal connections and dependencies between the elements of a given system and allowing one to get an idea of the internal organization (structure) of the object under study;

3. system-functional, which involves identifying the functions for which the corresponding objects were created and exist;

4. system-targeted, meaning the need to scientifically determine the goals of the research and their mutual coordination;

5. system-resource, which consists in carefully identifying the resources required to solve a particular problem;

6. system-integration, consisting in determining the totality of qualitative properties of the system, ensuring its integrity and peculiarity;

7. system-communication, meaning the need to identify the external connections of a given object with others, that is, its connections with the environment;

8. systemic-historical, which makes it possible to find out the conditions in time for the emergence of the object under study, the stages it has passed through, the current state, as well as possible prospects for development.

Basic assumptions of the systems approach:

1. There are systems in the world

2. System description is true

3. Systems interact with each other, and, therefore, everything in this world is interconnected

Basic principles of the systems approach:

Integrity, which allows us to simultaneously consider the system as a single whole and at the same time as a subsystem for higher levels.

Hierarchical structure, i.e. the presence of many (at least two) elements located on the basis of the subordination of lower-level elements to higher-level elements. The implementation of this principle is clearly visible in the example of any specific organization. As you know, any organization is an interaction of two subsystems: the managing and the managed. One is subordinate to the other.

Structuring, allowing you to analyze the elements of the system and their relationships within a specific organizational structure. As a rule, the process of functioning of a system is determined not so much by the properties of its individual elements as by the properties of the structure itself.

Plurality, which allows the use of many cybernetic, economic and mathematical models to describe individual elements and the system as a whole.

Levels of a systematic approach:

There are several types of systems approach: complex, structural, holistic. It is necessary to separate these concepts.

An integrated approach presupposes the presence of a set of object components or applied research methods. In this case, neither the relationships between the components, nor the completeness of their composition, nor the relationship of the components with the whole are taken into account.

The structural approach involves studying the composition (subsystems) and structures of an object. With this approach, there is still no correlation between subsystems (parts) and the system (whole). Decomposition of systems into subsystems is not carried out in the only way.

In a holistic approach, relationships are studied not only between the parts of an object, but also between the parts and the whole.

From the word “system” you can form others - “systemic”, “systematize”, “systematic”. In a narrow sense, a systems approach refers to the application of systems methods to study real physical, biological, social and other systems. The systems approach in a broad sense also includes the use of system methods to solve problems of systematics, planning and organizing a complex and systematic experiment.

A systematic approach contributes to the adequate formulation of problems in specific sciences and the development of an effective strategy for their study. The methodology and specificity of the systems approach is determined by the fact that it focuses the research on revealing the integrity of the object and the mechanisms that provide it, identifying the diverse types of connections of a complex object and bringing them together into a single theoretical picture.

The 1970s saw a boom in the use of the systems approach throughout the world. The systems approach was applied in all spheres of human existence. However, practice has shown that in systems with high entropy (uncertainty), which is largely due to “non-system factors” (human influence), a systematic approach may not give the expected effect. The last remark indicates that “the world is not as systemic” as the founders of the systems approach imagined it.

Professor Prigozhin A.I. This is how the limitations of the systems approach are defined:

1. Consistency means certainty. But the world is uncertain. Uncertainty is essentially present in the reality of human relationships, goals, information, and situations. It cannot be completely overcome, and sometimes it fundamentally dominates certainty. The market environment is very mobile, unstable and only to some extent modelable, knowable and controllable. The same is true for the behavior of organizations and employees.

2. Systematicity means consistency, but, say, value orientations in an organization and even in one of its participants are sometimes contradictory to the point of incompatibility and do not form any system. Of course, various motivations introduce some consistency into work behavior, but always only partly. We often find this in the totality of management decisions, and even in management groups and teams.

3. Systematicity means integrity, but, say, the client base of wholesale, retail firms, banks, etc. does not form any integrity, since it cannot always be integrated and each client has several suppliers and can change them endlessly. Information flows in the organization also lack integrity. Isn’t that the case with the organization’s resources?”

35. Nature and society. Natural and artificial. The concept of "noosphere"

Nature in philosophy is understood as everything that exists, the whole world, subject to study by the methods of natural science. Society is a special part of nature, identified as a form and product of human activity. The relationship between society and nature is understood as the relationship between the system of human society and the habitat of human civilization.

General characteristics of the systems approach

The concept of a systems approach, its principles and methodology

System analysis is the most constructive direction used for practical applications of systems theory to control problems. The constructiveness of system analysis is due to the fact that it offers a methodology for carrying out work that allows us not to lose from consideration the essential factors that determine the construction of effective management systems in specific conditions.

Principles are understood as basic, initial provisions, some general rules of cognitive activity, which indicate the direction of scientific knowledge, but do not provide an indication of a specific truth. These are developed and historically generalized requirements for the cognitive process, fulfilling the most important regulatory roles in cognition. Justification of principles is the initial stage of constructing a methodological concept

The most important principles of system analysis include the principles of elementarism, universal connection, development, integrity, systematicity, optimality, hierarchy, formalization, normativity and goal-setting. System analysis is represented as an integral of these principles.

Methodological approaches in systems analysis combine a set of techniques and methods for implementing system activities that have developed in the practice of analytical activities. The most important among them are systemic, structural-functional, constructive, complex, situational, innovative, target, activity-based, morphological and program-targeted approaches.

The most important, if not the main part of the system analysis methodology are methods. Their arsenal is quite large. The authors' approaches to identifying them are also varied. But methods of system analysis have not yet received a sufficiently convincing classification in science.

Systematic approach to management

2.1 The concept of a systems approach to management and its significance

A systematic approach to management considers an organization as an integral set of various types of activities and elements that are in contradictory unity and in relationship with the external environment, involves taking into account the influence of all factors affecting it, and focuses on the relationships between its elements.

Management actions do not just functionally flow from each other, they have an impact on each other. Therefore, if changes occur in one part of the organization, they inevitably cause changes in the rest, and ultimately the organization (system) as a whole.

So, the systems approach to management is based on the fact that every organization is a system consisting of parts, each of which has its own goals. The leader must proceed from the fact that in order to achieve the overall goals of the organization, it is necessary to consider it as a single system. At the same time, it is necessary to strive to identify and evaluate the interaction of all its parts and combine them on a basis that will allow the organization as a whole to effectively achieve its goals. The value of a systems approach is that it allows managers to more easily align their specific work with the work of the organization as a whole if they understand the system and their role within it. This is especially important for the CEO because the systems approach encourages him to maintain the necessary balance between the needs of individual departments and the goals of the entire organization. The systems approach forces him to think about the flow of information passing through the entire system, and also emphasizes the importance of communications.

A modern leader must have systems thinking. Systems thinking not only contributes to the development of new ideas about the organization (in particular, special attention is paid to the integrated nature of the enterprise, as well as the paramount importance and importance of information systems), but also ensures the development of useful mathematical tools and techniques that greatly facilitate the adoption of management decisions and the use of more advanced planning and control systems.

Thus, the systems approach allows for a comprehensive assessment of any production and economic activity and the activity of the management system at the level of specific characteristics. It helps to analyze any situation within a single system, identifying the nature of the input, process and output problems. The use of a systematic approach allows you to best organize the decision-making process at all levels of the management system.

2.2 System structure with control

A controlled system includes three subsystems (Fig. 2.1): a control system, a control object and a communication system. Systems with control, or purposeful ones, are called cybernetic. These include technical, biological, organizational, social, and economic systems. The control system together with the communication system forms a control system.

The main element of organizational and technical management systems is the decision maker (DM) - an individual or group of individuals who has the right to make final decisions on the choice of one of several control actions.

Rice. 2.1. Controlled system

The main groups of control system (CS) functions are:

· decision-making functions - content transformation functions;

· information ;

· routine information processing functions ;

· information exchange functions.

Decision-making functions are expressed in the creation of new information during analysis, planning (forecasting) and operational management (regulation, coordination of actions).

Functions cover accounting, control, storage, search,

display, replication, transformation of the form of information, etc. This group of information transformation functions does not change its meaning, i.e. These are routine functions not related to meaningful information processing.

The group of functions is associated with bringing the generated impacts to the control object (OU) and the exchange of information between decision makers (access restriction, receipt (collection), transmission of control information in text, graphic, tabular and other forms by telephone, data transmission systems, etc. .).

2.3 Ways to improve control systems

Improving control systems comes down to reducing the duration of the control cycle and improving the quality of control actions (decisions). These requirements are contradictory. For a given control system performance, reducing the duration of the control cycle leads to the need to reduce the amount of processed information, and, consequently, to a decrease in the quality of decisions.

Simultaneous satisfaction of requirements is possible only on the condition that the performance of the control system (CS) and the communication system (CS) for transmitting and processing information will be increased, and the productivity will increase

both elements must be consistent. This is the starting point for resolving issues to improve management.

The main ways to improve control systems are as follows.

1. Optimization of the number of management personnel.

2. Use of new ways of organizing the work of the control system.

3. Application of new methods for solving management problems.

4. Changing the structure of the management system.

5. Redistribution of functions and tasks in the management system.

6. Mechanization of managerial work.

7. Automation.

Let's look briefly at each of these paths:

1. The control system is, first of all, people. The most natural way to increase productivity is to intelligently increase the number of people.

2. The organization of work of management personnel must be constantly improved.

3. The path to applying new methods for solving management problems is somewhat one-sided, since in most cases it is aimed at obtaining better solutions and requires more time.

4. When the OS becomes more complex, as a rule, the simple structure of the OS is replaced with a more complex one, most often of a hierarchical type; when the OS is simplified, the opposite is true. The introduction of feedback into the system is also considered a change in structure. As a result of the transition to a more complex structure, management functions are distributed among a larger number of elements of the control system and the performance of the control system increases.

5. If subordinate management bodies can independently solve only a very limited range of tasks, then, consequently, the central management body will be overloaded, and vice versa. An optimal compromise between centralization and decentralization is necessary. It is impossible to solve this problem once and for all, since the functions and management tasks in systems are constantly changing.

6. Since information always requires a certain material medium on which it is recorded, stored and transmitted, physical actions are obviously necessary to ensure the information process in the control system. The use of various means of mechanization can significantly increase the efficiency of this aspect of management. Mechanization means include means for performing computational work, transmitting signals and commands, documenting information and reproducing documents. In particular, the use of a personal computer as a typewriter refers to mechanization, not automation.

management.

7. The essence of automation is to use

Computer to enhance the intellectual capabilities of decision makers.

All the previously discussed paths lead in one way or another to increasing the productivity of the CS and SS, but, fundamentally, do not increase the productivity of mental work. This is their limitation.

2.4 Rules for applying a systematic approach to management

The systematic approach to management is based on in-depth research into the causal relationships and patterns of development of socio-economic processes. And since there are connections and patterns, that means there are certain rules. Let's consider the basic rules for using systems in management.

Rule 1. It is not the components themselves that constitute the essence of the whole (system), but on the contrary, the whole as a primary one gives rise to the components of the system during its division or formation - this is the basic principle of the system.

Example. A company as a complex open socio-economic system is a collection of interconnected departments and production units. First, you should consider the company as a whole, its properties and connections with the external environment, and only then - the components of the company. The company as a whole exists not because, say, a patternmaker works in it, but, on the contrary, a patternmaker works because the company functions. In small, simple systems there may be exceptions: the system functions due to an exceptional component.

Rule 2. The number of system components that determine its size should be minimal, but sufficient to achieve the goals of the system. The structure of, for example, a production system is a combination of organizational and production structures.

Rule 3. The structure of the system must be flexible, with the least number of rigid connections, capable of quickly being reconfigured to perform new tasks, provide new services, etc. System mobility is one of the conditions for its rapid adaptation (adaptation) to market requirements.

Rule 4. The structure of the system should be such that changes in the connections of system components have minimal impact on the functioning of the system. To do this, it is necessary to justify the level of delegation of powers by management subjects, to ensure optimal autonomy and independence of management objects in socio-economic and production systems.

Rule 5. In the context of the development of global competition and international integration, one should strive to increase the degree of openness of the system, provided that its economic, technical, information, and legal security is ensured.

Rule 6. To increase the validity of investments in innovative and other projects, it is necessary to study the dominant (predominant, strongest) and recessive characteristics of the system and invest in the development of the first, most effective ones.

Rule 7. When forming the mission and goals of the system, priority should be given to the interests of the higher-level system as a guarantee of solving global problems.

Rule 8. Of all the indicators of system quality, priority should be given to their reliability as a set of manifested properties of failure-free operation, durability, maintainability and storability.

Rule 9. The effectiveness and prospects of the system are achieved by optimizing its goals, structure, management system and other parameters. Therefore, the strategy for the operation and development of the system should be formed on the basis of optimization models.

Rule 10. When formulating the goals of the system, the uncertainty of information support should be taken into account. The probabilistic nature of situations and information at the stage of forecasting goals reduces the real effectiveness of innovation.

Rule 11. When formulating a system strategy, it should be remembered that the goals of the system and its components in semantic and quantitative terms, as a rule, do not coincide. However, all components must perform a specific task to achieve the goal of the system. If without any component it is possible to achieve the goal of the system, then this component is redundant, contrived, or the result of poor-quality structuring of the system. This is a manifestation of the emergence property of the system.

Rule 12. When constructing the structure of the system and organizing its functioning, it should be taken into account that almost all processes are continuous and interdependent. The system operates and develops on the basis of contradictions, competition, diversity of forms of functioning and development, and the system’s ability to learn. The system exists as long as it functions.

Rule 13. When forming a system strategy, it is necessary to ensure alternative ways of its functioning and development based on forecasting various situations. The most unpredictable parts of the strategy should be planned using several options that take into account different situations.

Rule 14. When organizing the functioning of the system, it should be taken into account that its effectiveness is not equal to the sum of the operating efficiencies of the subsystems (components). When the components interact, a positive (additional) or negative synergy effect occurs. To obtain a positive synergy effect, it is necessary to have a high level of organization (low entropy) of the system.

Rule 15. In conditions of rapidly changing environmental parameters, the system must be able to quickly adapt to these changes. The most important tools for increasing the adaptability of the functioning of a system (company) are strategic market segmentation and the design of goods and technologies on the principles of standardization and aggregation.

Rule 16. The only way to develop organizational, economic and production systems is innovation. The introduction of innovations (in the form of patents, know-how, R&D results, etc.) in the field of new products, technologies, production methods, management, etc. serves as a factor in the development of society.

3. An example of the application of system analysis in management

The manager of a large office building was receiving an increasing stream of complaints from employees who worked in the building. Complaints stated that the wait for the elevator was too long. The manager turned to a company specializing in lifting systems for help. The engineers of this company carried out timing tests that showed that the complaints were well founded. It was found that the average waiting time for an elevator exceeds accepted standards. The experts told the manager that there were three possible ways to solve the problem: increasing the number of elevators, replacing existing elevators with high-speed ones, and introducing a special operating mode for elevators, i.e. transfer of each elevator to serve only certain floors. The manager asked the firm to evaluate all of these alternatives and provide him with estimates of the expected costs of implementing each option.

After some time, the company complied with this request. It turned out that the first two options required costs that, from the manager's point of view, were not justified by the income generated by the building, and the third option, as it turned out, did not provide a sufficient reduction in waiting time. The manager was not satisfied with any of these proposals. He postponed further negotiations with this company for some time to consider all the options and make a decision.

When a manager is faced with a problem that seems insoluble to him, he often finds it necessary to discuss it with some of his subordinates. The group of employees our manager approached included a young psychologist who worked in the hiring department that maintained and repaired this large building. When the manager outlined the essence of the problem to the assembled employees, this young man was very surprised by its very formulation. He said he couldn't understand why employees, who were known to waste a lot of time every day, were unhappy about having to wait minutes for an elevator. Before he had time to express his doubt, the thought flashed through his mind that he had found an explanation. Although employees often waste their working hours uselessly, at this time they are busy with something, although unproductive, but enjoyable. But while waiting for the elevator, they are simply languishing from idleness. At this guess, the young psychologist's face lit up, and he blurted out his proposal. The manager accepted it, and a few days later the problem was solved at the most minimal cost. The psychologist suggested hanging large mirrors on each floor near the elevator. These mirrors, naturally, gave something to do to the women waiting for the elevator, but the men, who were now engrossed in looking at the women, pretending not to pay any attention to them, also stopped getting bored.

No matter how reliable this story is, the point it illustrates is extremely important. The psychologist was looking at exactly the same problem as the engineers, but he approached it from a different perspective, determined by his education and interests. In this case, the psychologist’s approach turned out to be the most effective. Obviously, the problem was solved by changing the set goal, which was not reduced to reducing the waiting time, but to creating the impression that it had become shorter.

Thus, we need to simplify systems, operations, decision-making procedures, etc. But this simplicity is not so easy to achieve. This is a most difficult task. The old saying, “I am writing you a long letter because I don’t have time to make it short,” can be paraphrased: “I am making it complicated because I don’t know how to make it simple.”

CONCLUSION

The systems approach, its main features, as well as its main features in relation to management are briefly discussed.

The work describes the structure, ways of improvement, rules for applying the systems approach and some other aspects encountered in the management of systems, organizations, enterprises, and the creation of management systems for various purposes.

The application of systems theory to management allows the manager to “see” the organization in the unity of its constituent parts, which are inextricably intertwined with the outside world.

The value of a systems approach to managing any organization includes two aspects of a manager’s work. Firstly, this is the desire to achieve the overall efficiency of the entire organization and to prevent the private interests of any one element of the organization from harming the overall success. Secondly, the need to achieve this in an organizational environment that always creates conflicting goals.

Expanding the use of a systems approach in making management decisions will help improve the efficiency of the functioning of all kinds of economic and social objects.

The essence of the systems approach as the basis of systems analysis

Research is carried out in accordance with the chosen purpose and in a certain sequence. Research is an integral part of an organization's management and is aimed at improving the basic characteristics of the management process. When conducting research on control systems object research is the management system itself, which is characterized by certain characteristics and is subject to a number of requirements.

The effectiveness of control systems research is largely determined by the research methods chosen and used. Research methods represent methods and techniques for conducting research. Their competent use contributes to obtaining reliable and complete results from the study of problems that have arisen in the organization. The choice of research methods, the integration of various methods when conducting research is determined by the knowledge, experience and intuition of the specialists conducting the research.

To identify the specifics of the work of organizations and develop measures to improve production and economic activities, it is used system analysis. The main goal system analysis is the development and implementation of a control system that is selected as a reference system that best meets all the stated optimality requirements.

To comprehend the laws governing human activity, it is important to learn to understand how in each specific case the general context of perception of the next tasks is formed, how to bring into the system (hence the name “system analysis”) initially scattered and redundant information about a problem situation, how to coordinate and to derive one from another ideas and goals of different levels related to a single activity.

Here lies a fundamental problem that affects almost the very foundations of the organization of any human activity. The same task in different contexts, at different levels of decision-making, requires completely different methods of organization and different knowledge.

The systems approach is one of the most important methodological principles of modern science and practice. System analysis methods are widely used to solve many theoretical and applied problems.

SYSTEM APPROACH is a methodological direction in science, the main task of which is to develop methods for research and design of complex objects - systems of different types and classes. The systems approach represents a certain stage in the development of methods of cognition, methods of research and design activities, methods of describing and explaining the nature of analyzed or artificially created objects.

Currently, the systems approach is increasingly being used in management, and experience is accumulating in constructing system descriptions of research objects. The need for a systems approach is due to the enlargement and complexity of the systems being studied, the need to manage large systems and integrate knowledge.

"System" is a Greek word (systema), literally meaning a whole made up of parts; a set of elements that are in relationships and connections with each other and form a certain integrity, unity.

From the word “system” you can form other words: “systemic”, “systematize”, “systematic”. In a narrow sense, a systems approach will be understood as the use of systems methods to study real physical, biological, social and other systems.

The systems approach is applied to sets of objects, individual objects and their components, as well as to the properties and integral characteristics of objects.

A systems approach is not an end in itself. In each specific case, its use should give a real, quite tangible effect. A systematic approach allows us to identify gaps in knowledge about a given object, detect their incompleteness, determine the tasks of scientific research, and in some cases - through interpolation and extrapolation - predict the properties of the missing parts of the description.

Exists several types of systems approach: complex, structural, holistic.

It is necessary to determine the scope of these concepts.

A complex approach suggests the presence of a set of object components or applied research methods. In this case, neither the relationships between objects, nor the completeness of their composition, nor the relationships of the components as a whole are taken into account. Mainly static problems are solved: quantitative ratio of components and the like.

Structural approach offers the study of the composition (subsystems) and structures of an object. With this approach, there is still no correlation between subsystems (parts) and the system (whole). The decomposition of systems into subsystems is not carried out in a uniform way. The dynamics of structures, as a rule, are not considered.

At holistic approach relationships are studied not only between the parts of an object, but also between the parts and the whole. The decomposition of the whole into parts is unique. So, for example, it is customary to say that “the whole is something from which nothing can be taken away and to which nothing can be added.” The holistic approach offers the study of the composition (subsystems) and structures of an object not only in statics, but also in dynamics, i.e. it offers the study of the behavior and evolution of systems. The holistic approach is not applicable to all systems (objects). but only to those that are characterized by a high degree of functional independence. To the number the most important tasks of the systems approach relate:

1) development of means of representing researched and constructed objects as systems;

2) construction of generalized models of the system, models of different classes and specific properties of systems;

3) study of the structure of systems theories and various system concepts and developments.

In systems research, the analyzed object is considered as a certain set of elements, the interconnection of which determines the integral properties of this set. The main emphasis is on identifying the variety of connections and relationships that take place both within the object under study and in its relationships with the external environment. The properties of an object as an integral system are determined not only and not so much by the summation of the properties of its individual elements, but by the properties of its structure, special system-forming, integrative connections of the object under consideration. To understand the behavior of systems, primarily goal-oriented, it is necessary to identify the control processes implemented by a given system - forms of information transfer from one subsystem to another and ways of influencing some parts of the system on others, coordination of the lower levels of the system by elements of its higher level, control, influence on the latter all other subsystems. Significant importance in the systems approach is given to identifying the probabilistic nature of the behavior of the objects under study. An important feature of the systems approach is that not only the object, but also the research process itself acts as a complex system, the task of which, in particular, is to combine various models of the object into a single whole. Finally, system objects, as a rule, are not indifferent to the process of their research and in many cases can have a significant impact on it.

The main principles of the systems approach are:

1. Integrity, which allows us to simultaneously consider the system as a single whole and at the same time as a subsystem for higher levels.

2. Hierarchical structure, i.e. the presence of a plurality (at least two) of elements located on the basis of the subordination of lower-level elements to higher-level elements. The implementation of this principle is clearly visible in the example of any specific organization. As you know, any organization is an interaction of two subsystems: the managing and the managed. One is subordinate to the other.

3. Structuring, which allows you to analyze the elements of the system and their relationships within a specific organizational structure. As a rule, the process of functioning of a system is determined not so much by the properties of its individual elements as by the properties of the structure itself.

4. Multiplicity, which allows the use of many cybernetic, economic and mathematical models to describe individual elements and the system as a whole.

As noted above, with a systems approach, the study of the characteristics of an organization as a system becomes important, i.e. characteristics of "input", "process" and characteristics of "output".

In a systematic approach based on marketing research, the “output” parameters are first examined, i.e. goods or services, namely what to produce, with what quality indicators, at what costs, for whom, in what time frame to sell and at what price. Answers to these questions must be clear and timely. The “output” should ultimately be competitive products or services. Then the input parameters are determined, i.e. the need for resources (material, financial, labor and information) is examined, which is determined after a detailed study of the organizational and technical level of the system under consideration (level of equipment, technology, features of the organization of production, labor and management) and parameters of the external environment (economic, geopolitical, social, environmental and etc.).

And finally, no less important is the study of the parameters of the process that converts resources into finished products. At this stage, depending on the object of study, production technology or management technology, as well as factors and ways of improving it, are considered.

Thus, the systems approach allows us to comprehensively assess any production and economic activity and the activity of the management system at the level of specific characteristics. This will help analyze any situation within a single system, identifying the nature of the input, process and output problems.

The use of a systems approach allows us to best organize the decision-making process at all levels in the management system. An integrated approach involves taking into account both the internal and external environment of the organization when analyzing. This means that it is necessary to take into account not only internal, but also external factors - economic, geopolitical, social, demographic, environmental, etc.

Factors are important aspects when analyzing organizations and, unfortunately, are not always taken into account. For example, social issues are often not taken into account or postponed when designing new organizations. When introducing new technology, ergonomic indicators are not always taken into account, which leads to increased fatigue of workers and, ultimately, to a decrease in labor productivity. When forming new work teams, socio-psychological aspects, in particular, problems of labor motivation, are not properly taken into account. Summarizing what has been said, it can be argued that an integrated approach is a necessary condition when solving the problem of analyzing an organization.

The essence of the systems approach has been formulated by many authors. In expanded form it is formulated V. G. Afanasyev, which identified a number of interrelated aspects that, taken together and unified, constitute a systematic approach:

– system-element, answering the question of what (what components) the system is formed from;

– system-structural, revealing the internal organization of the system, the way of interaction of its constituent components;

System-functional, showing what functions the system and its constituent components perform;

– system-communication, revealing the relationship of this system with others, both horizontally and vertically;

– system-integrative, showing mechanisms, factors for maintaining, improving and developing the system;

Systemic-historical, answering the question of how, in what way the system arose, what stages it went through in its development, what are its historical prospects.

The rapid growth of modern organizations and their level of complexity, the variety of operations performed have led to the fact that the rational implementation of management functions has become extremely difficult, but at the same time even more important for the successful operation of the enterprise. To cope with the inevitable increase in the number of operations and their complexity, a large organization must base its activities on a systems approach. Through this approach, the manager can more effectively integrate his activities in managing the organization.

The systems approach contributes, as already mentioned, mainly to the development of the correct method of thinking about the management process. A leader must think in accordance with a systems approach. When studying a systems approach, a way of thinking is instilled that, on the one hand, helps eliminate unnecessary complexity, and on the other, helps the manager understand the essence of complex problems and make decisions based on a clear understanding of the environment. It is important to structure the task and outline the boundaries of the system. But it is equally important to consider that the systems that a manager encounters in the course of his activities are part of larger systems, perhaps including an entire industry or several, sometimes many, companies and industries, or even society as a whole. These systems are constantly changing: they are created, operated, reorganized and, sometimes, eliminated.

Systems approach is the theoretical and methodological basis system analysis.