Reforms of Catherine 2 domestic and foreign policy. Reign of Catherine II

The reign of Catherine II the Great is one of the most complex topics in history. This is probably because it occupies most of the second half of the 18th century. This post will briefly describe the internal politics of Catherine 2. This topic simply needs to be studied in order to have a good understanding of history when completing exam tasks.

The most important

Few people understand why historical events are poorly remembered. In fact, everything is perfectly remembered if you keep in mind the most important thing. The most important thing is the concept of this or that government or the driving contradiction. Having identified these things, it is easy to remember them, as well as the entire outline of events.

The concept of Catherine the Great's reign was Enlightened absolutism - a European concept popular in the 18th century, which, in a nutshell, consisted of recognizing the leading role in the history and development of states for an enlightened monarch. Such a monarch, a sage on the throne, a philosopher will be able to lead society to progress and enlightenment. The main ideas of the Enlightenment can be found in the essay “On the Spirit of Laws” by Charles Louis Monetsky and in the writings of other educators.

These ideas are generally simple: they included people's observance of laws, the idea that people are naturally good, and the state should awaken this goodness in people through education.

Sophia Augusta Frederica of Anhalt of Zerb (the real name of the Empress) learned these principles as a young, educated girl. And when she became empress, she tried to implement them in Russia.

However, the main contradiction of her reign was that this could not be done. The first blow to her mood was dealt by the Legislative Commission, which brought together the whole cream of society. And not a single class wanted to put an end to serfdom. On the contrary, everyone was looking for benefits for themselves in the slave position of 90 percent of the state's population.

Nevertheless, something was achieved, at least in the first half of the empress’s reign—before the uprising of Emelyan Pugachev. His uprising became, as it were, a watershed between the empress of liberal views and the conservative ruler.

Reforms

Within the framework of one post, it is impossible to consider in detail all of Catherine’s internal policies, but it can be done briefly. I’ll tell you where to find out everything in detail at the end of the post.

Secularization of Church lands 1764

This reform was actually started by Peter the Third. But it was already realized by Catherine the Great. All church and monastic lands were now transferred to the state, and the peasants became economic peasants. The state could give these lands as appanages to whomever it wanted.

The secularization of the lands meant the end of the centuries-long rivalry between church and secular power, the peak of which occurred during the reign of Alexei Mikhailovich and Peter the Great.

Convening of the Legislative Commission

Reason: the need to adopt a new set of laws, a new Code, because the Council Code of 1649 has long been outdated.
Dates of the meeting: from June 1767 to December 1768
Results: the new set of laws was never adopted. The task of codifying Russian legislation will only be realized under Nicholas the First. The reason for dissolution was the beginning of the Russian-Turkish War.

The uprising of Emelyan Pugachev

A serious event in the field of domestic politics, since it showed all the contradictions of serfdom on the one hand, and the crisis in relations between the authorities and the Cossacks, on the other.

Results: suppression of the uprising. The consequences of this uprising were the provincial reform of Catherine the Great.

Provincial reform

In November 1775, the Empress published the “Institution for the Administration of the Provinces of the Russian Empire.” The main goal: to change the state-territorial structure for the sake of better tax collection, as well as strengthen the power of governors so that they can more effectively resist peasant uprisings.

As a result, the provinces began to be divided only into districts (previously they were divided into provinces), and they themselves were disaggregated: there were more of them.

The entire structure of government authorities has also changed. The most important things about these changes you can see in this table:

As we see, the empress, despite the fact that the entire reform was pro-noble, tried to implement the principle of separation of powers, albeit in a truncated version. This system of authorities will continue until the bourgeois reforms of Alexander the Second Liberator

Charter granted to the nobility and cities in 1785

Analyzing letters of commendation is a serious educational task. It will not be possible to solve it within the framework of this post. But I am attaching links to the full texts of these important documents:

Letter of grant to the nobility
Letter of commendation to cities

Results

The main question for the results: why do we put this empress on a par with Ivan the Third, Peter the Great and call her great? Because this empress completed most of the domestic and foreign policy processes.

In the field of domestic policy, the process of forming the authorities of an absolute monarchy has been completed, the system of public administration has been put in order; The nobility reached the peak of its rights and its power; the “third estate” was more or less formed - the townspeople who were given excellent rights under the Charter of the Cities. The only trouble is that this layer was very small and could not become the support of the state.

In the field of foreign policy: Russia annexed Crimea (1783), Eastern Georgia (1783), all Old Russian lands during the three partitions of Poland, and reached its natural borders. The issue of access to the Black Sea was resolved. In general, a lot has been done.

But the main thing has not been done: a new set of laws has not been adopted, and serfdom has not been abolished. Could this be achieved? I think no.

Catherine II- Russian empress who reigned from 1762 to 1796. Unlike previous monarchs, she came to power thanks to a palace coup, overthrowing her husband, the narrow-minded Peter III. During her reign, she became famous as an active and powerful woman, who finally culturally strengthened the highest status of the Russian Empire among the European powers and metropolises.

Domestic policy of Catherine II:

While verbally adhering to the ideas of European humanism and enlightenment, in reality the reign of Catherine 2 was marked by the maximum enslavement of the peasants and the comprehensive expansion of noble powers and privileges. The following reforms were carried out

1. Reorganization of the Senate. Reduction of the powers of the Senate to a judicial and executive body. The legislative branch was transferred directly to Catherine II and the cabinet of state secretaries.

2. Laid Commission. Created with the aim of identifying people's needs for further large-scale reforms.

3. Provincial reform. The administrative division of the Russian Empire was reorganized: instead of the three-level “Guberniya” - “Province” - “District”, a two-level “Government” - “District” was introduced.

4. Liquidation of the Zaporozhye Sich. After the Provincial Reform, it led to equalization of rights between the Cossack atamans and the Russian nobility. That. There was no longer any need to maintain a special management system. In 1775, the Zaporozhye Sich was dissolved.

5. Economic reforms. A number of reforms were carried out to eliminate monopolies and establish fixed prices for vital products, expand trade relations and boost the country's economy.

6. Corruption and favorites. Due to the increased privileges of the ruling elite, corruption and abuse of rights became widespread. The empress's favorites and those close to the court received generous gifts from the state treasury. At the same time, among the favorites there were very worthy people who participated in the foreign and domestic policies of Catherine II and made a serious contribution to the history of Russia. For example, Prince Grigory Orlov and Prince Potemkin Tauride.

7. Education and science. Under Catherine, schools and colleges began to open widely, but the level of education itself remained low

8. National policy. The Pale of Settlement was established for the Jews, German settlers were exempt from taxes and duties, and the indigenous population became the most powerless segment of the population.

9. Class transformations. A number of decrees were introduced expanding the already privileged rights of the nobility

10. Religion. A policy of religious tolerance was pursued, and a decree was introduced prohibiting the Russian Orthodox Church from interfering in the affairs of other faiths.

Catherine's foreign policy:

1. Expansion of the borders of the empire. Annexation of Crimea, Balta, Kuban region, western Rus', Lithuanian provinces, Duchy of Courland. Division of the Polish-Lithuanian Commonwealth and the war with the Ottoman Empire.

2. Treaty of Georgievsk. Signed to establish a Russian protectorate over the kingdom of Kartli-Kakheti (Georgia).

3. War with Sweden. Untied for the territory. As a result of the war, the Swedish fleet was defeated and the Russian fleet was sunk by a storm. A peace treaty was signed, according to which the borders between Russia and Sweden remain the same.

4. Politics with other countries. Russia often acted as a mediator establishing peace in Europe. After the French Revolution, Catherine joined the anti-French coalition due to the threat to the autocracy. Active colonization of Alaska and the Aleutian Islands began. The foreign policy of Catherine II was accompanied by wars, in which talented commanders, such as Field Marshal Rumyantsev, helped the empress win victories.

Chronology

1764 Decree on the secularization of church lands.
1765 Decree allowing landowners to exile serfs to hard labor.
1768 - 1774 I Russian-Turkish War.
1772, 1793, 1795 Three partitions of Poland between Russia, Austria and Prussia.
1773 - 1775 Uprising led by Emelyan Pugachev.
1774 Signing of the Kuchuk-Kaynajir peace treaty between Russia and Turkey.
1775 Provincial reform.
1785 Charters granted to the nobility and cities.
1787 - 1791 II Russian-Turkish War.
1796 - 1801 Reign of Paul I.

"Enlightened absolutism" of Catherine II

“Have the courage to use your mind,” - this is how the German philosopher Immanuel Kant defined the mentality of the era, which was called the Age of Enlightenment. In the second half of the 18th century. In connection with the general economic upswing in the ruling circles of European countries, awareness of the need to modernize the economic and political system is growing. This pan-European phenomenon is traditionally called Enlightened absolutism. Without essentially changing the state forms of absolute monarchy, within the framework of these forms, monarchs carried out reforms in various sectors.

The ideas of the French enlighteners Rousseau, Montesquieu, Voltaire, Diderot highlighted society, a specific person, his personal prosperity, which was a reflection of the emerging ideology of a new class - the bourgeoisie. Rousseau proposed creating a democratic state in which everyone could take part in governance. Voltaire actively preached humanity and justice, insisted on the abolition of medieval forms of legal proceedings. Diderot called for the abolition of class privileges and the liberation of the peasants.

Catherine II became acquainted with the works of French educators while she was still a princess. Having ascended the throne, she made an attempt to implement these ideas on Russian soil. The key word for her was “law.”

In 1767, Catherine convened a special commission in Moscow to draw up a new set of laws of the Russian Empire to replace the outdated Council Code of 1649. 572 deputies, representing the nobility, clergy, government institutions, peasants and Cossacks, participated in the work of the Coded Commission. Serf peasants, who made up half of the country's population, did not participate in the work of the commission.

Catherine prepared a special “Instruction” for the Commission to draft a new Code - a theoretical justification for the policy of enlightened absolutism. “The Mandate” consisted of 20 chapters and 655 articles, of which Catherine borrowed 294 from Montesquieu. “I only own the arrangement of the material, and here and there a line or another,” she wrote to Frederick II. The main provision of this document was the justification of the autocratic form of government and serfdom, and the features of enlightenment were visible in the creation of courts, separated from administrative institutions, and the recognition of the rights of people to do what the laws allow. Articles that protected society from despotism and the arbitrariness of the monarch deserve a positive assessment. Institutions were given the right to draw the attention of the sovereign to the fact that “such and such a decree is contrary to the Code, that it is harmful, obscure, and that it cannot be carried out according to it.” The articles that determined the economic policy of the government, which included concern for the construction of new cities, the development of trade, industry and agriculture, had a progressive significance. The commission, after working for just over a year, was dissolved under the pretext of starting a war with Turkey, but mainly because Catherine, having learned the positions of various groups of the population, considered the task completed, although not a single law was adopted.

The nobility remained the main social support of the autocracy in Russia. It opposed the huge mass of the peasantry and the weak third estate. The autocracy was strong and relied on the army and the bureaucratic apparatus to carry out its policies.

It is important to emphasize that, in contrast to the overt pro-noble and pro-serfdom policy of the autocracy of the previous period, the policy of “enlightened absolutism” was carried out in new forms.

In February 1764, the secularization of church land ownership was carried out, as a result, more than a million souls of peasants were taken away from the church, and a special board was created to manage them - the College of Economics. Much former church land was transferred to the nobles in the form of grants.

A series of decrees of the 60s crowned the feudal legislation, which turned the serfs into people completely defenseless from the arbitrariness of the landowners, obliged to meekly obey their will. In 1765, a decree was issued in favor of the serf owners, providing for the assignment to the nobles of all lands seized by them from various categories of peasants. According to the Decree of January 17, 1765, the landowner could send the peasant not only to exile, but also to hard labor. In August 1767, Catherine II issued the most feudal decree in the entire history of serfdom. This decree declared any complaint from a peasant against a landowner to be a grave state crime. Legally, the landowners were deprived of only one right - to deprive their serfs of life.

In Catherine’s “enlightened age,” trade among peasants reached enormous proportions. The decrees adopted during these years testified to the deep development of serfdom. But serfdom also developed in breadth, including new categories of the population within its sphere of influence. The decree of May 3, 1783 prohibited the peasants of Left Bank Ukraine from changing from one owner to another. This decree of the tsarist government legally formalized serfdom in the Left Bank and Slobodskaya Ukraine.

A manifestation of “enlightened absolutism” was the empress’s attempt to shape public opinion through journalism. In 1769, she began to publish the satirical magazine “All sorts of things,” where human vices and superstitions were criticized, and opened a printing house at Moscow University, headed by N.I. Novikov is a Russian educator, publicist and writer. Pushkin called him “one of those who spread the first rays of enlightenment.” He made the works of W. Shakespeare, J.B. available to a wide range of readers. Moliere, M. Cervantes, works of French enlighteners, Russian historians. Novikov published many magazines, where, for the first time in Russia, criticism of serfdom was voiced. Thus, it was in the age of Catherine that, on the one hand, the serfdom reached its apogee, and on the other, a protest against it arose not only from the oppressed class (the peasant war led by E. Pugachev), but also from the emerging Russian intelligentsia.

Foreign policy of Catherine II

Illustration 29. Russian Empire in the second half of the 18th century. (European part)

Two main questions in Catherine’s international policy, posed and resolved by her during her reign:

Firstly, territorial - this is the task of promoting the southern border of the state (Black Sea, Crimea, Sea of Azov, Caucasus Range).
Secondly, the national one is the reunification of the Belarusian and Ukrainian lands that were part of the Polish-Lithuanian Commonwealth with Russia.

After the Seven Years' War, France became one of Russia's main opponents in the international arena, which sought to create the so-called “Eastern Barrier”, consisting of Sweden, the Polish-Lithuanian Commonwealth and the Ottoman Empire. The Polish-Lithuanian Commonwealth is becoming an arena for clashes between these states.

In the context of an aggravated situation, Russia managed to conclude an alliance with Prussia. Catherine II preferred to have a complete Polish-Lithuanian Commonwealth, while Frederick II strives for its territorial division.

The Ottoman Empire, which closely followed the events in the Polish-Lithuanian Commonwealth, demanded the withdrawal of Russian troops from there. In 1768 she declared war on Russia. During the first years of the war, Turkish troops were forced to abandon Khotyn, Iasi, Bucharest, Izmail and other fortresses in the Danube theater of operations.

It is necessary to note two major victories of the Russian troops.

The first occurred on June 25-26, 1770, when the Russian squadron, having circumnavigated Europe, arrived in the Mediterranean Sea and won a brilliant victory near Chesma. A month later, the talented commander P.A. Rumyantsev inflicted a serious defeat on the Turks at the Battle of Kagul. The hostilities did not stop there.

France continued to push the Ottoman Empire into war with Russia. On the other hand, Austria supported Turkey, pursuing its own goals in this war - to conquer part of the Danube principalities that were in the hands of Russian troops. Under the current conditions, the Russian government was forced to agree to the division of the Polish-Lithuanian Commonwealth. The Convention of 1772 formalized the first section of the Polish-Lithuanian Commonwealth: Austria captured Galicia, Pomerania, as well as part of Greater Poland, went to Prussia. Russia received part of Eastern Belarus.

Now Türkiye in 1772 agreed to conduct peace negotiations. The main point of disagreement in these negotiations was the question of the fate of Crimea - the Ottoman Empire refused to grant it independence, while Russia insisted on it. Hostilities resumed. Russian troops under the command of A.V. Suvorov in June 1774 managed to defeat the Turkish troops at Kozludzha, this forced the enemy to resume negotiations.

On July 10, 1774, negotiations in the Bulgarian village of Kuchuk-Kainardzhi ended with the signing of a peace treaty. Through this world, Kerch, Yenikale, and also Kabarda passed to Russia. At the same time, she received the right to build a navy in the Black Sea, her merchant ships could freely pass through the straits. Thus ended the First Russian-Turkish War (1768 - 1774).

However, the Turks already in 1775 violated the terms of the treaty and arbitrarily proclaimed their protege Devlet-Girey Khan of the Crimea. In response, the Russian government sent troops into Crimea and confirmed its candidate, Shagin-Girey, on the khan’s throne. The rivalry between the two powers in the struggle for Crimea ended with the promulgation in April 1783 of Catherine II’s decree on the inclusion of Crimea into Russia.

Among other Russian foreign policy steps of that period, the Georgievsky Tract should be highlighted. In 1783, an agreement was concluded with Eastern Georgia, which went down in history under the name “Treaty of St. George”, which strengthened the position of the peoples of Transcaucasia in the fight against the Iranian and Ottoman yoke.

The Ottoman Empire, although it recognized the annexation of Crimea to Russia, was intensively preparing for war with it. She was supported by England, Prussia, and France. At the end of July 1787, the Sultan's court demanded the right to Georgia and Crimea, and then began military operations with an attack on the Kinburn fortress, but this attempt was repulsed by Suvorov.

In the defeat of the Ottoman army and navy, great credit goes to the outstanding Russian commander Suvorov, who was at the head of the army, and the extraordinary talent of naval commander F.F. Ushakova.

1790 was marked by two outstanding victories. At the end of August, a naval victory was won over the Turkish fleet. Another important event of this period was the assault and capture of the Izmail fortress. This powerful fortress with a garrison of 35 thousand people and 265 guns was considered inaccessible. On December 2, A.V. appeared near Izmail. Suvorov, at dawn on December 11, the assault began, and the fortress was taken by Russian troops.

These victories of the Russian troops forced Turkey to end the war, and at the end of December 1791 to conclude a peace treaty, which confirmed the annexation of Crimea to Russia and the establishment of a protectorate over Georgia. Thus ended the Second Russian-Turkish War (1787 - 1791).

Poland continues to occupy a large place in Russian foreign policy these years. In the Polish-Lithuanian Commonwealth itself, some magnates and gentry turned to Russia for help. At their call, Russian and Prussian troops were brought into the Polish-Lithuanian Commonwealth, and conditions were created for its new division.

In January 1793, a Russian-Prussian treaty was concluded, according to which Polish lands (Gdansk, Torun, Poznan) went to Prussia, and Russia was reunited with Right Bank Ukraine and the central part of Belarus, from which the Minsk province was later formed - the second partition of Poland occurred.

The second partition of the Polish-Lithuanian Commonwealth caused the rise of a national liberation movement led by General Tadeusz Kosciuszko. In the fall of 1794, Russian troops under the command of A.V. Suvorov entered Warsaw. The uprising was suppressed, and Kosciuszko himself was captured.

In 1795, the third partition of the Polish-Lithuanian Commonwealth took place, putting an end to its existence. The agreement was signed in October 1795, Austria sent its troops to Sandomierz, Lublin and Chelmin, and Prussia to Krakow. The western part of Belarus, Western Volyn, Lithuania and the Duchy of Courland went to Russia. The last king of the Polish-Lithuanian Commonwealth abdicated the throne and lived in Russia until his death in 1798.

The reunification of Belarus and Western Ukraine, ethnically close to the Russian peoples, with Russia contributed to the mutual enrichment of their cultures.

Paul I

The reign of Paul I (1796 - 1801) is called “unenlightened absolutism” by some historians, “military-police dictatorship” by others, and the reign of a “romantic emperor” by others. Having become emperor, the son of Catherine II tried to strengthen the regime by strengthening discipline and power in order to exclude all manifestations of liberalism and freethinking in Russia. His characteristic features were harshness, hot temper, and instability. He tightened the rules of service for nobles, limited the effect of the Letter of Grant to the nobility, and introduced Prussian order in the army, which inevitably caused discontent among the upper class of Russian society. On March 12, 1801, with the participation of the heir to the throne, the future Emperor Alexander I, the last palace coup in history was carried out. Pavel was killed in the Mikhailovsky Castle in St. Petersburg.

V. Eriksen "Equestrian portrait of Catherine the Great"

“Catherine made a double takeover: she took away power from her husband and did not transfer it to her son, the natural heir of his father” (V.O. Klyuchevsky).

Having thus ascended to the Russian throne, Catherine II began her reign by formulating the primary tasks for her activities:

The nation that is to be governed must be enlightened.
It is necessary to introduce good order in the state, support society and force it to comply with the laws.
It is necessary to establish a good and accurate police force in the state.
It is necessary to promote the flourishing of the state and make it abundant.
It is necessary to make the state formidable in itself and inspiring respect among its neighbors.

Let us now consider how Catherine II implemented these tasks.

The term “enlightened absolutism” is often used to characterize the domestic policy of Catherine II. Yes, under her rule the autocracy strengthened and the bureaucratic apparatus became stronger. But the ideas of Diderot and Voltaire that every person is born free, that all people are equal, that despotic forms of government should be destroyed - this did not correspond to its internal policy. Under Catherine, the situation of the peasants worsened, and the nobles received more and more privileges.

Domestic policy

Senate Conversion and Stalled Commission

According to the project of statesman N.I. Panin in 1763 the Senate was transformed. It was divided into six departments: the first was headed by the Prosecutor General, who was in charge of state and political affairs in St. Petersburg, the second - judicial in St. Petersburg, the third - transport, medicine, sciences, education, art, the fourth - military-land and naval affairs, the fifth - state and political in Moscow and the sixth - the Moscow judicial department.

As for the Statutory Commission, it was created to systematize laws. But the meetings were held for only six months, after which the commission was dissolved. The main result of her activities was the approval of the title “Great” for the empress (others were also proposed: “The Wise One,” “Mother of the Fatherland” and others). Thus, she did not receive such a title as a result of merit - it was ordinary court flattery.

D. Levitsky "Portrait of Catherine II"

Provincial reform

In 1775, the “Institution for the management of the provinces of the All-Russian Empire” was adopted. Its essence was that three levels of administrative division were eliminated: province, province, district, and two were introduced: province and district. 50 provinces were formed (instead of 23). The provinces were divided into 10-12 districts. Governor General(governor) were subordinate to 2-3 provinces. He had administrative, financial and judicial powers. Governor ruled the province and reported directly to the emperor. Governors were appointed by the Senate. Treasury Chamber headed by the vice-governor, she dealt with finances in the province. Land management - provincial land surveyor. The executive body of the governor was the provincial board, which exercised general supervision over the activities of institutions and officials. Order of public charity supervised schools, hospitals and shelters, as well as class judicial institutions: Upper Zemstvo Court for nobles, Provincial magistrate, who considered litigation between townspeople, and Upper reprisal for the trial of state peasants. Criminal and Civil Chamber judged all classes; they were the highest judicial bodies in the provinces.

The head of the county was captain police officer, leader of the nobility, elected for three years.

Was created Conscientious court, called upon to reconcile those who argue and quarrel, he was classless. The Senate becomes the highest judicial body in the country.

216 new cities were formed (mostly large rural settlements renamed cities). The population of the cities began to be called bourgeois and merchants. The city became the main administrative unit. It was headed by mayor, he was endowed with all rights and powers. Strict police control was introduced in cities. The city was divided into parts (districts) under supervision private bailiff, and the parts were divided into quarters controlled quarterly supervisor.

According to historians, provincial reform led to a significant increase in the cost of maintaining the bureaucratic apparatus.

Founding of Kuban and annexation of the Kalmyk Khanate

In 1771, Catherine II issued a decree liquidating the Kalmyk Khanate and annexing the Kalmyk state to Russia. At the office of the Astrakhan governor, a special Expedition of Kalmyk Affairs was established, which began to manage the affairs of the Kalmyks. But this annexation did not happen immediately: Catherine, from the 60s, consistently limited the khan’s power, until a conspiracy matured within the khanate to leave for their historical homeland - Dzungaria (a region of Central Asia in northwestern China. A region with a semi-desert and steppe landscape) . This turned out to be a great disaster for the people, who lost about 100 thousand people.

Other provincial reforms

The territory of Estonia and Livonia was divided into 2 provinces - Riga and Revel. Three provinces were created in Siberia: Tobolsk, Kolyvan and Irkutsk.

Economy

A state bank was established and the issuance of paper money - banknotes - was established.

State regulation of prices for salt was introduced - it was one of the most valuable goods. But a state monopoly was not introduced, so the price of salt increased.

Exports have increased: sailing cloth, cast iron, iron, timber, hemp, bristles, bread - mainly raw materials and semi-finished products. And industrial products accounted for 80% of imports. Russian merchant ships began to sail into the Mediterranean Sea.

Catherine II did not understand the importance of industrial development, because believed that this would reduce the number of employees.

Industry and agriculture developed mainly through extensive methods (increasing the amount of arable land). During her reign, there were frequent cases of famine in the countryside, which was explained by crop failures, but some historians believe that this was the result of massive grain exports.

During the reign of Catherine II, bribery and other forms of arbitrariness by officials flourished (what we now call corruption), she knew about it herself and tried to fight, but to no avail. As the historian V. Bilbasov writes, “Catherine soon became convinced for herself that “bribery in state affairs” was not eradicated by decrees and manifestos, that this required a radical reform of the entire political system - a task... that turned out to be beyond the capabilities of either that time or the later.”

Historians note the exorbitant growth of favoritism under Catherine II, which did not contribute to the well-being of the state, but increased costs. They also received rewards without any measure. For example, her favorite Platon Zubov had so many awards that he looked like “a seller of ribbons and hardware.” During her reign, she gave gifts to a total of more than 800 thousand peasants. She gave out about 100 thousand rubles annually for the maintenance of Grigory Potemkin’s niece, and gave her and her fiancé 1 million rubles for their wedding. Near her was a crowd of French courtiers, whom she generously presented with gifts. Large sums were paid to representatives of the Polish aristocracy, including King Stanislaw Poniatowski (formerly her favorite).

Education and science

Catherine II paid special attention to women's education. In 1764, the Smolny Institute for Noble Maidens was opened.

Smolny Institute of Noble Maidens

Hood. Galaktionov "Smolny Institute"

This is the first women's educational institution in Russia. It was founded on the initiative of I. I. Betsky and in accordance with the decree of Catherine the Second in 1764 and was originally called the “Imperial Educational Society of Noble Maidens.” It was created to "provide the state with educated women, good mothers, useful members of the family and society."

Catherine, a fan of the progressive ideas of the French Enlightenment, wanted to establish an educational institution that had no equal in Europe at that time. According to the charter, children entered the institution no older than six years of age and remained there for 12 years. Parents had to give a signature that before the expiration of this period they would not take their children out of the educational institution. The Empress hoped that the children would be removed from an ignorant environment and molded into educated people, thus further creating a “new breed of people.” The decree provided for the education of two hundred noble maidens in the newly built Novodevichy Convent. At first it was a closed institution for noble children, and in 1765 a department “for bourgeois girls” (non-noble classes, except serfs) was opened at the institute. The building for the Bourgeois School was erected by the architect J. Felten.

K.D. Ushinsky

In 1859-1862. The institute’s class inspector was K.D. Ushinsky, who carried out a number of progressive reforms in it (a new seven-year curriculum with a large number of hours devoted to the Russian language, geography, history, natural science, etc.). After Ushinsky's forced departure from the institute, all of his major reforms were eliminated.

The students of the institute wore uniform dresses of a certain color: at a younger age - coffee, at a second age - dark blue, at a third age - light blue and at an older age - white. Lighter colors symbolized increasing education and neatness.

The program included training in Russian literature, geography, arithmetic, history, foreign languages, music, dancing, drawing, social manners, various types of home economics, etc.

The final public examination was attended by the emperor and members of his family. At the end of the institute, the six best graduates received a “cipher” - a gold monogram in the form of the initial of Empress Catherine II, which was worn on a white bow with gold stripes.

Some students of the institute became ladies-in-waiting at the court (maids-in-waiting formed the retinue of empresses and grand duchesses).

The institute's training course was equivalent to that of women's gymnasiums.

In October 1917, the institute, headed by Princess V.V. Golitsyna, moved to Novocherkassk.

The last Russian graduation took place in February 1919 in Novocherkassk. Already in the summer of 1919, the institute left Russia and continued work in Serbia.

"Code" of the best graduates of the Smolny Institute

Under Catherine II, the Academy of Sciences became one of the leading scientific bases in Europe. An observatory, a physics laboratory, an anatomical theater, a botanical garden, instrumental workshops, a printing house, a library, and an archive were founded. In 1783 the Russian Academy was founded. Russian Academy(Also Imperial Russian Academy, Russian Academy) was created by Catherine II and Princess E. R. Dashkova on the model of the French Academy for the Study of Russian Language and Literature in St. Petersburg. The main result of the activities of this product of the Russian Enlightenment was the publication of the Russian Academic Dictionary. In 1841, the academy was transformed into the 2nd Branch of the Imperial St. Petersburg Academy of Sciences.

But historians do not rate successes in the field of education and science under Catherine II highly: educational institutions always experienced a shortage of students, many students could not pass exams, and studies were not organized well enough.

Under Catherine, educational homes for street children were organized, where they received education and upbringing. To help widows, the Widow's Treasury was created. During her reign, the fight against epidemics began to take on the character of state events.

National politics

Catherine II in 1791 established the Pale of Settlement for Jews: in the lands annexed as a result of the three partitions of Poland, as well as in the steppe regions near the Black Sea and sparsely populated areas east of the Dnieper. The conversion of Jews to Orthodoxy lifted all restrictions on residence. The Pale of Settlement contributed to the preservation of Jewish national identity and the formation of a special Jewish identity within the Russian Empire.

In 1762, Catherine II issued a manifesto “On allowing all foreigners entering Russia to settle in the provinces they wish and on the rights granted to them.” There was a list of benefits for immigrants. This is how they arose German settlements in the Volga region, reserved for immigrants. The influx of German colonists was very large; already in 1766 it was necessary to temporarily suspend the reception of new settlers until those who had already arrived were settled. During the reign of Catherine, Russia included Northern Black Sea region, Azov region, Crimea, Right Bank Ukraine, lands between the Dniester and Bug, Belarus, Courland and Lithuania.

Monument to Catherine II in the city of Marks, Saratov region

But this seemingly positive phenomenon turned out to be incidental - the “discord of interests” intensified when the indigenous population found themselves in a worse position and when some Russian nobles at the end of the 18th - beginning of the 19th centuries. as a reward for their service, they were asked to “register as Germans” so that they could enjoy the corresponding privileges.

Under Catherine, the privileges of the nobles were further strengthened. Peasants made up about 95% of the population, and serfs made up more than 50% of the population. According to the general opinion of historians, the situation of this largest group of the population in the era of Catherine was the worst in the entire history of Russia. Trade by peasants reached wide proportions: they were sold in markets, in advertisements on the pages of newspapers; they were lost at cards, exchanged, given as gifts, and forced into marriage. She adopted a number of laws that worsened the situation of the peasants. During her reign, she gave away more than 800 thousand peasants to landowners and nobles. The result of this policy was the Peasants' War of 1773-1775.

Catherine pursued a policy of religious tolerance; in the first years of her reign, the persecution of Old Believers ceased. She even supported the initiative of Peter III to return Old Believers from abroad. But the number of Protestants (mainly Lutherans) increased due to the massive resettlement of Germans to Russia.

Pretenders to the throne

Catherine's rise to power through illegal means gave birth to a series of pretenders to the Russian throne: from 1764 to 1773. Seven False Peters III appeared in the country (claiming that they were the “resurrected Peter”), the eighth was Emelyan Pugachev. And in 1774-1775. the “case of Princess Tarakanova” was added, posing as the daughter of Elizaveta Petrovna.

During her reign, 3 conspiracies against her were uncovered, two of them were associated with the name of Ivan Antonovich (Ivan VI), who at the time of Catherine II’s accession to the throne was imprisoned in the Shlisselburg fortress.

Freemasonry is becoming increasingly popular among the educated nobility. Catherine II tried to control Freemasonry and allow only such activities that did not contradict her interests.

Literature

Russian literature in the era of Catherine, as in general in the 18th century, according to a number of historians, was mainly engaged in the “processing of foreign elements.” The “official” literature of the era of Catherine is represented by several famous names: Fonvizin (read about him on our website:, Sumarokov, Derzhavin (read about him on our website:). There was also “unofficial” literature: Radishchev, Novikov, Krechetov - which was was subjected to a ban, and the authors were subjected to severe repression. For example, Knyazhnin, whose historical drama (“Vadim Novgorodsky”) was banned, and the entire print run was burned.

Novikov’s journal “Truten” was closed by the authorities in 1770 due to the fact that it raised sensitive social issues - the arbitrariness of landowners against peasants, corruption among officials, etc. The “St. Petersburg Bulletin” suffered the same fate, which only existed a little over two years, and other magazines. In A. Radishchev’s book “Journey from St. Petersburg to Moscow” there are no calls for the overthrow of the existing system and for the abolition of serfdom. But the author was sentenced to death by quartering (after pardon, it was replaced by a 10-year exile to Tobolsk) because his book was “filled with harmful speculations that destroy public peace and detract from the respect due to authority...”. Catherine loved flattery and could not stand people who dared to express their critical judgments that ran counter to her own.

Culture and art under Catherine

Foundation of the Hermitage

Hermitage Hall

State Hermitage Museum in St. Petersburg - the largest art, cultural and historical museum in Russia and one of the largest in the world. The history of the museum begins in 1764, with collections of works of art that Catherine II began to acquire privately. Initially, this collection was housed in a special palace wing - the Small Hermitage (from the French. ermitage- a place of solitude), hence the general name of the future museum. In 1852, the greatly expanded collection was formed and opened to the public. Imperial Hermitage.

Today, the museum's collection includes about three million works of art and monuments of world culture, from the Stone Age to the present day.

Founding of the Public Library

Old library building, early 19th century.

In 1795, by the highest order of Empress Catherine II, it was founded Imperial Public Library. The basis of the Imperial Public Library is the Zaluski Library (400,000 volumes), which was declared the property of the Russian government as a war booty after the suppression of the uprising led by Tadeusz Kosciuszko in 1794 and the capture of Warsaw by A. Suvorov. Currently, it is a particularly valuable object of national heritage and constitutes the historical and cultural heritage of the peoples of the Russian Federation. One of the largest libraries in the world.

Catherine II patronized various fields of art - architecture, music, painting.

The palaces of the era of Catherine II (Winter, Bolshoi Catherine, Catherine in Moscow) and the parks around them in their luxury and splendor were not inferior to the palaces and parks of the French kings and had no other equals in Europe. Everyone competes in the luxury of carriages, the thoroughbred horses, the brilliance of the teams, the main goal is to appear no worse than others.

Catherine's foreign policyII

V. Borovikovsky "Catherine on a walk in Tsarskoye Selo Park"

Foreign policy under Catherine was aimed at strengthening Russia's role in the world and expanding its territory. The motto of her diplomacy was as follows: “ You need to be on friendly terms with all powers in order to always retain the opportunity to take the side of the weaker... to keep your hands free... not to be dragged behind anyone.”

Under Catherine, the growth of Russia was as follows: after the first Turkish war in 1744, Russia acquired Kinburn, Azov, Kerch, Yenikale. Then, in 1783, Balta, Crimea and the Kuban region are annexed. The Second Turkish War ends with the acquisition of the coastal strip between the Bug and the Dniester (1791). Russia is already firmly on the Black Sea.

At the same time, the Polish partitions give Western Rus' to Russia: in 1773, Russia receives part of Belarus (Vitebsk and Mogilev provinces); in 1793 - Minsk, Volyn and Podolsk; in 1795-1797 - Lithuanian provinces (Vilna, Kovno and Grodno), Black Rus', the upper reaches of Pripyat and the western part of Volyn. Simultaneously with the third partition, the Duchy of Courland was annexed to Russia.

An important direction of Catherine II’s foreign policy was also the annexation of the territories of Crimea, the Black Sea region and the North Caucasus, which were under Turkish rule, as a result of the Russian-Turkish wars. The wars with Turkey were marked by major military victories of Rumyantsev, Suvorov, Potemkin, Kutuzov, Ushakov.

The Werel Peace Treaty with Sweden was signed in 1790, according to which the border between the countries did not change.

Relations between Russia and Prussia normalized and an alliance treaty was concluded between the countries.

After the French Revolution, Catherine was one of the initiators of the anti-French coalition and the establishment of the principle of legitimism. She said: “The weakening of monarchical power in France endangers all other monarchies. For my part, I am ready to resist with all my might. It's time to act and take up arms." But in reality, she avoided participating in hostilities against France.

During the reign of Catherine, the Russian Empire acquired the status great power. As a result of two successful Russian-Turkish wars for Russia, 1768-1774 and 1787-1791. The Crimean Peninsula and the entire territory of the Northern Black Sea region were annexed to Russia. In 1772-1795 Russia took part in three sections of the Polish-Lithuanian Commonwealth, as a result of which it annexed the territories of present-day Belarus, Western Ukraine, Lithuania and Courland. During Catherine's reign, Russian colonization of the Aleutian Islands and Alaska began.

During the long reign of Catherine II (34 years), there was a lot of good and bad. But we agree with the words of Catherine’s contemporary, Russian historian and publicist Prince M.M. Shcherbatov, who wrote that the favoritism and debauchery of Catherine II contributed to the decline of the morals of the nobility of that era.

Over the long decades of her reign, Catherine II carried out a series of important reforms and internal transformations of the state. Many call the ruler the mother of the modern Enlightenment, but this is far from the only area in which reforms were carried out. The activities of Catherine II concerned both changes in the life of the peasantry and the improvement of the rights and freedoms of the nobility. What internal reforms of Catherine II can be called the most important for the further history of the state?

Domestic policy of Catherine the Great

Reform date	Features of the reform carried out	Consequences of innovations
	Reorganization of the Senate and its transformation into 6 departments	Legislative activity was completely transferred to Catherine and her entourage, which means that elected representatives of the public lost another sphere of influence on state affairs.
	Convening of the Legislative Commission	The activities of the Legislative Commission were completely useless, and during the year and a half of its existence, the elected deputies did not make a single important decision or bill. Historians rightly believe that the Statutory Commission was created to glorify Catherine II in the international arena as a wise politician with democratic views.
	Carrying out the provincial reform on the administrative division into governorships and districts	Historians believe that the Provincial Reform was an absolutely ill-conceived measure that caused increased economic costs. In addition, the reform did not take into account the national composition of the population, as well as the connection of the provinces with trade and administrative centers.
	Changes in school education, introduction of a class-lesson system.	The class-lesson system has become a new word in education. Through the introduction of this reform, Catherine the Great increased the percentage of educational attainment, increasing the number of educated citizens.
	Creation of the Russian Academy of Sciences	The most important reform during the reign of Catherine II. Through the creation of the Academy of Sciences, Russia has become a leading European country in the field of scientific and creative research
	Publication of two charters: “Charter of Grant to the Nobility” and “Charter of Grant to Cities.”	These reforms led to further strengthening of the rights of the nobility. The nobles began to be considered the most privileged class precisely from the reign of Catherine the Great.
	The introduction of a new law, according to which for any disobedience, the landowner could send a serf to hard labor for an indefinite period	Under Catherine II, several new bills were introduced that worsened the situation of serfs.
1773-1774	Peasant war led by Emelyan Pugachev	The Peasant War itself became a sign that the people were dissatisfied with the rule of the empress. In the further history of the Russian Empire, such uprisings and riots will occur more and more often, until the abolition of serfdom.
	“The Novikov Case,” which characterizes the policy of favoritism, penetrating not only into the political sphere, but also into the field of art.	“The Novikov Case” and “The Radishchev Case” directly indicate that Catherine the Great encouraged only those scientists and writers who pleased her. The empress considered Novikov's work harmful to society, so the writer was sent to prison for 15 years without trial.

The results of Catherine the Great's internal political reforms

Now, reviewing all the reforms of the empress, we can safely say that her policy was not perfect and ideal. Favoritism flourished during the reign of Catherine the Great. Increasingly, leading positions in the economic and political spheres were occupied by people pleasing to Catherine, who understood little about the responsibilities assigned to them.

Similar policies of favoritism were evident in the arts. Since the creativity of Radishchev, Krechetov and Novikov was displeasing to the empress, these prominent artists were subjected to persecution and restrictions. Despite this shortsightedness, Catherine the Great was literally blinded by the thought of becoming a leading figure in the Enlightenment in Europe.

It was with the aim of raising her own authority in the international arena that the ruler carried out various reforms, created the Statutory Commissions and the Academies of Sciences. The fact that Catherine spoke several languages and maintained contact with international artists helped the ruler achieve her goal. Now, despite all the mistakes and shortcomings of her own domestic political activities, Catherine the Great is called among the best rulers of the 18th century.

The policy of elevating the nobility and further enslaving the peasants also could not lead to any good. Despite her innovative views and desire to make the Russian Empire similar to European states, Catherine II did not want to give up slavery. Rather, on the contrary, during the era of her reign, the life of serfs became even more unbearable. The Peasant War of 1773-1774 is only the first sign of public discontent, which will still be reflected in the further history of Russia.