Speech errors in written speech. Speech errors: examples and types
Word- the most important unit of language, the most diverse and voluminous. It is the word that reflects all the changes taking place in the life of society. The word not only names an object or phenomenon, but also performs an emotional and expressive function.
And when choosing words, we must pay attention to their meaning, stylistic coloring, usage, and compatibility with other words. Since violation of at least one of these criteria can lead to a speech error.
The main causes of speech errors:
Outdated words.
Words of foreign origin.
Dialectisms.
Colloquial and colloquial words.
Professional jargon.
Phraseologisms.
Clichés and cliches.
1. Misunderstanding of the meaning of the word.
1.1. Using a word in a meaning that is unusual for it.
Example: The fire grew hotter and hotter. The error lies in the wrong choice of word:
Inflame - 1. Heat to a very high temperature, become hot. 2. (trans.) To become very excited, to become overwhelmed by some strong feeling.
Flare up - start to burn strongly or well, evenly.
1.2. The use of significant and function words without taking into account their semantics.
Example: Thanks to a fire that broke out from a fire, a large area of forest burned down.
In modern Russian, the preposition thanks retains a certain semantic connection with the verb to thank and is usually used only in cases where the reasons that cause a desired result are spoken of: thanks to someone’s help, support. The error arises due to the semantic distraction of the preposition from the original verb to thank. In this sentence, the preposition thanks should be replaced with one of the following: because of, as a result, as a result.
1.3. Selection of words-concepts with different bases of division (concrete and abstract vocabulary).
Example: We offer complete cure for alcoholics and other diseases.
If we are talking about diseases, then the word alcoholics should be replaced with alcoholism. An alcoholic is someone who suffers from alcoholism. Alcoholism is a painful addiction to drinking alcoholic beverages.
1.4. Incorrect use of paronyms.
Example: A person leads a festive life. I'm in an idle mood today.
Idle and festive are very similar words, with the same root. But they have different meanings: festive – an adjective for holiday (celebratory dinner, festive mood); idle - not filled, not busy with business, work (idle life). To restore the meaning of the statements in the example, you need to swap the words.
2. Lexical compatibility. When choosing a word, you should take into account not only the meaning that is inherent in it in the literary language, but also lexical compatibility. Not all words can be combined with each other. The boundaries of lexical compatibility are determined by the semantics of words, their stylistic affiliation, emotional coloring, grammatical properties, etc.
Example:
A good leader must set an example for his subordinates in everything.
You can show an example, but not a sample. And you can be a role model, for example.
Example:
Their strong friendship, tempered by life's trials, was noticed by many.
The word friendship is combined with the adjective strong - strong friendship.
What should be distinguished from a speech error is the deliberate combination of seemingly incompatible words: a living corpse, an ordinary miracle... In this case, we have one of the types of tropes - an oxymoron.
In difficult cases, when it is difficult to determine whether certain words can be used together, it is necessary to use a compatibility dictionary.
3.Use of synonyms.
Synonyms enrich the language and make our speech figurative. Synonyms may have different functional and stylistic connotations. Thus, the words error, miscalculation, oversight, error are stylistically neutral and commonly used; hole, overlay - colloquial; gaffe – colloquial; blooper - professional slang. Using one of the synonyms without taking into account its stylistic coloring can lead to a speech error.
Example: Having made a mistake, the plant director immediately began to correct it.
When using synonyms, the ability of each of them to be more or less selectively combined with other words is often not taken into account.
Differing in shades of lexical meaning, synonyms can express different degrees of manifestation of a characteristic or action. But, even denoting the same thing, being interchangeable in some cases, in others synonyms cannot be replaced - this leads to a speech error.
Example: Yesterday I was sad.
The synonym sad is quite suitable here: Yesterday I was sad. But in two-part sentences these synonyms are interchangeable. I look sadly at our generation...
4. Use of homonyms.
Thanks to the context, homonyms are usually understood correctly. But still, in certain speech situations, homonyms cannot be understood unambiguously.
Example:
The crew is in excellent condition.
Is the crew a cart or a team? The word crew itself is used correctly. But to reveal the meaning of this word, it is necessary to expand the context.
Very often, ambiguity is caused by the use in speech (especially oral) of homophones (sounding the same, but spelled differently) and homoforms (words that have the same sound and spelling in certain forms). So, when choosing words for a phrase, we must pay attention to the context, which in some speech situations is designed to reveal the meaning of the words.
5. Use of polysemantic words.
When including polysemantic words in our speech, we must be very careful, we must monitor whether the meaning that we wanted to reveal in this speech situation is clear. When using polysemous words (as well as when using homonyms), context is very important. It is thanks to the context that one or another meaning of a word is clear. And if the context meets its requirements (a semantically complete segment of speech that allows one to establish the meanings of the words or phrases included in it), then each word in the sentence is understandable. But it also happens differently.
Example:
He's already sung.
It’s not clear: either he started singing and got carried away; or, after singing for a while, he began to sing freely, easily.
6. Verbosity.
The following types of verbosity occur:
1. Pleonasm (from the Greek pleonasmos - excess, excessiveness) - the use in speech of words that are close in meaning and therefore logically redundant.
Example:
All guests received memorable souvenirs.
A souvenir is a keepsake, so memorable is an extra word in this sentence. A variety of pleonasms are expressions such as very huge, very tiny, very beautiful, etc. Adjectives denoting a characteristic in its extremely strong or extremely weak manifestation do not need to specify the degree of the characteristic.
2. Using unnecessary words. Superfluous not because their inherent lexical meaning is expressed in other words, but because they are simply not needed in this text.
Example:
Then, on April 11, the Druzhba bookstore will take care of this so that you can smile.
3. Tautology (from the Greek tauto - the same logos - word) - repetition of words with the same root or identical morphemes. Not only students’ essays, but also newspapers and magazines are replete with tautological errors.
Example:
Business leaders are business-minded.
4. Splitting the predicate. This is the replacement of a verbal predicate with a synonymous verbal-nominal combination: fight - fight, clean - clean.
Example:
The students decided to clean up the school yard.
7. Lexical incompleteness of the statement.
This error is the opposite of verbosity. An incomplete statement consists of missing a necessary word in the sentence.
Example:
The advantage of Kuprin is that there is nothing superfluous.
Kuprin may have nothing superfluous, but this sentence is missing (and not even just one) word. Or: “... do not allow statements on the pages of the press and television that could incite ethnic hatred.” So it turns out – “television page”.
When choosing a word, it is necessary to take into account not only its semantics, lexical, stylistic and logical compatibility, but also its scope. The use of words that have a limited sphere of distribution (lexical new formations, obsolete words, words of foreign origin, professionalisms, jargon, dialectisms) should always be motivated by the conditions of the context.
8. New words.
Poorly formed neologisms are speech errors.
Example: And last year, 23 thousand rubles were spent on pothole repairs after the spring thaw.
And only the context helps to understand: “pothole repair” is the repair of holes.
Outdated words.
Archaisms - words that name existing realities, but for some reason have been forced out of active use by synonymous lexical units - must correspond to the style of the text, otherwise they are completely inappropriate.
Example:
Today there was an open day at the university.
Here the obsolete word now (today, now, currently) is completely inappropriate.
Among the words that have fallen out of active use, historicisms also stand out. Historicisms are words that have fallen out of use due to the disappearance of the concepts they denote: armyak, camisole, bursa, oprichnik, etc. Errors in the use of historicisms are often associated with ignorance of their lexical meaning.
Example:
The peasants cannot stand their hard life and go to the main governor of the city.
Governor is the head of a region (for example, a province in Tsarist Russia, a state in the USA). Consequently, the chief governor is an absurdity; moreover, there could only be one governor in the province, and his assistant was called the vice-governor.
10. Words of foreign origin.
Now many people have an addiction to foreign words, sometimes without even knowing their exact meaning. Sometimes the context does not accept a foreign word.
Example:
The work of the conference is limited due to the lack of leading specialists.
Limit - set a limit on something, limit it. The foreign word limit in this sentence should be replaced with the words: goes slower, stopped, etc.
11.Dialectisms.
Dialectisms are words or stable combinations that are not included in the lexical system of the literary language and belong to one or more dialects of the Russian national language. Dialectisms are justified in artistic or journalistic speech to create speech characteristics of heroes. The unmotivated use of dialectisms indicates insufficient knowledge of the norms of the literary language.
Example:
A scavenger came to see me and sat there the whole evening.
Shaberka is a neighbor. The use of dialectism in this sentence is not justified either by the style of the text or by the purpose of the statement.
12. Colloquial and colloquial words.
Colloquial words are included in the lexical system of the literary language, but are used mainly in oral speech, mainly in the sphere of everyday communication. Colloquial speech is a word, grammatical form or turn of phrase, predominantly of oral speech, used in a literary language, usually for the purpose of a reduced, rough characterization of the subject of speech, as well as simple casual speech containing such words, forms and turns. Colloquial and vernacular vocabulary, in contrast to dialect (regional), is used in the speech of the entire people.
Example:
I have a very thin jacket.
Thin (colloquial) – holey, spoiled (thin boot). Errors occur in cases where the use of colloquial and colloquial words is not motivated by context.
13. Professional jargon.
Professionalisms act as colloquial equivalents of terms accepted in a certain professional group: typo - a mistake in the speech of journalists; steering wheel - in the speech of drivers, a steering wheel.
But the unmotivated transfer of professionalism into general literary speech is undesirable. Such professionalisms as sewing, tailoring, listening and others spoil literary speech.
In terms of limited use and the nature of expression (jocular, reduced, etc.), professionalisms are similar to jargons and are an integral part of jargons - peculiar social dialects characteristic of professional or age groups of people (jargon of athletes, sailors, hunters, students, schoolchildren). Jargon is everyday vocabulary and phraseology, endowed with reduced expression and characterized by socially limited use.
Example:
I wanted to invite guests to the holiday, but the hut doesn’t allow it.
Khibara is a house.
14. Phraseologisms.
It must be remembered that phraseological units always have a figurative meaning. Decorating our speech, making it more lively, imaginative, bright, beautiful, phraseological units also give us a lot of trouble - if they are used incorrectly, speech errors appear.
1. Errors in learning the meaning of phraseological units.
1) There is a danger of literal understanding of phraseological units, which can be perceived as free associations of words.
2) Errors may be associated with a change in the meaning of a phraseological unit.
Example:
Khlestakov throws pearls before swine all the time, but everyone believes him.
Here the phraseology “throwing pearls before swine”, meaning “to talk about something in vain or to prove something to someone who is not able to understand it,” is used incorrectly – in the meaning of “inventing, weaving fables.”
2. Errors in mastering the form of phraseological units.
1) Grammatical modification of a phraseological unit.
Example:
I'm used to giving myself full reports.
The form of the number has been changed here. There is a phraseological unit to give account.
Example: He constantly sits with his hands folded. Phraseologisms like folded arms, headlong, headlong retain in their composition the old form of the perfective participle with the suffix -a (-я).
Some phraseological units use short forms of adjectives; replacing them with full forms is erroneous.
2) Lexical modification of a phraseological unit.
Example:
It's time for you to take charge of your mind.
Most phraseological units are impenetrable: an additional unit cannot be introduced into the phraseological unit.
Example:
Well, at least hit the wall!
Omitting a phraseological unit component is also a speech error.
Example:
Everything returns to normal!..
There is a phraseological unit that goes round and round. Substitution of a word is not allowed.
3. Changing the lexical compatibility of phraseological units.
Example:
These and other questions play a big role in the development of this still young science.
There has been a mixture of two stable expressions: it plays a role and it matters. You could say this: questions matter... or questions matter a lot.
15. Clichés and cliches.
Officeisms are words and expressions, the use of which is assigned to the official business style, but in other styles of speech they are inappropriate, they are cliches.
Example:
There is a lack of spare parts.
Stamps are hackneyed expressions with a faded lexical meaning and erased expressiveness. Words, phrases and even whole sentences become cliches, which appear as new, stylistically expressive means of speech, but as a result of too frequent use they lose their original imagery.
Example:
A forest of hands went up during the vote.
A type of stamps are universal words. These are words that are used in the most general and vague meanings: question, task, raise, provide, etc. Usually, universal words are accompanied by standard prefixes: work - everyday, level - high, support - warm. There are numerous journalistic cliches (field workers, a city on the Volga), and literary cliches (an exciting image, an angry protest).
Larisa Fominykh
Is it a grammatical or speech error?
The need to distinguish between grammatical and speech errors in students’ creative works is dictated by existing standards. The first type of errors is an integral part of the assessment for literacy, the second (as one of the components) - for content. When checking essays on the Unified State Examination (Part C), they must also be differentiated. However, in practice, difficulties often arise in their differentiation. The purpose of this note is to help the teacher determine the nature of these shortcomings.
A grammatical error is a violation of the structure of a language unit: incorrect word formation (there is no such word in the language); incorrect formation of word forms; errors in the construction of phrases and sentences. Violations of this kind account for about 31%.
A grammatical error, depending on its nature, can be made in a word, in a phrase or in a sentence. No context is required to detect it. Unlike spelling or punctuation, a grammatical error can be detected by hearing, and not only in a written text, while a spelling error can only be detected in writing.
Let's consider main types of grammatical errors.
I. Erroneous word formation: cake; liked it; chewing gum; showed indifference.
II. Errors in the formation of forms of different parts of speech:
1) nouns (gender; nominative and genitive plural forms; declension of indeclinable nouns): where is the second slipper? my birthday; our engineers; there are few real friendships; rode on ponies;
2) adjectives (double comparative or superlative): less successful; the most beautiful fountain; more attractive;
3) names of numerals (incorrect formation of case forms of cardinal numerals; errors in the use of ordinal and collective numerals): over eight hundred meters; seven skiers; on page thirty-eight;
4) pronouns: Until what time are classes? with their neighbors; evon book;
5) verbs: lay down the walls; we want to eat; erase from the board; brushes five times in a row; slam the door; drive straight; tomorrow I will clean up (do the laundry); This also includes a violation of the type-temporal correlation of verb forms in a sentence: When December arrives, the weather changes dramatically.
6) participles (they do not have a future tense form; they are not used with the particle would; reflexive and non-reflexive forms cannot be mixed): everyone who writes an essay will receive credit; there is not a single book here that would attract our attention; studied all available information; troops fighting the enemy;
7) participles: walked, looking around; applying ointment to the wound; having bought the service;
Sh. Syntax errors- violations in the construction of phrases and sentences:
1) errors in management: describes about the battle; thirst for power; I can’t wait until I leave;
2) in agreement: young people are eager to learn; people believe that life will not get better; with a group of tourists who are keen on mountain river rafting;
4) in constructing sentences with homogeneous members:
a) the member of the sentence and the subordinate clause are used as homogeneous ones: I want to show the importance of sports and why I love it;
b) with two predicate verbs there is a common addition that cannot be used in this form with one of them: We remember and admire the exploits of heroes;
c) inaccurate use of double conjunction: How the elderly, as well as children, were the first to be evacuated(need: both..., and...). I not only prepared on my own, but also attended an elective(not only but…);
5) in the use of participial phrases: There is little difference between the topics written on the board;
6) participial phrases: After skating at the skating rink, my legs hurt. And then, while preparing for exams, it was as if he had been replaced.
7) in the construction of complex sentences (distortion of conjunctions; use of two subordinating conjunctions at the same time; “stringing” similar subordinate clauses): When the bell rings, you need to get ready to go home. Everyone began to praise the performers, as if they were real artists. He said what he did not know about this incident. I heard that you asked me to tell you that you will arrive soon.
8) violation of sentence boundaries: 1.When the wind ran through. And clouds quickly ran across the sky. 2. I poured milk into a saucer for the hedgehog. And he put the hedgehog in the box.
However, one should remember the phenomenon of parcellation, when the author deliberately breaks up a sentence to give it greater expressiveness or highlight a thought: The very thought of betrayal is unpleasant to me. Because it goes against my beliefs.
9) mixing direct and indirect speech: A.S. Pushkin writes that I awakened good feelings with the lyre.
Main types of speech errors
Speech errors- These are errors associated with violation of the requirements of correct speech. The reason for them is the poverty of the students' vocabulary, inexpressiveness of speech, failure to distinguish paronyms, non-compliance with the lexical compatibility of words, speech cliches, etc. From the point of view of grammar, there are no violations, all forms of words, syntactic constructions correspond to the language norm, however, in general, the text of the work indicates the poverty of the student’s speech .
1) Using words in a meaning that is unusual for them: The pathos of his work is laughter - a formidable weapon of the writer. Monologue of wind and tree...
2) tautology (repetition of words with the same root in one sentence): The enemy was getting closer and closer.The young district of the city was named after the name of the street. The writer vividly describes the events of the Great Patriotic War.
It should be noted that the use of cognate words in one sentence may be quite acceptable. In the Russian folk language there are a number of expressions like: all sorts of things, telling jokes, doing your thing, roaring, howling, groaning. Either stand standing, or sit sitting, or lie down. (proverb)
Many of them have already become phraseological units or are approaching them. In works of art, the author may deliberately resort to tautology:
Soon the fairy tale is told, but not soon the deed is done. (A.S. Pushkin)
The smoke from the pipes goes into the chimney. (A.S. Pushkin)
I wish you and myself more pride, less pride. (K. Vanshenkin)
3) pleonasm (hidden tautology): the main leitmotif of his work; We invite you to celebrate the New Year holidays away from the cold, blizzards and frosts; specific feature of creativity; colleagues;
4) mixing of paronyms: representatives of high society led a festive life; after a quarrel, hostile relations were established between neighbors; This dish is very filling;
5) violation of lexical compatibility: hunger and devastation gloat all around; the standard of living of the population has deteriorated;
7) speech stamps: Now let's talk about heating; in the summer we love to relax at the seaside; the exam can be held upon completion of mastering the subject;
8) dialectal, colloquial, slang words: he is used to living for free; she looked cool; in the image of Khlestakov, Gogol showed a terrible impudence who shamelessly lies and takes bribes;
9) mixing vocabulary from different historical eras: Marya Kirillovna and the prince went to get married at the registry office. Lisa served as Famusov's housekeeper;
10) unjustified repetition of identical words in adjacent sentences (usually these are verbs of movement, being, speaking): Boy was dressed in a burnt quilted jacket. Vatnik was roughly darned. AND were he is wearing worn trousers. And the soldier's boots were almost new.
Such a defect should be distinguished from repetition as a stylistic device, which is actively used by poets and writers:
Beautiful things are never in vain.
They don't grow even in a black year
The maple is in vain, and the willow is in vain,
And a wasted flower on the pond. (Yu. Moritz)
The hazy afternoon lazily breathes,
The river rolls lazily.
And in the fiery and pure firmament
The clouds are lazily melting. (F. Tyutchev)
11) unsuccessful use of personal and demonstrative pronouns as a means of connecting sentences (resulting in the creation of ambiguity): Don't give your wife a company car. She may get into an accident. - We watched the film in the new cinema. From him We were left with a good impression.
12) bad word order: Dobrolyubov called the merchants from Ostrovsky’s plays representatives of the “dark kingdom.” Scriabin's prelude and nocturne for the left hand were performed by Margarita Fedorova.
To make it more convenient to use the classification of these errors, we present them in abbreviated form in the table:
| Grammatical errors | Speech errors |
| 1) erroneous word formation: pleasure to live; wakefulness; grant for life; | 1) the use of a word in a meaning that is unusual for it: In an allergic form, Gorky tells us about the Petrel. |
| 2) errors in the formation of word forms: no places; more strict; five hundred rubles; waiting; theirs; | 2) violation of lexical compatibility: cheap prices; he constantly expands his horizons; |
| 3) violation of the type-temporal correlation of verbs: sat at the table and didn’t talk to me; | 3) tautology: Everyone was in a businesslike mood. Crime increased by five percent. |
| 4) errors in coordination and management: from the part of the novel I read; | 4) pleonasm: colleagues; feathered birds; |
| 5) violation of agreement between subject and predicate: Humanity is fighting for peace. Young people on the bus are jostling and making noise. | 5) unjustified repetitions of words in adjacent sentences: The guys woke up early. The guys decided to go into the forest. The guys went into the forest along a field road. |
| 6) errors in the use of participial and participial phrases: While sledding, I got a headache. Reading books, life became more diverse. | 6) Inappropriate use of personal and demonstrative pronouns, creating ambiguity: The girl has a hat on her head. She looks flirty. |
| 7) errors in constructing complex sentences: Before leaving, we went to the river. | 7) the use of a word of a different stylistic coloring: To poison Lensky, Onegin takes care of Olga. |
| 8) mixing direct and indirect speech: The governor told the oil workers that we value your contribution to the regional economy. | 8) mixing vocabulary from different historical eras: Gerasim returned to the village and began working on a collective farm. |
Training tasks
1. Find grammatical errors in the sentences and determine their type.
1. The logs were heavy, so they were placed on sticks and carried.
2. The accident occurred five hundred and eleven kilometers from Moscow.
3. The management of the organization hopes that in this way they can stop the growth of the queue for kindergartens.
4. And they made a new swing in our yard!
5. While writing the review, Iskander used a rhetorical question.
6. These plans need and deserve every support.
7. But father answered that you are still too small for such work. Chatsky’s ardent speeches are addressed to the nobility, who do not want and are even afraid of change.
8. Now methods of water purification are becoming more advanced.
9. The spring sun was shining brightly, and the birds were singing.
10. Having risen to our floor, the door to our apartment was open.
11. From a distance, logs floating on the water were visible.
12. The sons of Taras dismounted from their horses, who were studying at the Kyiv Bursa.
2. Find speech errors and determine their type.
1. We foresaw all the difficulties of the hike in advance.
2. Khlestakov got into the chaise and shouted: “Drive, my dear, to the airport!”
The Latin word is lapsus. It denotes an error in a person's speech. From this word came the well-known abbreviation blunder. Only if a blunder is considered a gross violation of speech norms, then lapsus has a less strict meaning. Unfortunately, there is no analogue of this word, which denotes speech errors, in modern Russian. But lapsus are found everywhere.
Speech errors are divided into standard errors and typos. Typos are mechanical errors. A word may be spelled incorrectly in the text, which will complicate the perception of information. Or instead of one word they accidentally use another. Typos also occur in spoken language. These are slips of the tongue that you hear from people every day.
Mechanical errors occur unconsciously, but a lot depends on them. Errors in writing numbers create a distortion of factual information. And spelling words incorrectly can completely change the meaning of what was said. One scene from the film “Alexander and the Terrible, Horrible, No Good, Very Bad Day,” directed by Miguel Arteta, demonstrates the problem of typos well. The printing house mixed up the letters “p” and “s” and in a children’s book they wrote, instead of “You can jump on the bed,” the phrase “You can burp on the bed.” And according to the plot of the film, this situation resulted in a scandal.
Particular attention was paid to typos during the Stalinist repressions, when an incorrectly spelled word cost a person his life. It is impossible to eradicate the problem of typos, since people make them unconsciously. The only way you will avoid this type of speech error is to be careful when writing the text, carefully choosing the words you say.
Types of regulatory errors
Speech errors are associated with violations of the norms of the Russian language. Types of speech errors:
- orthoepic;
- morphological;
- spelling;
- syntactic-punctuation;
- stylistic;
- lexical.
Spelling error
A pronunciation error is associated with a violation of orthoepy norms. It manifests itself only in oral speech. This is an erroneous pronunciation of sounds, words or phrases. Also, errors in pronunciation include incorrect stress.
The distortion of words occurs in the direction of reducing the number of letters. For example, when instead of “thousand” the word “thousand” is pronounced. If you want to speak competently and beautifully, you should rid your speech of such words. A common mispronunciation of the word “of course” is “of course.”
Pronouncing the correct accent is not only correct, but also fashionable. Surely you have heard how people correct the incorrect emphasis in the words “Alcohol”, “calls”, “contract” to the correct ones - “alcohol”, “calls” and “contract”. Incorrect placement of stress has recently become more noticeable than before. And the opinion about your erudition depends on compliance with pronunciation standards.
Morphological error
Morphology is a branch of linguistics in which the object of study is words and their parts. Morphological errors are caused by incorrect formation of word forms of different parts of speech. The reasons are incorrect declension, errors in the use of gender and number.
For example, "doctors" instead of "doctors". This is a morphological error in the use of the plural.
They often use the wrong form of a word when changing case. The genitive case of the word apples is apples. Sometimes the incorrect form of "apples" is used instead.
Common morphological errors - incorrect spelling of numerals:
“The company owned five hundred and fifty-three branches.” In this example, the word “fifty” was not declined. Correct spelling: "The company owned five hundred and fifty-three branches."
In the use of adjectives, a common mistake is the incorrect use of the comparative degree. For example, this use: “more beautiful” instead of “more beautiful”. Or “the highest” instead of “the highest” or “the highest”.
Spelling mistake
Spelling errors are misspellings of words. They arise when a person does not know the correct spelling of a word. Have you ever received a message containing grammatical errors? A common example: spelling the word “sorry” with an “e.” To prevent such spelling errors from happening to you, read as much as possible. Reading stimulates the perception of the correct spelling of words. And if you are used to reading correctly written text, then you will write without making grammatical errors.
Spelling errors, in principle, occur due to ignorance of the correct words. Therefore, if you are not sure of a written word, you should consult a dictionary. At work, learn the list of words specific to your field that you need to remember and in which you should never make grammatical errors.
Syntax and punctuation errors
These types of speech errors occur when punctuation marks are placed incorrectly and words are incorrectly combined in phrases and sentences.
Missing dashes, extra commas - this refers to punctuation errors. Don't be lazy to open your textbook if you're not sure about the use of commas. Again, this is a problem that can be overcome by reading a lot of books. You get used to the correct placement of punctuation marks and already on an intuitive level it is difficult for you to make a mistake.
Violations of syntax rules are common. Coordination errors are common. “To be happy, a person needs a favorite place to relax, a job, a happy family.” The word “need” in this sentence is not suitable for listing. It is necessary to use “need”.
Professional editors believe that management error is common. When a word is replaced by a synonym or a similar word, but the control does not agree with the new word.
An example of a management error: “They praised and congratulated Alina for her victory.”
They praised Alina. They brought congratulations to Alina. Parts of the proposal are inconsistent due to mismanagement. After "praised" you need to add the word "her" to correct the mistake.
Stylistic errors
Unlike other types of errors, stylistic errors are based on distortion of the meaning of the text. Classification of main stylistic speech errors:
- Pleonasm. The phenomenon occurs frequently. Pleonasm is a redundant expression. The author expresses a thought, supplementing it with information that is already understandable to everyone. For example, “a minute passed,” “he told the true truth,” “a secret spy was watching the passenger.” A minute is a unit of time. The truth is the truth. And a spy is a secret agent in any case.
- Cliche. These are established phrases that are used very often. Clichés cannot be completely attributed to speech errors. Sometimes their use is appropriate. But if they are often found in the text or a cliché of a conversational style is used in a business style, this is a serious speech error. Clichés include the expressions “to win”, “golden autumn”, “overwhelming majority”.
- Tautology. An error in which the same or similar words are often repeated. The same word should not be repeated in the same sentence. It is advisable to eliminate repetitions in adjacent sentences.
Sentences in which this error was made: “He smiled, his smile filled the room with light,” “Katya blushed from the red wine,” “Petya loved to go fishing and catch fish.”
- Violation of word order. In English, word order is much stricter than in Russian. It is distinguished by the clear construction of parts of a sentence in a certain sequence. In Russian, you can rearrange phrases as you would like. But it is important not to lose the meaning of the statement.
To prevent this from happening, follow two rules:
- The order of words in a sentence can be direct or reverse depending on the subject and predicate.
- The secondary members of the sentence must agree with the words on which they depend.
Lexical speech errors
Vocabulary is the vocabulary of a language. Mistakes occur when you write or talk about something you don’t understand. More often, errors in the meanings of words occur for several reasons:
- The word is outdated and rarely used in modern Russian.
- The word refers to highly specialized vocabulary.
- The word is a neologism and its meaning is not widespread.
Classification of lexical speech errors:
- False synonymy. A person considers several words that are not synonyms to be synonyms. For example, authority is not popularity, and features are not differences. Examples where an error was made:“The singer was an authority among young people” instead of “The singer was popular among young people.” “The brother and sister had many differences in their personalities” instead of “The brother and sister had many differences in their personalities.”
- Using words that sound similar. For example, using the word “single” when you need to say “ordinary”. Instead of the word “Indian” they may write the mistaken “Indian”.
- Confusion in words with similar meanings. “Interviewer” and “Interviewee”, “Subscriber” and “Subscription”, “Addressee” and “Addressee”.
- Unintentional formation of new words.
It's easy to make a speech error. Sometimes this happens in case of a slip of the tongue, and sometimes the problem lies in ignorance of some norm of the Russian language or due to confusion in the meanings of words. Read a lot of books, speak correctly and don’t hesitate to consult a dictionary or textbook once again. Constantly work on your oral and written speech so that the number of errors is close to zero.
Speech errors- this is a violation of the laws of use of language units in speech, as well as shortcomings in the formation of syntactic structures.
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Types of speech impediments |
Examples |
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1. Using a word in a meaning that is unusual for it |
My brother became a diplomat at an international performing arts competition |
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2. Failure to distinguish shades of meaning introduced into a word by a prefix or suffix |
Economical electrical appliances are now being produced - they consume little electricity |
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3. Violation of lexical compatibility |
To bring joy, to give care |
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4. Using an extra word (pleonasm) |
Surround, old veterans |
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5. Use nearby (or close) words with the same root (tautology) |
The teacher teaches students, the following picture shows |
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6. Poor use of personal and demonstrative pronouns |
The girl took the plate, walked up to the dog and put it on the floor |
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7. Violation of aspectual-temporal correlation of verb forms |
The bird was lying on the grass and trembling all over |
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8. Repeating the same word |
The author is trying to show us the difference between the Motherland and native places. Love for the Motherland begins with its culture. |
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9. Use of a word (or expression) of a different stylistic coloring |
This novel is truly one of Tolstoy's best novels. |
Types of grammatical errors
Grammatical errors are a violation of the norms of word and form formation, as well as the norms of syntactic connections between words in a phrase and sentence.
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Types of grammatical errors |
Examples |
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Derivational |
Erroneous word formation |
Borrowed, back and ridiculed |
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Morphological |
1. Errors in the formation of noun forms |
Our engineer, a lot of banana and tangerine, light tulle |
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2. Errors in the formation of adjective forms |
More beautiful, brightest, sweetest |
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3. Errors in the formation of pronoun forms |
All the work in their house, left the reception |
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4. Errors in the formation of verb forms |
I dare, vacuum it, burn it out |
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Syntactic |
1. Violation of agreement 2. Impaired control 3. Disruption of connection between subject and predicate 4. Errors in constructing sentences with participles 5. Errors in constructing sentences with participial phrases 6. Errors in constructing sentences with homogeneous members 7. Errors in constructing complex sentences 8. Displacement of direct and indirect speech |
It was the famous deputy Sergeeva. I don't have the slightest idea about what happened. Twenty-one people came to the meeting. Opening the window, it started to rain The sea roared dully, agitated by the storm that had begun in the morning. The class teacher talked about the progress of the graduates, their behavior and why they study so poorly. |
Types of logical errors
Logical errors are a violation of the sequence (logic) of presentation.
Logical errors consist of violating the rules of logical thinking. This type of error includes the following shortcomings in the content of the work:
1) violation of the sequence of utterances;
2) lack of connection between parts and sentences;
3) unjustified repetition of a previously expressed thought;
4) fragmentation of one micro-theme by another micro-theme;
5) disproportionality of parts of the statement;
6) lack of necessary parts;
7) rearrangement of parts of the text (if it is not due to the assignment for presentation);
8) unjustified substitution of the person from whom the story is told (for example, first from the first, then from the third person).
Logical errors (L)- associated with a violation of the logical correctness of speech. They arise as a result of a violation of the laws of logic, committed both within one sentence, judgment, and at the level of the entire text.
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CLASSIFICATION OF ERRORS CORRECTED AND TAKEN INTO ACCOUNT WHEN EVALUATING A STUDENT’S WORK
Sherstobitova I.A., Associate Professor, Department of Humanitarian Education, St. Petersburg APPO
Belokurova S.P., methodologist of the IMC Krasnogvardeisky district of St. Petersburg
Gvozdinskaya L.G., head Center for Humanitarian Education of St. Petersburg APPO
Speech errors (P)– these are errors not in the construction of a sentence, not in the structure of a linguistic unit, but in its use, most often in the use of a word, i.e. a violation of lexical norms. This is pleonasm, tautology, speech cliches, inappropriate use of colloquial vocabulary, dialectisms, jargon; expressive means, non-discrimination of paronyms. Errors in the use of homonyms, antonyms, synonyms, polysemy not eliminated by the context.
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CLASSIFICATION OF ERRORS CORRECTED AND TAKEN INTO ACCOUNT WHEN EVALUATING A STUDENT’S WORK
Sherstobitova I.A., Associate Professor, Department of Humanitarian Education, St. Petersburg APPO
Belokurova S.P., methodologist of the IMC Krasnogvardeisky district of St. Petersburg
Gvozdinskaya L.G., head Center for Humanitarian Education of St. Petersburg APPO
Grammatical errors (G)- these are errors in the structure of a linguistic unit: words, phrases or sentences, i.e. a violation of any grammatical norm - word formation, morphological, syntactic.
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CLASSIFICATION OF ERRORS CORRECTED AND TAKEN INTO ACCOUNT WHEN EVALUATING A STUDENT’S WORK
Sherstobitova I.A., Associate Professor, Department of Humanitarian Education, St. Petersburg APPO
Belokurova S.P., methodologist of the IMC Krasnogvardeisky district of St. Petersburg
Gvozdinskaya L.G., head Center for Humanitarian Education of St. Petersburg APPO
Factual errors (F)– a type of non-linguistic error, which consists in the fact that the writer cites facts that contradict reality, gives incorrect information about factual circumstances, both related and not related to the analyzed text (background knowledge).
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Ethical errors (E)– violation of the system of values and rules of ethics in the work: statements that degrade human dignity, expressing an arrogant and cynical attitude towards the human person, hostility, manifestations of verbal aggression, slang words and phrases.
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Let's learn to speak correctly.
Correcting speech errors
The proposed tasks will help schoolchildren learn to find, classify, and correct speech errors and shortcomings.
1. This model is for display purposes only and is not for sale.
2. I borrowed a thousand rubles to my neighbor until February.
3. The boy did not answer anything, but only blinked his eyes.
4. The court found him guilty of committing a crime.
5. His father was a real polyglot: he could answer questions from any field of knowledge in detail and thoroughly.
6. The rescuers saw that a man was drowning in the sea.
7. The wounded Prince Andrei fell face down. When he woke up, he saw a high, endless sky.
8. Katerina’s mother-in-law constantly taught life to the household.
9. Our products are imported to many countries around the world.
10. I switched to a more economical tariff.
Tasks
1) Mark the sentences in which any word is used in a meaning that is unusual for it. (2, 5, 7, 8, 9.)
2) Mark sentences with violations of stylistic compatibility. (3, 6.)
3) Mark the sentences in which its paronym should be used instead of the word. (1, 4, 10.)
Answers: 1 - demonstration, 2 - lent or lent, 3 - blinked, 4 - guilty, 5 - encyclopedist, 6 - drowning, 7 - fell backward, 8 - mother-in-law, 9 - exported, 10 - economical.
1. Conversation with this person was important.
2. Beautiful curtains decorated the room.
3. I want to raise a toast to the health of the birthday boy.
4. The contents of the package must be filled with hot boiling water.
5. To enhance the reader's experience, the author narrates in the first person.
6. Gogol’s story “The Overcoat” tells the story of the life of the official Bashmachkin.
7. Our agency provides students with many available vacancies.
8. This victory came at a high price.
9. You don't see obvious facts.
10. This store has expensive prices.
Tasks
1) Mark the sentences with violation of lexical compatibility. (1, 3, 5, 10.)
2) Mark the sentences in which the same root words are used nearby. (2, 6, 9.)
3) Mark the sentences that use extra words. (4, 7.)
4) Write down the corrected options.
Answers: 1 – played an important role or was of great importance, 2 - magnificent curtains, 3 - raise a glass or make a toast, 4 - hot water or boiling water, 5 – to enhance the impression, 6 – talks about life, 7 – many vacancies, 9 – you don’t notice, 10 – high prices.
1. It was Sophia who started the rumor that Chatsky was crazy.
2. My brother graduated from school with a medal.
3. You brought me to my knees.
4. Thirty tons of carrots were delivered to the city stores.
5. Our physics teacher got sick, so the lesson was postponed.
6. I was so tired from the long journey that I was neither alive nor dead.
7. Dear students! Urgently submit your records to the dean's office.
8. I signed this agreement with a creaky heart.
9. The court decided to divide the property between the spouses.
10. My sister shed crocodile tears when the heroine of the film died.
Tasks
1) Mark the sentences that violate the form of the phraseological unit. (3, 8.)
2) Mark sentences with incorrect use of phraseological units. (6, 10.)
3) Replace colloquial and colloquial words and expressions in sentences with neutral ones. (1, 2, 4, 5, 7, 9.)
4) Write down the corrected options.
Answers: 1 – lost my mind, 2 – graduated, 3 – white-hot, 4 – carrots, 5 – physics teacher, 6 – I was very tired from the long march (neither alive nor dead from fear), 7 – grade books, 8 – reluctantly , 9 - about the division, 10 - she cried bitterly.
1. Onegin thinks that he cannot love anymore, and he was mistaken.
2. Mom wrapped her daughter in a shawl and took her away.
3. Our publishing house published a book that was popular among readers who love detective stories.
5. Katerina wants her husband to take her with him, but Tikhon refused.
6. The hero goes to another world, and then the hero becomes disappointed in it.
7. This device, which appeared on the shelves of stores specializing in the sale of household appliances, was appreciated by many customers.
8. The hero does not like to talk about his past life, and therefore he was not understood.
9. When I first read this book, I remembered the summer when I went to the sea.
10. Chatsky wants to change the life of Famusov’s Moscow, and he partially succeeds.
Tasks
1) Mark the sentences with a violation of the aspectual-temporal correlation of verb forms. (1, 8, 9.)
2) Mark the sentences in which pronouns are used poorly. (2, 4.)
3) Mark poorly constructed sentences. (3, 7, 9.)
4) Mark sentences with unnecessary repetition of words. (6, 9.)
5) Write down the corrected options.
Answers: 1 - Onegin thinks...... and is mistaken, 2 - and takes away the girl, 3 - among readers who love detective stories, 4 - about the consequences of actions committed by a person, 5 - but Tikhon refuses, 6 - the hero leaves for another world, but then is disappointed in it, 7 - this device, which appeared on the shelves of stores that specialize in selling household equipment, was appreciated by many buyers, 8 - they do not understand it, 9 - reading this book for the first time, I remembered my summer trip to the sea.
Often masters of words in their works deviate from speech norms, achieving a certain artistic effect. Find deviations from speech norms in the given fragments of literary works and say what effect the authors achieve.
1. The whole room is illuminated with an amber shine.
The flooded stove crackles with a cheerful sound...
(A. Pushkin. Winter morning)
(Resorting to tautology crackles, the author conveys the sound that the lyrical hero of the poem hears.)
2. The moon makes its way through the wavy fogs,
She pours a sad light onto the sad meadows.
(A. Pushkin. Winter road)
(Tautology (she pours a sad light onto the sad meadows) helps the author to concentrate the reader’s attention on the emotional state of the lyrical hero.)
3. The conversations fell silent for a moment;
The mouth is chewing.
(A. Pushkin. Eugene Onegin)
(Combination of words of different styles (mouth chews) creates a comic effect.)
4. And we float, a burning abyss
Surrounded on all sides.
(F. Tyutchev. Dreams)
(Pleonasm (surrounded on all sides) emphasizes the complete immersion of the lyrical hero in the world of sleep.)
5. Green noise goes and hums,
Green noise, spring noise.
(N. Nekrasov. Green noise)
(A combination of words with contradictory meanings Green noise(catachresis) helps the author create a single visual-auditory image; lexical repetition in the first and second lines draws the reader's attention to this image.)
VI. Edit a piece of your essay.
All the images of the poem depicted
The reader, reading page after page, laughs at pretentious Manilov, above brutal Sobakevich, above blunt Box, above constantly lying scoundrel Nozdrev, and miser Plyushkin, collecting everything trash, – this is actually something. But especially Chichikov attracted my attention, somewhat similar and at the same time unlike to other characters in the poem.
Chichikov is similar to Manilov in that knew how to suck up to the right people similar on Sobakevich in that he can insist on his own, similar on Nozdryov by what he comes up with all sorts of scams, similar on Korobochka and Plyushkin by putting necessary and unnecessary things in a drawer.
But at the same time, Chichikov is significantly different from the other heroes of the poem. If heroic landowners are parasites, then Chichikov constantly sets new goals for himself and tries to achieve them. Already in childhood he was businessman, knew how to invest money profitably and get fat. So, when he was in school, he sold buns that he bought in advance, starving comrades and benefited from it.
But when the hero became an adult, not a single one of him the case didn't work out. Most likely, Gogol is punishing your hero because, for all his business qualities, he is an immoral person. So, for example, he did not help to his old teacher, who considered Pavlusha the best student; working in the treasury chamber, while seeking a promotion, he deceived the police chief and his daughter.
Approximate corrected version
All the images of the poem created Gogol, are interesting in their own way. Reading the page behind the page, We we laugh at the mannered Manilov and rude Sobakevich, above stupid In a box and constantly a lying rogue Nozdrev; A miser Plyushkin, collecting unnecessary things, produces special impression. But most attracted my attention Chichikov, somewhat similar to other heroes of the poem, but at the same time different from them.
Chichikov resembles Manilov in that can gain confidence to the right people; the hero's ability to insist on his own makes him similar with Sobakevich; like Nozdrev, Chichikov comes up with different scams; A storage necessary and unnecessary things in the drawer brings closer together hero with Plyushkin and Korobochka.
But, unlike idle landowners, Chichikov constantly sets new goals for himself and tries to achieve them. Already in childhood he businessman who knows how to invest money profitably and get profit. So, while still a schoolboy, he sells buns purchased in advance hungry comrades and benefits from it.
However, the matured hero can't succeed in anything. Most likely, Gogol is punishing Chichikova for the fact that, with all his business qualities, the hero is immoral person. For example, Chichikov refuses help to his old teacher, who considered Pavlusha the best student; serving in the government chamber and seeking a promotion, the hero deceives the police officer and his daughter.
I.A. RUDENKO,
Magnitogorsk city
multidisciplinary
Lyceum at MSTU. Nosova
