The peoples of Russia are Ukrainians. Daily life of the peoples of Ukraine, the Volga region, Siberia and the North Caucasus
Russia: the rise of a great power
At the turn of the XVII-XVIII centuries. Russia established itself as a great power. During the 18th century alone, its population increased from approximately 15.6 million people to 37.3 million. This was more than in France and England combined. After the creation of metallurgical enterprises in the Urals in the 18th century, Russia smelted more cast iron and iron than England.
Russia and Ukraine in the 17th century
The most significant changes in the position of Russia and the nature of its development occurred during the reign of Alexei Mikhailovich Romanov (reigned 1645-1676).
During these years, Russia waged almost continuous wars with its traditional opponents - the Polish-Lithuanian state, Sweden and the Crimean Khanate.
In 1648, a war began between Poland and the Zaporozhye Cossack army. In 1649, the Cossacks turned to Russia for help. She was not yet ready to fight, but promised to support the Cossacks with money, weapons and volunteers.
The Zaporozhye army was a unique state formation that arose in the 16th century on the vast territory of the middle and lower Dnieper region. These lands, bordering the Crimean Khanate from the south and constantly subject to its raids, and Russia from the north
They were considered to belong to Poland, but she had no real power over them. Peasants from Russian, Polish and Lithuanian lands settled here for decades, escaping the tyranny of the landowners. They mixed with the local population, started farming, fought back against the Crimean Tatars, and themselves raided Crimea, and sometimes even Polish lands. Ukrainian Cossacks who lived in the middle reaches of the Dnieper received money for their service from the Polish crown. The hetman, colonels, and captains they chose were established in Warsaw. The Cossacks who lived in the lower reaches of the Dnieper - “beyond the rapids” (hence Zaporozhye) were formally subjects of the Polish crown, but considered themselves independent of it. Their support was a fortified settlement - Zaporozhye Sich.
Poland's attempts to subjugate all the Cossacks to its power became the cause of the war, which continued with varying success until 1654. In 1653, the hetman of the Zaporozhye army, Bogdan Khmelnitsky (1595 - 1657), officially appealed to Russia with a request to accept Ukraine “under the high royal hand.” The Zemsky Sobor in 1654 decided to join Ukraine to Russia. The agreement signed and approved by the All-Ukrainian Rada in Pereyaslavl provided for the preservation of broad rights for the Ukrainian Cossacks, in particular the election of all officials.
The reunification of Ukraine with Russia became the cause of the Russian-Polish War of 1654-1667. It went poorly for Poland, which was also attacked by Sweden. Under these conditions, Russia signed a truce with Poland in 1656 and opposed Sweden, which it saw as a more dangerous enemy.
Meanwhile, the situation in Ukraine has worsened. B. Khmelnitsky's successor, Hetman I. Vygovsky, in 1658 terminated the agreement with Russia and entered into an alliance with Poland and Crimea, they jointly began military operations against Russia. In a difficult situation for itself, the Russian government was forced, at the cost of returning all conquered territories to Sweden, to urgently make peace with it. The problem of access to the Baltic Sea again remained unresolved.
The situation of Russia, whose army suffered heavy losses, was worsened by the split of Ukraine into the Right Bank and the Left Bank. In 1667, Russia concluded a truce with Poland. Right Bank Ukraine remained under her rule.
The war in the south did not end there. In 1672, the armies of Turkey and the Crimean Khanate invaded Ukraine. The outbreak of war between Turkey and Russia proceeded with varying degrees of success. Only in 1681 was a peace treaty signed, according to which Kyiv and Left Bank Ukraine remained with Russia.
Development of Ukrainian culture in the XIV - first half of the XVII century. organically connected with the historical circumstances that took place in the lands of Ukraine, which was then part of the Grand Duchy of Lithuania. The Union of Kreva (in 1385) marked the beginning of the unification of Lithuania and Poland, giving the Polish gentry the right to own Ukrainian lands, and thereby legitimized the expansion of Latin culture for several centuries. A positive moment in this process was the entry of Ukrainian lands into the space of Western civilization. On the other hand, Poland launched an all-out attack on Ukrainian culture, the Orthodox faith, customs, traditions, and language. The first half of the 15th century was incredibly difficult for the Ukrainian people. through annual attacks by Tatar hordes. This factor had a negative impact on the economic and cultural development of Ukraine. In the XVI century. Ukraine entered into ruin. The Union of Lublin (in 1569) finally legitimized the policy of national, religious and social oppression of the Ukrainian people, which in turn led to open protest of the Ukrainian population. Polish magnates led the way in the colonization offensive against Ukraine. Having captured the Kholm region, Galicia and Podolia, after the Union of Lublin they moved to Volyn, Bratslav region, Kiev region and, ultimately, to the Left Bank. Soreka, Yazlovetski, Zamoyski, Sinyavski, Zholkevski, Kalinovski, Pototski and other magnate families occupied vast spaces, creating real latifundia, to which hundreds of villages, dozens of towns and castles, and entire spacious provinces belonged. These “royals” were the unlimited owners of their lands, because they occupied the highest positions in the state administration. Any complaints from the local population to the authorities came to nothing, because the magnate elite concentrated all power in their hands. Together with the magnates, the small Polish gentry, hungry and poor, moved to Ukraine, hoping to acquire estates and wealth under their masters and themselves. Under the magnates, Jews also found a living for themselves, who were lordly agents and factors, renting taverns, mills, tolls and even churches. The main colonization campaign was led by the Latin clergy. Already in the 15th century, in addition to Lvov, Przemishl and Kholm, Latin bishoprics were also founded in Kamenka, Lutsk and Kyiv. In the first half of the 17th century. unusually widespread propaganda in the east was carried out by the Jesuits, who settled in Yaroslavl, Peremishli, Lvov, Berest, Lutsk, Ostrog, Kamenka, Bar, Vinnitsa, Kyiv and other cities. The Jesuits carried out propaganda among magnates, gentry, and philistines, paying special attention to wealthy, talented and outstanding people, trying to attract them to the Latin Church and the same to the Polish national camp. The Jesuits establish schools with good teachers in order to attract Ukrainian youth to themselves and thereby denationalize them. Consequently, the process of colonization was carried out simultaneously in both the economic and cultural spheres of life of Ukrainian society. In the next three decades after the Union of Lublin, the process of colonization was opposed by Ukrainian aristocratic families. They considered it their duty to defend culture, to protect the church, education, and charitable institutions. This was done by such outstanding representatives of the aristocracy as Grigory Khotkevich, who established a printing house in Zabludovi, or Konstantin Ostrozky, who founded an academy in Ostrog, or Vasily Zagorovsky, who founded a school in his village. However, the patriotism of the aristocracy was closely related to service to the state. When the Lithuanian state disappeared, new generations soon forgot its traditions and began to lean towards a new state that promised significance and dignity - Poland. Meletiy Smotrytsky wrote about the path of renegadery that almost all noble families followed in his “Tre-carry, or Lamenti of the Holy Eastern Church” (in 1612). Peasant yard The peasant yard usually included: a hut covered with shingles or straw, heated “black”; a cage for storing property; cattle shed, barn. In winter, peasants kept (piglets, calves, lambs) in their huts. Poultry (chickens, geese, ducks). Due to the black fire of the hut, the interior walls of the houses were heavily smoked. For lighting, a torch was used, which was inserted into the stove crevices. The peasant hut was quite meager, and consisted of simple tables and benches, but also for sleeping, fixed along the wall (they served not only for sitting, but also for sleeping). In winter, peasants slept on the stove. The material for clothing was homespun canvas, sheep skins (sheepskin) and animals caught in hunting (usually wolves and bears). Shoes were mainly bast shoes. Wealthy peasants wore pistons (pistons) - shoes made from one or two pieces of leather and gathered around the ankle with a strap, and sometimes boots. Peasant nutrition Food was prepared in a Russian oven in earthenware. The basis of nutrition was grain crops - rye, wheat, oats, millet. Bread and pies were baked from rye (sowing) and wheat (on holidays) flour. Jelly, beer and kvass were made from oats. A lot was eaten - cabbage, carrots, radishes, cucumbers, turnips. On holidays, meat dishes were prepared in small quantities. Fish became a more common product on the table. Wealthy peasants had garden trees that provided them with apples, plums, cherries, and pears. In the northern regions of the country, peasants collected cranberries, lingonberries, and blueberries; in the central regions - strawberries. Hazelnuts were also used as food. Conclusion: Thus, despite the preservation of the basic features of traditional life, customs and morals, in the 17th century significant changes took place in the life and everyday life of all classes, based on both Eastern and Western influences. Appendix Peasant in traditional clothes Peasant costume.
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The medieval culture of Ukraine was quite specific. In many ways, it can be said that medieval Ukrainian culture is a vivid example of a “border” culture: West and East, civilization and savagery, striving forward and obscurantist inertia of views, rabid religiosity and secular aspiration of ideas are intricately mixed here. This motley combination that characterized the culture of Ukraine in the 17th century arose due to a number of circumstances.
- By the 14th century, the Ukrainian lands were finally freed from the Tatar-Mongol yoke, that is, much earlier than the “Great Russian” territories. True, it was not appropriate for the indigenous inhabitants of the former Kievan Rus to rejoice greatly: the country was plundered, the productive forces, namely the rich and educated princes and boyars, were largely destroyed. In addition, a holy place is never empty, and the vacated territory was occupied by representatives of more developed neighboring countries - Poland, Lithuania, Hungary. The leading role, apparently, was played by the Lithuanians, who in the ethnographic and cultural sense were a people “younger” than the Eastern Slavs (who even in the lands of Ukraine preferred to call themselves Russians); therefore, the Lithuanians preferred “not to introduce new things, not to destroy the old,” that is, they did not abolish the habitual Russian way of life and ancient Russian legislation, but, on the contrary, actively accepted the foundations of Slavic culture and even accepted Orthodoxy. But under the influence of their western neighbors, Lithuanians accepted European enlightenment, and gradually the economic, political and cultural life of Ukraine was largely reorganized in a European way.
- The development of the people's liberation movement, which is predominantly peasant-Cossack in nature. The Ukrainian lower strata of the population, who belonged to the East Slavic people, felt conquered. Lithuanians and Poles, as well as the polarized “Russian” elite, in the opinion of the peasants, have appropriated funds belonging to the Orthodox people and are using them unjustly, at least not in the interests of the “autochthonous” population. Peasants and Cossacks for the most part were illiterate, ignorant and superstitious people, which left an imprint on the cultural life of Ukraine.
- Some isolation of Ukrainian lands from the centers of European cultural life. The creative, philosophical and technological achievements of European civilization came to Ukraine with a certain delay. In general, for this entire region of Eastern Europe there is a strict gradation according to the level of civilization. In the Belarusian lands in the 16th century, the European Renaissance was in full swing, Ukraine at the same time was mastering for the most part the culture of the late Middle Ages, and in Russia the gloomy and hopeless early Middle Ages reigned, and in some areas there was almost a primitive communal system. Because of this, a kind of cultural filtering also took place: European culture penetrated into Ukraine and Belarus in a “Polished” form, and then, in the 17th century, it penetrated into the Moscow state in a Ukrainized form: Simeon of Polotsk, Pamvo Berynda and many others Moscow “scientific people” came to Moscow from Ukraine.
Polemical culture of Ukraine XIV – XVII centuries
Due to the prevailing circumstances, the medieval culture of Ukraine was highly controversial. Outstanding monuments of Ukrainian literature are represented mostly by polemical works in which the superiority of the Orthodox faith over the Catholic faith (or vice versa) was defended, and the Uniates who concluded the so-called Union of Brest were cursed or, conversely, supported.
The controversy, however, did not develop into a general cultural confrontation: thus, one of the most educated Ukrainians, Prince Ostrozhsky, patronized the activities of Orthodox writers and artisans, including the printer and gunsmith Ivan Fedorov, who escaped from wild Tatar Moscow. Orthodox artists tried to combine Byzantine icon painting canons with the achievements of European fine art, and also mastered civil painting itself.
Old Ukrainian churches of the ancient Russian model and newly built churches in the Renaissance and Baroque styles passed to the Orthodox, then to the Catholics, then to the Uniates. Behind this polemical culture of Ukraine was hidden an intense political struggle between the indigenous Ukrainian population and the Europeans, who were perceived as invaders.
Scholasticism marched in the same ranks with polemics. The “fraternal schools” founded by Peter Mogila, one of which by the second half of the 17th century grew into the Kiev-Mohyla Academy, concentrated their activities in scholastic disputes, in which they became largely bogged down.
The real goal of scholastic disputes is the desire to prevent “spiritual sabotage”: by scrupulously studying doctrine and human rights in accordance with the “holy scripture,” educated Orthodox priests tried, overcoming primitive savagery, to determine for believers the maximum “civilization dose” that would allow the person who took it still be called Orthodox.
Culture of Ukraine XVII – XVIII centuries
Ukrainian culture in these centuries was subject to mutual influence with Moscow culture. On the one hand, scientists, writers, architects and artists willingly came to the Moscow state and were even specially invited by Alexei Mikhailovich, again with the same goal: to perceive European civilization as if “bypassing” Catholic and Protestant missionaries.
On the other hand, having become part of the Russian state, Ukraine also adopted the subsequent Russian culture, reshaped by Peter in a Western way. And the so-called “Ukrainian Baroque,” which culturally represented nothing more than the early Renaissance, sharply turned into the present Baroque in the 18th century. This was apparently started by Mazepa, who in his letter to Peter asked to send him the architect Osip Startsev from Moscow.
Video: History of Ukrainian culture
In the 14th century, the territory of Southern Rus' came under the control of the Grand Duchy of Lithuania, Poland and Hungary. Crimea, formerly under the influence of Byzantium and Rus', fell into the hands of the Tatars. In the 16th-17th centuries, a confrontation developed over Ukrainian lands between the Polish-Lithuanian state, the Grand Duchy of Moscow and Turkish-Tatar forces. The conquest by Moscow in 1500-1503 of the northern principalities belonging to Lithuania, centered in Chernigov, strengthened the attraction of part of the Orthodox Ukrainian population to Muscovy.
Since the time of the Union of Lublin (1569), Ukraine was almost entirely under the administrative subordination of the Polish-Lithuanian Commonwealth. At the same time, significant differences remained between Galicia, located in the west of Ukraine, which already belonged to Poland in the 14th century, and the regions in the east and south, which were part of the Grand Duchy of Lithuania, but to a greater extent retained their originality, and above all their commitment to Orthodoxy. While the nobility gradually incorporated into the ranks of the gentry of the Kingdom of Poland and converted to Catholicism, the peasant population everywhere retained their Orthodox faith and language. Part of the peasantry was enslaved. Significant changes occurred among the urban population, which was partially displaced by Poles, Germans, Jews and Armenians. The European Reformation, which was defeated in the Polish-Lithuanian state, also left its mark on the political history of Ukraine. The Catholic elite tried to solve the problem of the Orthodox population with the help of the Union of Brest in 1596, which subordinated the Orthodox Church of Ukraine to the Pope. As a result, the Uniate Church arose, which also has a number of differences from Orthodoxy in ritual. Along with Uniatism and Catholicism, Orthodoxy is preserved. The Kiev College (a higher theological educational institution) becomes the center of the revival of Ukrainian culture.
The increasing oppression of the gentry forced the Ukrainian peasant masses to flee to the south and southeast of the region. In the lower reaches of the Dnieper, beyond the Dnieper rapids, at the beginning of the 16th century, a Cossack community arose, which was relatively dependent on the Kingdom of Poland-Lithuania. In its socio-political organization, this community was similar to the formations of Russian Cossacks on the Don, Volga, Yaik and Terek; between the military organization of the Dnieper Cossacks - the Zaporozhye Sich (established in 1556) - and the Russian Cossack formations there were relations of brotherhood in arms, and all of them, including the Zaporozhye Sich, were the most important political and military factor on the border with the Steppe. It was this Ukrainian Cossack society that played a decisive role in the political development of Ukraine in the mid-17th century. At the beginning of the 17th century, under the leadership of Hetman Sagaidachny (hetmanship with interruptions in 1605-1622), the Sich turned into a powerful military-political center, acting generally in line with Polish politics. The Sich was a republic headed by a hetman who relied on the Cossack elders (the tops opposing the “golytba”).
In the 16th-17th centuries, the Cossacks responded to the Poles’ desire to establish more complete control over the Sich with a series of powerful uprisings against the gentry and the Catholic clergy. In 1648, the uprising was led by Bohdan Khmelnytsky. As a result of several successful campaigns, B. Khmelnitsky’s army managed to spread the influence of the Zaporozhye Sich to most of Ukraine. However, the emerging Ukrainian state formation was weak and could not stand alone against Poland. B. Khmelnitsky and the officers of the highest Cossack circle faced the question of choosing allies. B. Khmelnitsky's initial bet on the Crimean Khanate (1648) did not materialize, since the Crimean Tatars were inclined to separate negotiations with the Poles.
The alliance with the Moscow state, after several years of hesitation by Tsar Alexei (reluctance to enter into a new conflict with the Polish-Lithuanian Commonwealth), was concluded in 1654 in Pereyaslavl (Pereyaslavl Rada). The Cossack army, as the main military-political institution of Ukraine, was guaranteed its privileges, its own law and legal proceedings, self-government with free elections of the hetman, and limited foreign policy activities. Privileges and rights of self-government were guaranteed to the Ukrainian nobility, the metropolitan and the cities of Ukraine who swore allegiance to the Russian Tsar.
The war between Russia and the Polish-Lithuanian state that began in 1654 had a generally negative impact on the alliance of the Dnieper Cossacks with the Russian Tsar. In the conditions of the truce between Moscow and the Polish-Lithuanian state, B. Khmelnitsky moved towards rapprochement with Sweden, Brandenburg and Transylvania, which entered into an armed struggle against the Poles. At the same time, the role of B. Khmelnitsky’s Cossacks was very significant. So, at the beginning of 1657, the 30,000-strong army of the Kyiv foreman Zhdanovich, uniting with the army of the Transylvanian prince Gyorgy II Rakoczi, reached Warsaw. However, it was not possible to consolidate this success.
In the middle of the 17th century, a fierce struggle for the territory of the Sich unfolded between Russia, Poland and the Ottoman Empire. In this struggle, the hetmans took different positions, sometimes acting independently. Hetman I. Vygovsky (1657-1659) entered into an alliance with Sweden, which dominated Poland at that time (anticipating Mazepa’s policy). Having won a victory over pro-Russian forces near Poltava in 1658, Vyhovsky concluded the Treaty of Godyach with Poland, which envisaged the return of Ukraine to the rule of the Polish king as the Grand Duchy of Russia. Near Konotop, Vygovsky’s troops in 1659 won a victory over the troops of the Muscovite kingdom and its allies. However, the next Rada supported the pro-Russian Yu. Khmelnitsky (1659-1663), who replaced Vygovsky and concluded a new Pereyaslav Treaty with Russia. Under this treaty, Ukraine became an autonomous part of the Muscovite kingdom.
However, after failures in the war with Poland in 1660, the Slobodishchensky Treaty of 1660 was concluded, which turned Ukraine into an autonomous part of the Polish-Lithuanian Commonwealth. Left-bank Ukraine did not recognize the agreement and swore allegiance to the tsar. Not wanting to continue the civil war, Yu. Khmelnytsky became a monk, and P. Teterya (1663-1665) was elected hetman of the Right Bank, and I. Bryukhovetsky (1663-1668), who was replaced by D. Mnogoreshny (1669-1672) of the Left Bank. years).
The uprising of 1648-1654 and the subsequent period of unrest (“Ruin”) is sometimes interpreted in historiography as an early bourgeois or national revolution (by analogy with other revolutions of the 16th-17th centuries).
The Andrusovo truce between Moscow and the Poles (1667) institutionalized the split in Ukraine: the regions on the left bank of the Dnieper went to the Moscow state, and the right banks again came under the political and administrative control of the Poles. This division, as well as the protectorate of both powers established over the Zaporozhye Sich under the Treaty of Andrusov, caused numerous uprisings of the Cossacks, who unsuccessfully tried to achieve the unification of both parts of Ukraine.
In the 1660-1670s, there was a fierce civil war in Ukraine, in which Poland, Russia, and then the Ottoman Empire took part, under whose patronage the Right Bank Hetman P. Doroshenko (1665-1676) came under the protection. This struggle devastated the Right Bank, caused great damage to the left bank and ended with the division of Ukraine under the Bakhchisarai Treaty of 1681 between Russia and Turkey and the Crimean Khanate and the “Eternal Peace” between Russia and Poland in 1686. The territories of the three states converged in the Kyiv region, which remained with Russia and Hetman Ukraine, which was part of it (Hetman I. Samoilovich, 1672-1687).
Ukraine was divided into a number of territories:
1) the left bank Hetmanate, which retained significant autonomy within Russia;
2) Zaporozhye Sich, which retained autonomy in relation to the hetman;
3) the Right Bank Hetmanate, which retained autonomy within the Polish-Lithuanian Commonwealth (by the 1680s it was actually divided between Poland and Turkey);
4) Galicia, integrated into the Kingdom of Poland from the end of the 14th century;
5) Hungarian Carpathian Ukraine;
6) Bukovina and Podolia, which belonged to the Ottoman Empire (until 1699);
7) areas of the Steppe and neutral territories cleared of the Ukrainian population, up to the Kiev region;
8) Sloboda Ukraine - the eastern regions of the left bank Hetmanate, whose regiments were directly subordinate to the Moscow governors in Belgorod.
The institutions of Moscow control over the left-bank Hetmanate and Sloboda Ukraine, which retained significant autonomy, were: the Little Russian Order established in 1663, small Russian garrisons in individual Ukrainian cities. There was a customs border between the Hetmanate and the Moscow State (in the pre-Petrine period).
A more rigid institutional consolidation of the Left Bank and Sloboda Ukraine, and then part of the Right Bank Ukraine, occurs during the reign of Peter I. In 1708, the Ukrainian hetman Ivan Mazepa entered into an alliance with Peter’s military-political opponent, King Charles XII of Sweden. In response, the Russian army burned the hetman's capital Baturyn. The victory of Peter I over the Swedes near Poltava (1709) meant a significant limitation of the broad political autonomy of Ukraine. Institutionally, this was expressed in the expansion of the administrative and legal competence of the Little Russian Collegium, which managed affairs in Ukraine, the elimination of the customs border, and the growth of economic withdrawals of surplus product from Ukrainian territories for the needs of the expanding Russian Empire.
The stabilization of the institution of hetmanship under Empress Elizabeth Petrovna gave way to a sharp policy of centralization during the reign of Catherine I. In 1765, Sloboda Ukraine became an ordinary province of the Russian Empire. In 1764, the institution of hetmanship was liquidated, and in the early 1780s the Russian system of administration and tax collection was introduced. In 1775, Russian troops destroyed the Zaporozhye Sich, part of the Zaporozhye Cossacks moved to the Kuban, and part of the Cossacks in the more northern regions became state peasants. Simultaneously with the distribution of lands to Russian landowners, part of the Cossack elite was included in the Russian nobility. The territory of Ukraine began to be called Little Russia. In 1783, the Crimean Khanate was annexed to Russia.
As a result of three sections of the Polish-Lithuanian Commonwealth (1772, 1793 and 1795), almost the entire territory of Ukraine became part of the Russian Empire. Galicia, Transcarpathia and Bukovina became parts of the Austrian Empire.
