The structure of the cell of various organisms. Structure and function of the cell

Living things have a cellular structure similar for all species. However, each kingdom has its own characteristics. To learn more about the structure of an animal cell, this article will help, in which we will tell not only about the features, but also introduce the functions of organelles.

A complexly organized animal organism consists of a large number of tissues. The shape and purpose of the cell depends on the type of tissue in which it is included. Despite their diversity, it is possible to identify common properties in the cellular structure:

• membrane consists of two layers that separate the content from the external environment. In its structure, it is elastic, so the cells can have a variety of shapes;
• cytoplasm located inside the cell membrane. It is a viscous liquid that is constantly moving;

Due to the movement of the cytoplasm inside the cell, various chemical processes and metabolism take place.

• core - has a large size, compared with plants. It is located in the center, inside it there is a nuclear juice, a nucleolus and chromosomes;
• mitochondria consist of many folds - cristae;
• endoplasmic reticulum has many channels, through which nutrients enter the Golgi apparatus;
• a set of tubules called golgi apparatus , accumulates nutrients;
• lysosomes regulate the amount of carbohydrates and other nutrients;
• ribosomes located around the endoplasmic reticulum. Their presence makes the network rough, the smooth surface of the ER indicates the absence of ribosomes;
• centrioles - special microtubules that are absent in plants.

Rice. 1. The structure of an animal cell.

Scientists have discovered the presence of centrioles recently. Since they can be seen and studied only with the help of an electron microscope.

Functions of cell organelles

Each organoid performs certain functions, their joint work makes up a single cohesive organism. For example:

• cell membrane ensures the transport of substances into and out of the cell;
• inside the nucleus is the genetic code that is passed down from generation to generation. Exactly core regulates the work of other cell organelles;
• the energy stations of the body are mitochondria . It is here that the substance ATP is formed, during the splitting of which a large amount of energy is released.

Rice. 2. The structure of mitochondria

• on the walls golgi apparatus fats and carbohydrates are synthesized, which are necessary for building membranes of other organelles;
• lysosomes break down unnecessary fats and carbohydrates, as well as harmful substances;
• ribosomes synthesize protein;
• cell center (centrioles) play an important role in spindle formation during cell mitosis.

Rice. 3. Centrioles.

Unlike a plant cell, an animal cell does not have vacuoles. However, temporary small vacuoles may form, which contain substances to be removed from the body.

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What have we learned?

The structure of an animal cell, which is studied in biology classes in grades 7-9, is no different from the structure of other living cells. A feature of the animal cell is the presence of a cell center, the so-called centrioles, which are involved in the formation of the division spindle during mitosis. Unlike a plant organism, there are no vacuoles, plastids and a cellulose cell wall. The cell membrane is sufficiently elastic, which makes it possible for cells to acquire various shapes and sizes.

You figured out for yourself what type of physique you belong to and how the human muscles are arranged. It's time to "look into the muscle"...

To begin with, remember (who forgot) or understand (who did not know) that there are three types of muscle tissue in our body: cardiac, smooth (muscles of internal organs) and skeletal.

It is the skeletal muscles that we will consider within the framework of the material of this site, because. skeletal muscles and forms the image of an athlete.

Muscle tissue is a cellular structure and it is the cell, as a unit of muscle fiber, that we have to consider now.

First you need to understand the structure of any human cell:

As can be seen from the figure, any human cell has a very complex structure. Below I will give general definitions that will be found on the pages of this site. For a superficial examination of muscle tissue at the cellular level, they will be enough:

Core- the "heart" of the cell, which contains all hereditary information in the form of DNA molecules. The DNA molecule is a polymer having the form of a double helix. In turn, helices are a set of nucleotides (monomers) of four types. All proteins in our body are encoded by the sequence of these nucleotides.

Cytoplasm (sarcoplasm)- in a muscle cell) - one might say, the environment in which the nucleus is located. Cytoplasm is a cell fluid (cytosol) containing lysosomes, mitochondria, ribosomes, and other organelles.

Mitochondria- organelles that provide energy processes of the cell, such as the oxidation of fatty acids and carbohydrates. Energy is released during oxidation. This energy is aimed at uniting adenesine diphosphate (ADP) And third phosphate group, resulting in the formation Adenesine triphosphate (ATP)- an intracellular source of energy that supports all processes occurring in the cell (more). During the reverse reaction, ADP is formed again, and energy is released.

Enzymes- specific substances of a protein nature, which serve as catalysts (accelerators) of chemical reactions, thereby significantly increasing the speed of chemical processes in our bodies.

Lysosomes- a kind of round-shaped shells containing enzymes (about 50). The function of lysosomes is the breakdown of intracellular structures with the help of enzymes and everything that the cell absorbs from the outside.

Ribosomes- the most important cellular components that serve to form a protein molecule from amino acids. Protein formation is determined by the cell's genetic information.

Cell wall (membrane)- ensures the integrity of the cell and is able to regulate the intracellular balance. The membrane is able to control the exchange with the environment, i.e. one of its functions is to block some substances and transport others. Thus, the state of the intracellular environment remains constant.

A muscle cell, like any cell in our body, also has all the components described above, however, it is extremely important that you understand the general structure of a particular muscle fiber, which is described in the article.

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All living beings and organisms do not consist of cells: plants, fungi, bacteria, animals, people. Despite the minimum size, all the functions of the whole organism are performed by the cell. Complex processes take place inside it, on which the viability of the body and the work of its organs depend.

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Structural features

Scientists are studying structural features of the cell and principles of its work. It is possible to examine in detail the features of the cell structure only with the help of a powerful microscope.

All our tissues - skin, bones, internal organs are made up of cells that are construction material, come in different shapes and sizes, each variety performs a specific function, but the main features of their structure are similar.

First, let's find out what underlies structural organization of cells. In the course of the research, scientists have found that the cellular foundation is membrane principle. It turns out that all cells are formed from membranes, which consist of a double layer of phospholipids, where protein molecules are immersed from the outside and inside.

What property is characteristic for all types of cells: the same structure, as well as functionality - regulation of the metabolic process, the use of one's own genetic material (the presence and RNA), the production and consumption of energy.

At the basis of the structural organization of the cell, the following elements are distinguished that perform a specific function:

• membrane The cell wall is made up of fats and proteins. Its main task is to separate the substances inside from the external environment. The structure is semi-permeable: it is able to pass carbon monoxide;
• core- the central region and the main component, separated from other elements by a membrane. It is inside the nucleus that information about growth and development is located, the genetic material, presented in the form of DNA molecules that make up;
• cytoplasm- this is a liquid substance that forms an internal environment where various vital processes take place, contains a lot of important components.

What does the cellular content consist of, what are the functions of the cytoplasm and its main components:

1. Ribosome- the most important organelle, which is necessary for the processes of protein biosynthesis from amino acids, proteins perform a huge number of vital tasks.
2. Mitochondria- another component located inside the cytoplasm. It can be described in one phrase - an energy source. Their function is to provide the components with power for further energy production.
3. golgi apparatus consists of 5 - 8 pouches, which are interconnected. The main task of this apparatus is the transfer of proteins to other parts of the cell to provide energy potential.
4. Cleaning of damaged elements is carried out lysosomes.
5. Is engaged in transportation endoplasmic reticulum, through which proteins move molecules of useful substances.
6. Centrioles responsible for reproduction.

Core

Since it is a cellular center, therefore, special attention should be paid to its structure and functions. This component is an essential element for all cells: it contains hereditary traits. Without the nucleus, the processes of reproduction and transmission of genetic information would become impossible. Look at the picture depicting the structure of the nucleus.

• The nuclear membrane, which is highlighted in lilac, lets in the necessary substances and releases them back through the pores - small holes.
• Plasma is a viscous substance, it contains all the other nuclear components.
• the core is located in the very center, has the shape of a sphere. Its main function is the formation of new ribosomes.
• If you look at the central part of the cell in a section, you can see subtle blue weaves - chromatin, the main substance that consists of a complex of proteins and long strands of DNA that carry the necessary information.

cell membrane

Let's take a closer look at the work, structure and functions of this component. Below is a table that clearly shows the importance of the outer shell.

Chloroplasts

This is another very important component. But why was the chloroplast not mentioned earlier, you ask. Yes, because this component is found only in plant cells. The main difference between animals and plants lies in the mode of nutrition: in animals it is heterotrophic, while in plants it is autotrophic. This means that animals are not able to create, that is, synthesize organic substances from inorganic ones - they feed on ready-made organic substances. Plants, on the contrary, are capable of carrying out the process of photosynthesis and contain special components - chloroplasts. These are green plastids containing chlorophyll. With its participation, the energy of light is converted into the energy of chemical bonds of organic substances.

Interesting! Chloroplasts are concentrated in large volumes mainly in the aerial parts of plants - green fruits and leaves.

If you are asked a question: name an important structural feature of the organic compounds of a cell, then the answer can be given as follows.

• many of them contain carbon atoms that have different chemical and physical properties, and are also able to combine with each other;
• are carriers, active participants in various processes occurring in organisms, or are their products. This refers to hormones, various enzymes, vitamins;
• can form chains and rings, which provides a variety of connections;
• are destroyed by heating and interaction with oxygen;
• atoms in the composition of molecules combine with each other using covalent bonds, do not decompose into ions and therefore interact slowly, reactions between substances take a very long time - for several hours and even days.

The structure of the chloroplast

fabrics

Cells can exist one at a time, as in unicellular organisms, but most often they are combined into groups of their own kind and form various tissue structures that make up the body. There are several types of tissues in the human body:

• epithelial- focused on the surface of the skin, organs, elements of the digestive tract and respiratory system;
• muscular- we move thanks to the contraction of the muscles of our body, we carry out a variety of movements: from the simplest movement of the little finger to high-speed running. By the way, the heartbeat also occurs due to the contraction of muscle tissue;
• connective tissue makes up to 80 percent of the mass of all organs and plays a protective and supporting role;
• nervous- forms nerve fibers. Thanks to it, various impulses pass through the body.

reproduction process

Throughout the life of an organism, mitosis occurs - this is the name for the process of division, consisting of four stages:

1. Prophase. The two centrioles of the cell divide and move in opposite directions. At the same time, the chromosomes form pairs, and the shell of the nucleus begins to break down.
2. The second stage is called metaphase. Chromosomes are located between the centrioles, gradually the outer shell of the nucleus completely disappears.
3. Anaphase is the third stage, during which the movement of centrioles continues in the opposite direction from each other, and individual chromosomes also follow the centrioles and move away from each other. The cytoplasm and the whole cell begin to shrink.
4. Telophase- the final stage. The cytoplasm shrinks until two identical new cells appear. A new membrane is formed around the chromosomes and one pair of centrioles appears in each new cell.

Interesting! Cells in the epithelium divide faster than in bone tissue. It all depends on the density of the fabrics and other characteristics. The average life expectancy of the main structural units is 10 days.

Cell structure. The structure and functions of the cell. Cell life.

Conclusion

You learned what the structure of the cell is the most important component of the body. Billions of cells make up an amazingly wisely organized system that ensures the efficiency and vitality of all representatives of the animal and plant world.

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Animal and plant cells, both multicellular and unicellular, are in principle similar in structure. Differences in the details of the structure of cells are associated with their functional specialization.

The main elements of all cells are the nucleus and cytoplasm. The nucleus has a complex structure that changes at different phases of cell division, or cycle. The nucleus of a nondividing cell occupies approximately 10–20% of its total volume. It consists of a karyoplasm (nucleoplasm), one or more nucleoli (nucleolus) and a nuclear envelope. Karyoplasm is a nuclear juice, or karyolymph, in which there are chromatin threads that form chromosomes.

The main properties of the cell:

• metabolism
• sensitivity
• ability to reproduce

The cell lives in the internal environment of the body - blood, lymph and tissue fluid. The main processes in the cell are oxidation, glycolysis - the breakdown of carbohydrates without oxygen. Cell permeability is selective. It is determined by the reaction to high or low salt concentration, phago- and pinocytosis. Secretion - the formation and secretion by cells of mucus-like substances (mucin and mucoids), which protect against damage and participate in the formation of intercellular substance.

Types of cell movements:

1. amoeboid (false legs) - leukocytes and macrophages.
2. sliding - fibroblasts
3. flagellate type - spermatozoa (cilia and flagella)

Cell division:

1. indirect (mitosis, karyokinesis, meiosis)
2. direct (amitosis)

During mitosis, the nuclear substance is distributed evenly between the daughter cells, because The chromatin of the nucleus is concentrated in chromosomes, which split into two chromatids, diverging into daughter cells.

Structures of a living cell

Chromosomes

Mandatory elements of the nucleus are chromosomes that have a specific chemical and morphological structure. They take an active part in the metabolism in the cell and are directly related to the hereditary transmission of properties from one generation to another. However, it should be borne in mind that, although heredity is ensured by the whole cell as a single system, nuclear structures, namely chromosomes, occupy a special place in this. Chromosomes, unlike cell organelles, are unique structures characterized by a constant qualitative and quantitative composition. They cannot interchange each other. An imbalance in the chromosome set of a cell ultimately leads to its death.

Cytoplasm

The cytoplasm of a cell exhibits a very complex structure. The introduction of the technique of thin sections and electron microscopy made it possible to see the fine structure of the underlying cytoplasm. It has been established that the latter consists of parallel arranged complex structures in the form of plates and tubules, on the surface of which there are the smallest granules with a diameter of 100–120 Å. These formations are called the endoplasmic complex. This complex includes various differentiated organelles: mitochondria, ribosomes, the Golgi apparatus, in the cells of lower animals and plants - the centrosome, in animals - lysosomes, in plants - plastids. In addition, a number of inclusions are found in the cytoplasm that take part in the metabolism of the cell: starch, fat droplets, urea crystals, etc.

Membrane

The cell is surrounded by a plasma membrane (from Latin "membrane" - skin, film). Its functions are very diverse, but the main one is protective: it protects the internal contents of the cell from the effects of the external environment. Due to various outgrowths, folds on the surface of the membrane, the cells are firmly interconnected. The membrane is permeated with special proteins through which certain substances necessary for the cell or to be removed from it can move. Thus, the exchange of substances is carried out through the membrane. Moreover, what is very important, substances are passed through the membrane selectively, due to which the required set of substances is maintained in the cell.

In plants, the plasma membrane is covered on the outside with a dense membrane consisting of cellulose (fiber). The shell performs protective and supporting functions. It serves as the outer frame of the cell, giving it a certain shape and size, preventing excessive swelling.

Core

Located in the center of the cell and separated by a two-layer membrane. It has a spherical or elongated shape. The shell - the karyolemma - has pores necessary for the exchange of substances between the nucleus and the cytoplasm. The contents of the nucleus are liquid - karyoplasm, which contains dense bodies - nucleoli. They are granular - ribosomes. The bulk of the nucleus - nuclear proteins - nucleoproteins, in the nucleoli - ribonucleoproteins, and in the karyoplasm - deoxyribonucleoproteins. The cell is covered with a cell membrane, which consists of protein and lipid molecules having a mosaic structure. The membrane ensures the exchange of substances between the cell and the intercellular fluid.

EPS

This is a system of tubules and cavities, on the walls of which there are ribosomes that provide protein synthesis. Ribosomes can also be freely located in the cytoplasm. There are two types of ER - rough and smooth: on the rough ER (or granular) there are many ribosomes that carry out protein synthesis. Ribosomes give membranes a rough appearance. Smooth ER membranes do not carry ribosomes on their surface; they contain enzymes for the synthesis and breakdown of carbohydrates and lipids. Smooth EPS looks like a system of thin tubes and tanks.

Ribosomes

Small bodies with a diameter of 15–20 mm. Carry out the synthesis of protein molecules, their assembly from amino acids.

Mitochondria

These are two-membrane organelles, the inner membrane of which has outgrowths - cristae. The contents of the cavities is the matrix. Mitochondria contain a large number of lipoproteins and enzymes. These are the energy stations of the cell.

Plastids (peculiar to plant cells only!)

Their content in the cell is the main feature of the plant organism. There are three main types of plastids: leucoplasts, chromoplasts, and chloroplasts. They have different colors. Colorless leukoplasts are found in the cytoplasm of the cells of the unstained parts of plants: stems, roots, tubers. For example, there are many of them in potato tubers, in which starch grains accumulate. Chromoplasts are found in the cytoplasm of flowers, fruits, stems, and leaves. Chromoplasts provide the yellow, red, orange color of plants. Green chloroplasts are found in the cells of leaves, stems, and other plant parts, as well as in a variety of algae. Chloroplasts are 4-6 µm in size and often have an oval shape. In higher plants, one cell contains several dozen chloroplasts.

Green chloroplasts are able to transform into chromoplasts, which is why leaves turn yellow in autumn, and green tomatoes turn red when ripe. Leukoplasts can turn into chloroplasts (greening of potato tubers in the light). Thus, chloroplasts, chromoplasts and leukoplasts are capable of mutual transition.

The main function of chloroplasts is photosynthesis, i.e. in chloroplasts in the light, organic substances are synthesized from inorganic ones by converting solar energy into the energy of ATP molecules. Chloroplasts of higher plants are 5-10 microns in size and resemble a biconvex lens in shape. Each chloroplast is surrounded by a double membrane with selective permeability. Outside, there is a smooth membrane, and the inside has a folded structure. The main structural unit of the chloroplast is the thylakoid, a flat two-membrane sac that plays a leading role in the process of photosynthesis. The thylakoid membrane contains proteins similar to mitochondrial proteins that are involved in the electron transport chain. The thylakoids are arranged in stacks resembling stacks of coins (from 10 to 150) and called grana. Grana has a complex structure: in the center is chlorophyll, surrounded by a layer of protein; then there is a layer of lipoids, again protein and chlorophyll.

Golgi complex

This system of cavities delimited from the cytoplasm by a membrane can have a different shape. The accumulation of proteins, fats and carbohydrates in them. Implementation of the synthesis of fats and carbohydrates on membranes. Forms lysosomes.

The main structural element of the Golgi apparatus is a membrane that forms packages of flattened cisterns, large and small vesicles. The cisterns of the Golgi apparatus are connected to the channels of the endoplasmic reticulum. Proteins, polysaccharides, fats produced on the membranes of the endoplasmic reticulum are transferred to the Golgi apparatus, accumulated inside its structures and “packed” in the form of a substance ready either for release or for use in the cell itself during its life. Lysosomes are formed in the Golgi apparatus. In addition, it is involved in the growth of the cytoplasmic membrane, for example, during cell division.

Lysosomes

Bodies separated from the cytoplasm by a single membrane. The enzymes contained in them accelerate the reaction of splitting complex molecules into simple ones: proteins to amino acids, complex carbohydrates to simple ones, lipids to glycerol and fatty acids, and also destroy dead parts of the cell, whole cells. Lysosomes contain more than 30 types of enzymes (substances of a protein nature that increase the rate of a chemical reaction by tens and hundreds of thousands of times) that can break down proteins, nucleic acids, polysaccharides, fats and other substances. The breakdown of substances with the help of enzymes is called lysis, hence the name of the organoid. Lysosomes are formed either from the structures of the Golgi complex, or from the endoplasmic reticulum. One of the main functions of lysosomes is participation in the intracellular digestion of nutrients. In addition, lysosomes can destroy the structures of the cell itself when it dies, during embryonic development, and in a number of other cases.

Vacuoles

They are cavities in the cytoplasm filled with cell sap, a place of accumulation of reserve nutrients, harmful substances; they regulate the water content in the cell.

Cell Center

It consists of two small bodies - centrioles and centrosphere - a compacted area of ​​​​the cytoplasm. Plays an important role in cell division

Organelles of cell movement

1. Flagella and cilia, which are cell outgrowths and have the same structure in animals and plants
2. Myofibrils - thin threads more than 1 cm long with a diameter of 1 micron, arranged in bundles along the muscle fiber
3. Pseudopodia (perform the function of movement; due to them, muscle contraction occurs)

Similarities between plant and animal cells

The features that plant and animal cells are similar to include the following:

1. A similar structure of the structure system, i.e. the presence of a nucleus and cytoplasm.
2. The exchange process of substances and energy is similar in principle of implementation.
3. Both animal and plant cells have a membrane structure.
4. The chemical composition of cells is very similar.
5. In plant and animal cells, there is a similar process of cell division.
6. The plant cell and the animal have the same principle of transmitting the code of heredity.

Significant differences between plant and animal cells

In addition to the general features of the structure and vital activity of plant and animal cells, there are special distinctive features of each of them.

Thus, we can say that plant and animal cells are similar to each other in the content of some important elements and some life processes, and also have significant differences in structure and metabolic processes.

The most valuable thing a person has is his own life and the life of his loved ones. The most valuable thing on Earth is life in general. And the basis of life, the basis of all living organisms are cells. We can say that life on Earth has a cellular structure. That's why it's so important to know how cells are arranged. The structure of cells is studied by cytology - the science of cells. But the concept of cells is necessary for all biological disciplines.

What is a cell?

Concept definition

Cell is a structural, functional and genetic unit of all living things, containing hereditary information, consisting of a membrane membrane, cytoplasm and organelles, capable of maintaining, exchanging, reproducing and developing. © Sazonov V.F., 2015. © kineziolog.bodhy.ru, 2015..

This definition of a cell, although brief, is quite complete. It reflects 3 aspects of cell universality: 1) structural, i.e. as a unit of structure, 2) functional, i.e. as a unit of activity, 3) genetic, i.e. as a unit of heredity and generational change. An important characteristic of a cell is the presence in it of hereditary information in the form of nucleic acid - DNA. The definition also reflects the most important feature of the cell structure: the presence of an outer membrane (plasmolemma), which delimits the cell and its environment. AND, finally, 4 most important signs of life: 1) maintenance of homeostasis, i.e. the constancy of the internal environment in the conditions of its constant renewal, 2) the exchange of matter, energy and information with the external environment, 3) the ability to reproduce, i.e. to self-reproduction, reproduction, 4) the ability to develop, i.e. to growth, differentiation and shaping.

A shorter but incomplete definition: Cell is the elementary (smallest and simplest) unit of life.

A more complete definition of a cell:

Cell - it is an ordered, structured system of biopolymers limited by an active membrane that forms the cytoplasm, nucleus and organelles. This biopolymer system is involved in a single set of metabolic, energy and information processes that maintain and reproduce the entire system as a whole.

Textile is a collection of cells that are similar in structure, function and origin, jointly performing common functions. In humans, as part of the four main groups of tissues (epithelial, connective, muscle and nervous), there are about 200 different types of specialized cells [D.M. Faler, D. Shields. Molecular cell biology: A guide for physicians. / Per. from English. - M.: BINOM-Press, 2004. - 272 p.].

Tissues, in turn, form organs, and organs form organ systems.

A living organism starts from a cell. There is no life outside the cell, only the temporary existence of life molecules, for example, in the form of viruses, is possible outside the cell. But for active existence and reproduction, even viruses need cells, even strangers.

Cell structure

The figure below shows the structure diagrams of 6 biological objects. Analyze which of them can be considered cells and which cannot, according to two options for defining the concept of "cell". Present your answer in the form of a table:

The structure of the cell under the electron microscope

Membrane

The most important universal structure of the cell is cell membrane (synonym: plasma membrane), covering the cell in the form of a thin film. The membrane regulates the relationship between the cell and its environment, namely: 1) it partially separates the contents of the cell from the external environment, 2) connects the contents of the cell with the external environment.

Core

The second most important and universal cellular structure is the nucleus. It is not found in all cells, unlike the cell membrane, which is why we put it in second place. The nucleus contains chromosomes containing double strands of DNA (deoxyribonucleic acid). Sections of DNA are templates for building messenger RNA, which in turn serve as templates for building all cell proteins in the cytoplasm. Thus, the nucleus contains, as it were, "drawings" of the structure of all cell proteins.

Cytoplasm

This is a semi-liquid internal environment of the cell, divided into compartments by intracellular membranes. It usually has a cytoskeleton to maintain a certain shape and is in constant motion. The cytoplasm contains organelles and inclusions.

In third place, you can put all other cellular structures that can have their own membrane and are called organelles.

Organelles are permanent, necessarily present cell structures that perform specific functions and have a certain structure. By structure, organelles can be divided into two groups: membranous, which necessarily include membranes, and non-membrane. In turn, membrane organelles can be single-membrane - if they are formed by one membrane and two-membrane - if the shell of the organelles is double and consists of two membranes.

Inclusions

Inclusions are non-permanent cell structures that appear in it and disappear in the process of metabolism. There are 4 types of inclusions: trophic (with a supply of nutrients), secretory (containing a secret), excretory (containing substances "for release") and pigment (containing pigments - coloring substances).

Cell structures, including organelles ( )

Inclusions . They are not organelles. Inclusions are non-permanent cell structures that appear in it and disappear in the process of metabolism. There are 4 types of inclusions: trophic (with a supply of nutrients), secretory (containing a secret), excretory (containing substances "for release") and pigment (containing pigments - coloring substances).

1. (plasmolemma).
2. Nucleus with nucleolus .
3. Endoplasmic reticulum : rough (granular) and smooth (agranular).
4. Golgi complex (apparatus) .
5. Mitochondria .
6. Ribosomes .
7. Lysosomes . Lysosomes (from Gr. lysis - “decomposition, dissolution, decay” and soma - “body”) are vesicles with a diameter of 200-400 microns.
8. Peroxisomes . Peroxisomes are microbodies (vesicles) 0.1-1.5 microns in diameter, surrounded by a membrane.
9. Proteasomes . Proteasomes are specialized organelles for breaking down proteins.
10. phagosomes .
11. Microfilaments . Each microfilament is a double helix of globular actin protein molecules. Therefore, the content of actin even in non-muscle cells reaches 10% of all proteins.
12. Intermediate filaments . They are a component of the cytoskeleton. They are thicker than microfilaments and have a tissue-specific nature:
13. microtubules . Microtubules form a dense network in the cell. The microtubule wall consists of a single layer of globular subunits of the tubulin protein. A cross section shows 13 such subunits forming a ring.
14. Cell Center .
15. plastids .
16. Vacuoles . Vacuoles are single-membrane organelles. They are membrane "tanks", bubbles filled with aqueous solutions of organic and inorganic substances.
17. Cilia and flagella (special organelles) . They consist of 2 parts: a basal body located in the cytoplasm and an axoneme - an outgrowth above the cell surface, which is covered with a membrane on the outside. They provide the movement of the cell or the movement of the medium over the cell.